RAILWAY AND BRIDGE

ENGINEERING

BY: KSHITISH KUMAR SAHOO

LECT. IN CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPT.

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SECTION- A: RAILWAYS
COURSE CONTENT:
CHAPTERS NAME OF THE TOPICS PAGES
01 INTRODUCTION:
1.1: Railway terminology
1.2: Advantages of railways
1.3: Classification of Indian Railways

02 PERMANENT WAY:
2.1: Definition and components of a permanent way
2.2: Concept of gauge, different gauges prevalent in India,
suitability of these gauges under different conditions
03 TRACK MATERIALS:
3.1: Rails
3.1.1: Functions and requirement of rails
3.1.2: Types of rail sections, length of rails
3.1.3: Rail joints – types, requirement of an ideal joint
3.1.4: Purpose of welding of rails & its advantages
3.1.5: Creep- definition, cause & prevention
3.2: Sleepers
3.2.1: Definition, function & requirements of sleepers
3.2.2: Classification of sleepers
3.2.3: Advantages & disadvantages of different types of
sleeper
3.3: Ballast
3.3.1: Functions & requirements of ballast
3.3.2: Materials for ballast
3.4; Fixtures for Broad gauge
3.4.1: Connection of rails to rail-fishplate, fish bolts
3.4.2: Connection of rails to sleepers

04 GEOMETRIC FOR BROAD GAUGE:

4.1: Typical cross – sections of single & double broad gauge
railway track in cutting and embankment
4.2: Permanent & temporary land width
4.3: Gradients for drainage
4.4: Super elevation – necessity & limiting valued

05 POINTS AND CROSSINGS:

5.1: Definition, necessity of Points and crossings
5.2: Types of points & crossings with tie diagrams
LAYING & MAINTENANCE OF TRACK:
06 6.1: Methods of Laying & maintenance of track
6.2: Duties of a permanent way inspector

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SECTION- B: BRIDGES
CHAPTERS NAME OF THE TOPICS PAGES
01 Introduction to bridges 1.1 Definitions
1.2 Components of a bridge 1.3 Classification
of bridges 1.4 Requirements of an ideal bridge
02 Bridge site investigation, hydrology &
planning
2.1 Selection of bridge site, Alignment, 2.2
Determination of Flood Discharge 2.3
Waterway & economic span 2.4 Afflux,
clearance & free board
03 Bridge foundation
3.1 Scour depth minimum depth of foundation
3.2 Types of bridge foundations – spread
foundation, pile foundation- well foundation –
sinking of wells, caission foundation. 3.3
Coffer dams
04 Bridge substructure and approaches
4.1 Types of piers 4.2 Types of abutments 4.3
Types of wing walls 4.4 Approaches
05 Culvert & Cause ways 5.1 Types of culvers
– brief description 5.2 Types of causeways –
brief description

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Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION

Transportation is regarded as an index of economic, social and commercial progress of a

country. The transport industry, which undertakes nothing more than mere movement of
persons and things from one place to another has constituted one of the most important
activities of men in every stage of advanced civilization. No country can ever flourish if it
lacks adequate transport facilities.
The first public railway in the world was opened to traffic on 27 September 1825 between
Stockton and Darlington in the UK. The first railway in Germany was opened from
Nuremberg to Furth in 1835. The USA opened its first railway line between Mohawk and
Hudson in 1833.
The first railway line in India was opened in 1853. The first train, consisting of one steam
engine and four coaches, made its maiden trip on 16 April 1853, when it traversed a 21-mile
stretch between Bombay (now Mumbai) and Thane in 1.25 hours.Starting from this humble
beginning, Indian Railways has grown today into a giant network consisting of 63,221 route
km and crisscrossing this great country from the Himalayan foothills in the north to Cape
Comorin (Kanyakumari) in the south and from Dibrugarh in the east to Dwarka in the west.

1.1: RAILWAY TERMINOLOGY:

The commonly used terms in Railway Engineering includes: -
Railway Engineering: Railway Engineering is that branch of civil engineering which deals
with the construction and maintenance of the railway tracks for safe and efficient movement
of trains on it.
Rails: Rails are steel girders which provide the hard and smooth surface for movement of
wheels of a locomotive and railway vehicles.

