UNIT 7

THE AGE OF
REVOLUTION
(1770-1871)
UNIT 7: The Age of Revolution (1770-
1871) UNIT 7. INDEX
1.- THE REVOLUTIONARY PROCESSES 2.- THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
1.1. The bourgeois revolution and the end of the Ancien Régime. 2.1. Causes of the conflict.
1.2. Revolutionary changes. 2.2. The War of Independence.

3.- THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 4.- EUROPE UNDER NAPOLEON

3.1. Causes of the French Revolution. 4.1. Napoleon. From Consulate to Empire
3.2. The start of the revolution in 1789. 4.2. The empire of Napoleon Bonaparte (1805-1815)
3.3. The National Costituent assembly (1789-1791). 4.3. The fall of Napoleon
3.4. The Legislative Assembly (1791-1792).
3.5. The National Convention (1792-1795)
3.6. The Directory and the Consulate (1795-1799)

5.- RESTORATION OF ABSOLUTISM 6.- LIBERAL REVOLUTIONS (1820-1848)

5.1. Return of absolutism 6.1. Revolutions of 1820
5.2. New ideologies 6.2. Revolutions of 1830
6.3. Revolutions of 1848

7.- BIRTH OF NEW STATES

7.1. Unification of Italy
7.2. Unification of Germany
 1.-THE REVOLUTIONARY PROCESSES
1.1. THE BOURGEOIS REVOLUTION AND THE END OF THE ANCIEN RÉGIME.
The revolutions that began at the end of the 18th century were called the ‘bourgeois
revolutions’, since they were led by the bourgeoisie. Other social groups also participated
in the revolutions. The bourgeois revolutions were mainly political revolutions.

1.2. REVOLUTIONARY CHANGES

On a political level, the aims of the revolutionaries were to put an end to absolutism and
establish a liberal political system, based on respect for the rights of citizens, national
sovereignty and separation of power.
On an economic level, the Industrial Revolution put an end to the dominance of the
agrarian economy and imposed a new urban and industrial economy.
On a social level, the three-state system, based on privileges, gave way to a new class-
based society measured by wealth. In this society, the bourgeoisie became the dominant
social group.
 2.- THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
2.1. CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT
The American revolution took place in the 13
colonies, territory under British rule. The reasons of
the conflict were:
-Discontent of the colonists, who lacked
representation in the British Parliament.
-Spread of Enlightenment ideas considered the
British government to be despotic.
-British authorities approved new taxes over the 13
colonies.
The new taxes were not accepted by the colonists
and this led to several protests such as the Boston
Tea Party, which took place in 1773. This event is
considered the start of the American Revolution.
 AMERICAN REVOLUTIONARY WAR (1775-1783)

UNITED STATES BRITISH EMPIRE

*United States *British Army

*France *Some Indian *Loyal colonials

Tribes
*Spain *Some Indian Tribes

*German Mercenaries
*Netherlands
 2.- THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
2.2. THE WAR OF THE INDEPENDENCE
The repression by the British authorities led to the War of Independence (1775-1783). The
rebels formed an army under the command of George Washington. Representatives of the
13 colonies met in Philadelphia and passed the Declaration of Independence on 4 July
1776. In the end, with French and Spanish support, the colonies defeated the British army.
Their independence was recognised through the Peace of Paris (1783). The United States
of America was born.
 3.- THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
3.1. CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
In France, the revolution was sparked by different causes:
-Political and ideological. In the second half of the 18th century, absolutism had been
criticised by the Enlightenment, and the American Revolution showed that it was possible to
change this system.
-Social and economic. All social groups were unhappy. The nobility and the clergy had
lost power to the absolute monarchy. The bourgeoisie lacked political influence andwanted
economic reforms. The peasants and the urban workers were living in poor conditions.

Louis XVI Queen Marie Antoinette

 3.- THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
3.2. THE START OF THE REVOLUTION
Due to the bad economic situation of France, king Louis
XVI summoned the Estates-General, an assembly with
representatives of the 3 estates (clerics, nobles, Third
Estate), to approve new taxes.
The representatives of the third estate complained about the
voting system (33% for every estate) and wanted a reform
as they represented more than 90% of French population.
The demands of the Third Estate were rejected and their Jeu de Paume Oath represented by painter
Jacques-Louis David
representatives decided to create the National Assembly,
without the permission of the king. The new National
Assembly self-declared the true representative of the the
French nation and swore to stay united to elaborate a
Constitution.
The French Revolution had started.
 What were the Estates-General?

Assembly convoked by the French monarch in times of extreme crisis.