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Sleepers:Sleepers are the members laid transversely under the rails which are meant to
support the rails over them and transfer the load from rails to ballast.

Gauge: The gauge of a track is the minimum distance between the inner running faces of the
two rails.
Metre Gauge: The gauge of a track in which distance between the running faces of two track
rails is one metre is called Metre Gauge.
Broad Gauge:The gauge of a track in which distance between the inner running faces of the
two rails is 1.676 metres is termed as Broad Gauge.
Narrow Gauge:The gaugeof track in which the distance between the running faces of two
rails is 0.762 metre is known as Narrow Gauge.
Railway Track: Railway track is the structure provided by rails fitted on sleepers, resting on
ballast and subgrade for passage of wheels.
Bearing Plates:To reduce the intensity of pressure, particularly on soft variety of sleepers, a
rectangular plate of mild steel or cast iron is introduced between the rails and sleepers. This
plate is known as Bearing Plate. This plate distribute the loads on large area.
Ballast:Ballast is the granular material packed under and around the sleepers to transfer loads
from sleepers to ballast. It helps in providing elasticity to the track.
Coning of wheels:The wheels are coned at a slope of 1 in 20 to prevent from rubbing the
inside face of the rail head and to prevent lateral movement of the axle with its wheels. This
is known as coning of wheels.
Creep of rails: Creep is the longitudinal movement of rails in a track. The effect of creep
tends to drag the track if the ballast are insufficient to hold the rails.
Guard rails: Guard rails are extra rails provided over bridges to prevent damage and danger
in case of derailment occurring on the bridge.
Embankments: The raised structure above the ground level for carrying the railway track is
called embankment. When the height of the embankment is more, the side slopes are stepped
for better stability of slopes.
Hogged rails: Those rails which get battered due to impact of wheels over the end of the
rails are called hogged rails. These rails are get bent down and deflected at the ends.
Gradient: Any departure of the railway track from

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The level is known as grade or gradient. It is called up gradient when the track rises in the
direction of motion, and a down gradient when track falls in the direction of motion.
Fish plates: These plates resembling in shape to a fish, are used to provide the continuity
between the two rails at the rail-joints. They also provide the required gap for expansion and
contraction of rails due to temperature variations.
Locomotive: It is a machine which transfers chemical energy of fuel in mechanical energy of
motion. Fuel may be water and coal or diesel or electricity.
Level crossing:When the railway line and a road cross each other at the same level, it is
called level crossing.
Momentum Gradient: It is rising gradient, which takes advantages of falling gradient in
developing the momentum and kinetic energy, tp negotiate this rising gradient.
Permanent Track: It is the track which is permanent nature and handles the normal
commercial traffic for which it is meant. It is also called permanent way.
Points and crossings: Points, crossings, cross-overs and turnouts, etc. are arrangements by
which different routes either parallel or diverging are connected to afford for the train to
move from one track to another.
Pusher Gradient: The gradient which requires one or more additional locomotives for
hauling the load over the rising gradient is called a pusher gradient.
Ruling Gradient: It is the maximum rising gradient which is provided keeping in view the
power of the locomotives.
Railway Track: Railway track is the structure provided by rails fitted on sleepers, resting on
ballast and subgrade for passage of wheels.
Sleeper Density: Sleeper density represents the number of sleepers per rail length in meters.
Track circuit: The length of track, which is connected by electric circuit to signal cabin,
block telegraph apparatus, etc. required for indication of light or bell, is called a track circuit.
Turnouts: A complete set of points and crossing with the intervening lead rails is called a
Turnout.
Derailment: Derailment occurs when moving wheels of a train or bogie get out of the rails. It
causes by an accident and often results in loss of lives of property damages.
Super elevation or cant: On curves, to counter act the effect of centrifugal force, the level
of outer rail is raised above the inner rail by a certain amount. This raising of outer rail over
the inner rail is called super elevation or cant.
Cant deficiency: The equilibrium cant is provided on the basis of the average speed of
different trains on the track. This equilibrium will fall short of that required for speeds higher
than average speed. This shortage of can is called cant deficiency.
Buckling of rails: The railway track gets out of the original position due to buckling if the
expansion of rails due to rise in temperature is prevented during hot weather. This is known
as buckling due to rise in temperature.

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Packing: The process of ramming the ballast underneath the sleeper is known as packing.
Wear of rails:Due to movement of very heavy loads at high speeds, the concentrated stresses
often exceed the elastic limit of metal, resulting the metal flow. This flowed materials of rails
is chipped off by the striking of wheels. The rail is them called worn out rail and this
happening is called wear of rails.
1.2: ADVANTAGES OF RAILWAYS:
Railways have brought about many political, social and economic changes in the life of
Indian people.
(a) Political advantages:
(i) Railways have united the people of different castes, religions customs and
traditions.
(ii) With the adequate network of railways, the central administration has become
more easy and effective.
(iii) Railways have contributed towards development of a national mentality in the
minds of people.
(iv) The role of railways during emergencies in mobilizing troops and war
equipment has been very significant.
(v) Railways has helped in the mass migration of the population.
(b) Social advantages:
(i) The feeling of isolation has been removed from the inhabitants of the Indian
people.
(ii) By travelling together into the compartment without any restriction of caste,
the feeling of caste difference has disappeared considerably.
(iii) The social outlook of the masses has been broadened through railway
journeys.
(iv) Railway has made it easier to reach places of religious importance.
(v) Railways provide a convenient and safe mode of transport for the country.
(c) Economic Advantages:
(i) Mobility of people has increased, there by congested areas can be relieved of
congestion and the sparsely populated areas can be developed.
(ii) Mobility of labour has contributed to industrial development.
(iii) During famines, railways has played the vital role in transporting food and
clothing to the affected people.
(iv) Growth of industries has been promoted due to transportation of raw materials
through railways.
(v) Railways provide employment to millions of people and thus solving the
problem of unemployment in the country.
(vi) Trade developed due to railways thereby has increased the earnings and
standard living of Indian people.
(vii) Due to mobility of products through railways, the price stabilization of
commodities could be possible.
(d) Techno-Economic Advantages:
(i) Cost saving in transportation of long haul bulk traffic.
(ii) Energy-efficiency

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 (iii) Environment friendliness.
(iv) Higher safety.
(v) Efficient land use and ease in capacity expansion.
1.3: Classification of Indian Railways:
(A)Classification based on importance of route, traffic carried and maximum permissible
speed on the routes.
1. Trunk routes
2. Main lines
3. Branch lines
1. Trunk routes:The standards of trunk routes includes:-

ITEMS B.G M.G

Maximum permissible 120 km.p.h 80 km.p.h
speed
Rail section 52 kg/m 37.5 kg/m
Sleeper density n+7 n+7
Ballast cushion 25 cm below sleeper 25 cm below sleeper
Design speed for new track 160 km.p.h 100 km.p.h
Example 1. Delhi-Mughsarai- 1. Lucknow-
Howrah Gorakhpur-
2. Delhi-kota- Guwahati
Mumbai 2. Delhi-Jaipur-
3. Delhi-Jhansi- Ahmedabad
Nagpur-Chennai 3. Chennai-
4. Howrah-Bagpur- Madurai-
Mumbai Trivandrrum
5. Mumbai-
Guntakul-
Chennai
6. Howrah-
Vijayawada-
Chennai

2. Main lines: All lines other than trunk routes carrying 10 Gross Million Tonnes (GMT)
per annum or more for B.G and 2.5 G.M.T or more for M.G. or where maximum
permissible speed allowed is 100 km.p.h for B.G and 75 km.p.h for M.G. are classified
as main lines.
ITEMS B.G M.G
GMT/annum ≥ 10 ≥ 2.5
Maximum permissible 100 km.p.h 75 km.p.h
speed
Rail section 52 kg/m 37.5 kg/m
Design speed for new 120 km.p.h 75 km.p.h
track