CLARIFICATIONS
1.- The Estates-General hadn’t met since 1614
2.- The assembly was composed by representatives of the 3 ESTATES:
-Nobles
-Clerics
-Commoners (Third Estate)
 3.- THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
3.3. THE NATIONAL CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY (1789-1791)
On July 1789, the National Assembly voted to become the National Constituent Assembly,
seeking to draw up a constitution for France. Fearing that the army would dissolve the
new assembly, the people of Paris stormed the fortress and prison known as the Bastille
(14 July 1789). The urban workers and the peasants started riots in several French cities and
in the countryside.
The National Constituent Assembly abolished the feudalism and approved a Declaration of
the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789), which recognised the rights to freedom,
property and equal protection by the law. They approved the first French constitution: the
Constitution of 1791. It established popular sovereignty, separation of powers and censitary
suffrage. The new system was a Parliamentary Monarchy.
The Storming of the Bastille (14 of july, 1789)

-The popular classes assaulted the

Bastille prison, where the political
prisoners were incarcerated, and all the
prisoneres were released.

-The Storming of the Bastille bacame a

symbol of the Revolution and the
involvement of the common people in
the vindication of Political changes.

Video fragment about the Storming of the Bastille

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b9QfFhGWX4c
 SYMBOLS OF FRENCH REVOLUTION

Phrygian Cap

Flag

Sans-Culottes
 3.- THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
3.4. THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY (1791-1792)
After approving the Constitution, a Legislative Assembly was created, that faced several
problems. The nobles conspired against the revolution and the found the support of
European countries such as Austria and Prussia. The king Louis XVI tried to escape but he
was captured before leaving the country.
The popular classes (sans-Culottes) were unhappy because they considered the Constitution
of 1791 very moderate. The Jacobins were the radical republicans and they wanted radical
and democratic reforms.
The monarchy was eliminated and the Republic was proclaimed in 1792. A new assembly
was formed, the National Convention.
 THE EXECUTION OF
LOUIS XVI

*After a trial, Louis XVI is

sentenced to death in guillotine
*The former king is executed
in January of 1793
*Other members of the Royal
Family are executed too.
 3.- THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
3.5. THE NATIONAL CONVENTION (1792-1795)
The National Convention was initially dominated by the
Girondins. In this period the monarchy was abolished.
Louis XVI was sentenced and guillotined (1793). As a
consequence, European absolutist regimes declared war on
France.
Popular discontent with the war allowed the radical Jacobins Robespierre, jacobin leader
to rise to power in 1793. Their leader Robespierre created a
new democratic constitution (1793) that allowed for universal
male suffrage. However, this period is called “The Terror”,
the bloodiest period of the Revolution.
Out of fear, the National Convention deposed and
guillotined Robespierre and his supporters. Power went to
more neutral representatives who drafted the moderate
Constitution of 1795.
 3.- THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
3.6. THE DIRECTORY AND THE CONSULATE (1795-1799)
According to the Constitution of 1795, executive power was concentrated in a five-
member Directory. The Directory carried out numerous military campaigns and a young
general by the name of Napoleon Bonaparte soon rose to prominence. Using his prestige,
in 1799 he overthrew the Directory by a coup d’état, substituting it with a Consulate
made up of three consuls. Napoleon became First Consul and seized power.
 Who was Napoleon Bonaparte?
-A young and ambitious French general,
who became famous because of his
participation in several military
campaigns.

How did Napoleon start his political career?

-He organised the military coup that
removed the Directory (1799) and seized
power by becoming one of the consuls in
the new system (Consulate)
 4.- EUROPE UNDER NAPOLEON
4.1. NAPOLEON. FROM CONSULATE TO EMPIRE.
As First Consul (1799-1804), Napoleon consolidated the revolution’s conquests:
-The consolidated the political stability in France, disarticulating the radical opposition.
The exiled nobility returned to France and accepted the rule of Napoleon.
-New reforms:
.Civil Code of 1804, which codified revolutionary achievements (equality under the
law, liberty, prosperity, separation of Church and State).
.Establishment of economic freedom.
.Public welfare assistance and public education.

These achievements brought Napoleon widespread popularity. He was made later became
Emperor of the French in 1804.
 4.- EUROPE UNDER NAPOLEON
4.2. THE EMPIRE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1804-1815).
Napoleon also sought to expand the revolution,
creating a vast European empire under French
authority.
From 1805 to 1810 he fought several coalitions of
European countries that were against him and defeated
them, controlling a large part of Western Europe. The
only exception was the United Kingdom, which
defeated Napoleon’s fleet of ships in the Battle of
Trafalgar (1805) and resisted the economic blockade he
had established (1806). Napoleon set up governments
made up of family members and French generals in
conquered countries. They all spread the ideas of the
revolution, established constitutions and implemented
the Napoleonic Civil Code.
French Expansion during
Napoleon’s Empire
 4.- EUROPE UNDER NAPOLEON
4.3. THE FALL OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE.
French domination was not accepted in many countries and strong nationalist movements
against French rule grew. After the failure of the Great Army in Russia (1812) and his defeat
in Spain (1814), a coalition of European powers formed by the United Kingdom, Austria,
Prussia and Russia entered Paris. Napoleon was exiled and the French monarchy was restored
by Louis XVIII.
The following year, Napoleon escaped and recaptured the throne for one hundred days.
He was defeated for the last time by the allies at Waterloo (1815) and was exiled to Saint
Helena, where he died in 1821.
 5.- RESTORATION OF ABSOLUTISM
5.1. RETURN OF ABSOLUTISM.
From 1814 to 1815, the powers that defeated Napoleon (United Kingdom, Austria, Prussia
and Russia) met at the Congress of Vienna. They had two objectives:
-Restoring the old regime. In doing so, they restored the monarchs that had been deposed by
Napoleon.
-Redrawing the political map of Europe. France was forced to return to the boundaries of
1791 and other territories were divided up among the powers.