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 3. Branch lines: These are classified on the basis of following criteria:
All those B.G lines which carry less than 10 GMT per annum and have max.
Permissible speed of less than 100 km.p.h are classified as Branch lines.
For M.G tracks, all those lines which carry less than 2.5 GMT per annum and have
max. Permissible speeds less than 75 km.p.h are classified as Branch lines.
(B) Classification based on speed criteria:
According to this B.G railway lines are classified into 5 groups:-
1. Group ‘A’ lines: They consists of those trunk routes on which the trains are
running or are meant for running the trains at a speed of 160 km.p.h or more.
Example-i. New delhi-howrah by Rajdhani route
ii. New Delhi-Mumbai central
iii. New Delhi-Chennai central
iv. Howrah- Mumbai V.T.
2. Group ‘B’ lines: They consists of those routes on which the trains with a
maximum sanctioned speed of 130 km.p.h are running or are intended to
run. At present nearly 13 routes come under this category e.g., Allahabad to
Bhusaval, Kalyan to Chennai, Kharagpur to Vijayawada, Howrah to New
jalpariguri, Sitarampur to Mughalsarai, Kiuli to Barharwa, Delhi to Kolkata,
Ambala to Pathankot, Ambala to Mughalsarai, Arkonam to Coimbatore,
Vadodara to Ahmedabad and Jalanpet to Bangalore.
3. Group ‘C’ lines: They consists of all suburban routes of Mumbai, Kolkata
and Delhi.
4. Group ‘D’ lines: All other routes in the country where maximum
permissible speed at present is 100 km.p.h.
5. Group ‘E’ lines: The other routes and branch lines where the permissible
speed limits are less than 100 km.p.h.

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CHAPTER 02

PERMANENT WAY

2.1: Definition and components of a permanent way:

The combination of rails, fitted on sleepers and resting on ballast and subgrade
is called the railway track or permanent way.
In a permanent way, the rails are joined in series by fish plates and bolts and
then they are fixed to sleepers by different types of fastenings. The sleepers
properly spaced, resting on ballast, are suitably packed and boxed with ballast.
The layer of ballast rests on the prepared subgrade called the formation. The
rails act as girders to transmit the wheel load to the sleepers. The sleepers hold
the rails in proper position with respect to the proper tilt, gauge and level, and
transmit the load from rails to the ballast. The ballast distributes the load over
the formation and holds the sleepers in position.

2.2: Concept of gauge, different gauges prevalent in India, suitability of

these gauges under different conditions:
Definition:The ‘Gauge’ of a railway track is defined as the clear distance
between inner or running faces of two track rails. The distance between the
inner faces of a pair of wheels is called the wheel gauge.

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Different gauges in india: In India, the East India Company adopted 1.676 m.
gauges as the standard gauge (Broad gauge). In 1871, in order to build cheap
railways for the development of the country, the government adopted a metre
gauge i.e. 1 m wide. In addition to broad gauge and metre gauge for hilly areas
and for developing poor areas, India has 0.762 m. and 0.610 m. narrow gauges
tracks and feeder gauge tracks.

Types of gauge Gauge width

Broad gauge 1.676 m.
Metre gauge 1.0 m.
Narrow gauge 0.762 m.
Feeder track gauge 0.610 m.

Selection of gauge: The following factors govern the choice of different

gauges:-
1. Cost of construction: There is little increase in the initial cost if we
select a wider gauge.
i. The cost of bridges, tunnels, station buildings, staff quarters,
cabins and level crossing is same for all gauges.
ii. The cost of earth work, ballast, sleepers, rails, etc. would
proportionally increase with increase in gauge width.
iii. There is increase in the acquisition of land for permanent track
with increase in gauge.
2. Volume and nature of traffic: For greater traffic and greater load
carrying capacity, the trains should be run by a better traction technique
or by better locomotives. For heavier loads and high speed, the wider
gauges are required.
3. Development of the Areas: Narrow can be used to develop the thinly
populated areas by joining the under developed areas with developed or
urbanized areas.
4. Physical features of the country: Use of narrow gauge is warranted in
hilly regions where broad gauge and meter gauges are not possible due to
steep gradients and sharp curves.
5. Speed of movement: The speed of a train is almost proportional to the
gauge. Speed is the function of diameter of wheel, which in turn is
limited by the gauge. Lower speed discourage the customers, and so for
maintaining high speeds, the broad gauge is preferred

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Broad Gauge and its suitability:.
When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two
parallel rails forming a track is 1.676 m. then that is known as Broad gauge.
The countries using broad gauge are India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka,
Brazil, Argentina etc. 50% of India’s railway tracks have been laid by this
gauge.
Broad gauge is suitable under following conditions:-
i. When sufficient funds are available for the railway project.
ii. When the prospects of revenue is very bright.
Metre Gauge and its suitability:
When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two parallel rails
forming a track is 1 m, the gauge is known as Metre gauge. The countries using
metre gauge are France, Switzerland, Argentina, India etc. 40% of India’s
railway tracks have been laid to this gauge.
Metre gauge is suitable under following conditions:-
i. When the funds available for the railway project are inadequate.
ii. When the prospects of revenue are not very bright.
Narrow Gauge and its suitability:
When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two parallel rails
forming a track is 0.762 m. the gauge is known as narrow gauge. The countries
using narrow gauge are Britain, India, South Africa etc. About 10% India’s
railway track have been laid to this gauge.
Narrow gauge is suitable under following conditions:-
i. When the construction of a track with wider gauge is prohibited due to
the provision of sharp curves, steep gradients, narrow bridges and tunnels
etc.
ii. This gauge is therefore, used in hilly and very thinly populated areas.
Feeder gauges: The feeder gauges are commonly used for feeding raw
materials to big government manufacturing concerns as well as to private
factories such as steel plants, oil refineries, sugar factories etc.

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CHAPTER 03

TRACK MATERIALS

3.1: Rails:
The rails on the track are steel girders used for the purpose of carrying axle
loads and smooth movement of the locomotives. They are made up of high
carbon steel to withstand wear and tear.
3.1.1: Functions and requirement of rails:
Functions: Rails in the railway track serve the following purposes: -
i. Rails provide a hard, smooth and unchanging surface for the passage of
heavy moving loads with a minimum friction between the steel rails and
steel wheels.
ii. Rails bear the stresses developed due to heavy vertical loads, lateral and
braking forces and thermal stresses.
iii. The rail material used is such that it gives minimum wear to avoid
replacement charges and failures of rails due to wear.
iv. Rails transmit the loads to sleepers and consequently reduce pressure on
ballast and formation below.
Requirements of rails:Rails act as continuous girders carrying axle loads. They
should meet the following requirements:-
i. They should be of proper composition of steel and should be
manufactured by open hearth or duplex process.
ii. The vertical stiffness should be high enough to transmit the load to
several sleeper underneath. The height of rail should, therefore, be
adequate.
iii. Rails should be capable of withstanding lateral forces.
iv. The head must be sufficiently deep to allow for an adequate margin of
vertical wear. The wearing surface should be hard.
v. Web of rails should be sufficiently thick to bear the load coming on it and
should provide adequate flexural rigidity in horizontal plane.
vi. Foot should be wide enough so that rails are stable against overturning,
especially on curves.

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vii. Bottom of the head and top of the foot of rails should be so shaped as to
enable the fish plates to transmit the vertical load effectively from the
head to the foot at rail joints.
viii. Relative distribution of material of rail in head, web and foot must be
balanced, for smooth transmission of rails.
ix. The Centre of gravity of the rail section must lie approximately at mid-
height so that maximum tensile and compressive stresses are equal.
x. The fillet radii must be large to reduce the concentration of stresses.
xi. The tensile strength of rail section must not be less than 72 kg/m2.
xii. The rail specimen should withstand the blow of “Falling weight test” as
specified by Indian Railway Standards without fracture.
3.1.2: Types of rail sections, length of rails
Types of rail sections :
The three types of rail sections generally used for the construction of
railway track are:
1. Double headed rails (D.H.Rails)
2. Bull headed rails (B.H.Rails)
3. Flat footed rails (F.F.Rails)
1.Double headed rails (D.H.Rails):
In the beginning Double headed rails of a dumb-bell section are used.
The idea behind using of these rails was that when the head has worn out in
course of time, the rail can be inverted and reused. But experience showed that
such indentations are formed in lower table due to which smooth running over
that surface at the top was impossible.
2.Bull headed rails (B.H.Rails):
In bull headed rails the head was made a little thicker and stronger than
the lower part, by adding more metal to it, so that even after wear, it can
withstand stresses. Side by side with the bull headed rails, flat footed rails also
called Vignola’s rails after the name of the inventor.
Merits:
i. They keep better alignment and give more solid and smoother track.
ii. They are easily disconnected from sleepers as they have no direct
connection with the sleepers.
iii. The heavy chairs with larger bearing on sleepers give longer life to
wooden sleepers and greater stability to the track.