In Vienna, the powers also agreed to periodically hold congresses in order to diplomatically
solve possible disputes among countries. Countries were also authorised to intervene in any
country threatened by revolution.
Lastly, in 1815, the Holy Alliance formed by Austria, Prussia and Russia was created in order
to guarantee the established order.
 5.- RESTORATION OF ABSOLUTISM
5.2. NEW IDEOLOGIES
In spite of the attempts of absolutism, the Restoration could not contain the expansion of new
ideas and values throughout Europe, represented by liberalism and nationalism.
-Liberalism defended individual liberty, expressed by the rights of the citizens, equality
under the law and the suppression of privileges, as well as the implementation of
constitutional regimes based on national sovereignty and separation of powers.
-Nationalism was the idea that the fundamental framework for public life was the nation or
community with common historical traits and a common language and culture. Its objective
was for each nation to have its own State (nation-state). The nationalist ideology spread to
territories under foreign power, such as Greece, and to those who aspired to form a unified
State, such as Italy and Germany.
 6. LIBERAL REVOLUTIONS
6.1. REVOLUTIONS OF 1820.
The revolutions of 1820 were concentrated in the Mediterranean area and Russia. Army
officials and secret societies played significant roles. Liberals in Spain, Portugal, Naples,
Piedmont and Russia rose up against absolutist regimes. Some monarchs initially accepted
the constitutions, but in the end they imposed absolutism.

6.2. REVOLUTIONS OF 1830.

The revolutions of 1830 affected practically all of Europe and placed liberals in power in
many States. They began in France with the ousting of Charles X and the implementation of
the constitutional monarchy of Louis-Philippe of Orleans. The revolution then spread to
Belgium, which achieved independence from Holland, and then to several Italian and German
states. However, once power was taken, liberal leaders limited rights and freedoms and
established limited suffrage.
 6. LIBERAL REVOLUTIONS
6.3. REVOLUTIONS OF 1848.
The revolutions of 1848 were more extensive, had
greater participation and were more radical. They
began in France, where Louis-Phillipe was ousted
from power and the French Second Republic
was created, which implemented a constitution
establishing universal male suffrage. The
revolution also reached Prussia, Austria-Hungary,
Switzerland, the German Confederation and some
Italian states.
In all of them, revolutionaries demanded more
rights, as well as popular sovereignty, universal
male suffrage and social equality. These demands
terrified the bourgeoisie, who suppressed them
and implemented a conservative liberalism.
 INDEPENDENCE OF NEW COUNTRIES

COUNTRIES THAT GOT INDEPENDENCE UNIFICATION OF TERRITORIES TO

FROM EMPIRES FORM NEW COUNTRIES

GREECE from the Turkish empire ITALY led by Piedmont-Sardinia

BELGIUM from Netherlands GERMANY led by Prussia
 7.- BIRTH OF NEW STATES
7.1 UNIFICATION OF ITALY.
The process of unification was directed by the Kingdom of Piedmont- Sardinia. Central
figures were Victor Emmanuel II and Prime Minister Cavour, who won the trust of the most
prominent national groups, along with the revolutionary Giuseppe Garibaldi. Unification
was carried out in several stages.
First, Victor Emmanuel II incorporated Lombardy into the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia
in the battle against Austria, also incorporating the duchies of central Italy. Meanwhile,
Garibaldi conquered the Kingdom of Two Sicilies in the south, leading an army known as
the ‘Expedition of the Thousand’.
After this partial unification, the Kingdom of Italy was founded (1861). Complete unity was
finally achieved with the annexation of Venice (1866) and the conquest of the Papal States
(1870) and Rome became the capital.
The new State established a liberal political system based on censitary suffrage.
 7.- BIRTH OF NEW STATES
7.1 UNIFICATION OF GERMANY.
The main figures in German unification were William I, King of Prussia, and Chancellor
Bismarck. Both aimed to unify Germany under Prussian leadership and exclude Austria,
their political rival.
First, Prussia defeated Austria in the Battle of Sadowa (1866), allowing the northern
German states to unify. Prussia then defeated France in the Battle of Sedan (1870),
incorporating Alsace and Lorraine, thereby unifying the southern German states. The
Second Reich, or German Empire, had begun (1871).
The new State created a constitution that established universal male suffrage and a federal
political system, made up of states with extensive powers.