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Demerits:
i. They require additional cost of iron chairs.
ii. They have less strength and stiffness.
iii. They require heavy maintenance cost.
3.Flat footed rails (F.F.Rails):
Initially it was thought that the flat footed rails could be fixed to sleepers
directly and would eliminate the need of chairs and keys required for the bull
headed rails. However it was observed that heavy train loads caused the foot of
the rail to sink into the wooden sleeper, making the spikes work loose.
Merits:
i. They have more strength and stiffness, both vertically and laterally,
than bull headed rails.
ii. Fitting of rails with sleepers is simpler, so they can be easily laid and
re-laid.
iii. No chairs and keys are required as in case of bull headed rails.
iv. In points and crossings, the arrangements are simpler than bull headed
rails.
Demerits:
i. The fittings get loosened more frequently than in case bull headed
rails. The impact of rolling wheels directly affects the fittings.
ii. The straightening of bent rails, replacing of rails and dehogging of
battered rails are difficult.

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Comparison of Rail Types:

SI No Point of comparison Flat footed rails Bull headed rails/ Double

headed rails
01 Strength and stiffness These have more strength These have less strength and
and stiffness for the same stiffness.
weight, both laterally and
vertically.
02 Laying and relaying Fitting of these rails is The fitting of these rails is
simpler and so can be easily difficult and time consuming as
laid and relaid. No chairs are they are supported on chairs.
required.
03 Arrangements at points, The arrangements are The arrangements are complicated
crossings and at sharp simpler and easy. and difficult.
curves
04 Alignment and stability of In this impact of rolling These rails when fitted on chairs,
track wheels affects the fittings provide a more solid, smooth
and the loosening of fittings track and better stable alignment.
disturbs the alignment and
gives less stability
05 Initial cost These rails require lesser and These require more and costly
cheaper fastenings, so the fastenings and hence initial cost is
initial cost is less. more.
06 Rigidity These rails can be used These rails without cannot be
without bearing plates on used on inferior type of sleepers,
sleepers as these rails are being less strong against vertical
strong to withstand vertical loads. Hence they are less rigid.
loads. Hence they are more
rigid.
07 Inspection Daily inspection is not In case of B.H or D.H. rails, daily
necessary as no special risk inspection of wooden keys is
is involved. necessary.
08 Replacement of rails In F.F. rails, the dog spikes These rails can be changed easily
have to be taken out in by driving out the keys and taking
addition to fish bolts and fish out fish plates, without disturbing
plates to change the rails. So sleepers.
replacement is difficult.
09 Maintenance cost The maintenance cost is less. It requires heavy maintenance
cost.
10 Suitability These are more suitable due These are more suitable when
to better stability, economy, lateral loads are more important
strength and stiffness. rather than vertical loads.

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length of rails:
The rails of larger length are preferred to smaller length of rails, because
they give more strength and economy for railway track. The weakest point of a
track is the joint between two rails. Lesser the number of joints, lesser would be
the number of fish plates and this would lead to lesser maintenance cost,
smoother running of trains and more comfort to the passengers. Moreover the
more number of joints would increase wear and tear of the vehicle components,
including wheels.
Though the long length of the rails is desired, however, the length is governed by the
following factors:
1. The length of the rails is so chosen that the manufacturing cost is more
reasonable.
2. It depends upon the transportation facilities, so only those lengths of rails are
possible which can be transported by longest wagons available on the
railways.
3. To some extent, the length is also limited by the facilities of lifting and
handling, during the loading and unloading of wagons.
4. More the length of the rail, more will be the gap required for expansion of rail
due to temperature but, however, the expansion is not proportional to gap
because fastenings check the movement of rails, so expansion gap is not
limiting factor for length of rails though it affects to some extent.

On Indian Railways the standard lengths are the following:

Length = 12.80 m. (42 ft ) for B.G. ( say 13 m )
And Length = 11.89 m ( 39 ft ) for M.G. (say 12 m)

3.1.3: Rail joints – types, requirement of an ideal joint:

Rail joints are necessary to hold tighter the adjoining ends of the rails in the correct position,
both in the horizontal and vertical planes. Rail joints form the weakest part of the track. It is
observed that strength of a rail joint is only 50 percent of the strength of a rail.
Types of rail joints:
The following types of joints are commonly used on railways:-
1. Supported rail joint:When the rail ends rest on a single sleeper called a joint sleeper is
termed as supported joint.

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 Three sleeper support with long fish plates, i.e combined supported and this joint is
most objectionable. Because in this case when the packing under the outer sleeper
gets loose, undue load comes on central sleeper and in turn the loose central sleeper
converts this joint into a weak suspended joint.
2. Suspended rail joint: When rail ends are projected beyond sleepers called shoulder
sleeper it is termed as suspended joint. This type joint is generally used with timber
and steel trough sleepers on Indian and foreign railways.

3. Bridge joint: When the rail ends are projected beyond sleepers as in case of
suspended joint and they are connected by a flat or corrugated plate called a bridge
plate is termed as a Bridge joint. This type of joint is not used on Indian railways.

4. Base joint: This is similar to the bridge joint, with the difference that the inner fish
plates are of bar type and outer fish plates are of the special angle type, in which the
horizontal leg is further extended over the sleepers to be bolted to both bridge plate
and sleeper. Due to complicated design this is not generally used.
5. Welded rail joints: These are the best joints as they fulfil nearly all the requirements
of an ideal or perfect joint.
6. Staggered or Broken joint: In this, position of joints on railway track is the basis of its
nomenclature. In this type of joint, the joints of one rail track are not directly opposite
to the joints of the other rail track. These joints are generally provided on curves,

17
 where the length of outer curved track is greater than the length of inner curved track.

7. Square joint: In this the position of rail joint is the basis of its nomenclature, the joints
of one rail track are directly opposite to the joints of other rail track.
This is generally used on straight tracks.

8. Compromise joint: Where two different rail sections are required to be joined
together, it is done by means of fish plates which fit both the rails and this joint is

termed as compromise joint.

9. Insulated joint: When insulating medium is inserted in a rail joint to stop the flow of
current beyond the track-circuited part, it is called insulated joint.
10. Expansion joint: In bridges, provision for expansion and contraction is kept for
girders and rails both. This gap is 2.2 cm in case of mitred joint and 7.2 cm for halved
joint.

The number of joints can be reduced by the process of welding of rails. Welded
joints are considered as the most perfect and strongest type of joints.
Requirement of an ideal joint:
An ideal or perfect rail joint is one which provides the same strength and stiffness as
the other rail section of the track. The following requirements should be met by an ideal
joint:-
(i) The two rail ends should remain true in line both laterally and vertically when trains
move on the track. This is necessary to avoid wheel jumping or changing its correct
path of movements.

18
 (ii) The rail joint should be as strong and stiff as the rail itself and should be elastic both
laterally and horizontally.
(iii)The rail joint should provide enough space for free expansion and contraction to
account for the effect of temperature variations.
(iv) A good joint should be easily disconnectable so that it can be easily taken out without
disturbing the whole track for the purpose of changing rail or a fish plate, and
lubricating the contact faces.
(v) It should not allow the rail ends to get battered in any case.
(vi) The joint should fulfil the above requirements with the minimum of initial and
maintenance cost(i.e it should be economical).

3.1.4 Purpose of welding of rails & its advantages:

Purpose of welding:
Welding of rails serves the following purposes:-
(i) To increase the length of the rail by joining two or more rails and thus to reduce the
number of joints, and requirements of fish plates, which lead to economy and
strength.
(ii) To repair the worn out or damaged rails and thus increase their life.
(iii)To build up worn out points and rails on the sharp curves.
(iv) To build up the burnt portion of rail head which is caused due to slippage of wheels
over the rails or other defects or spots in rail steel.
Advantages of welding rails:
1. It satisfies the condition of a perfect joint and hence increases the life of the rail, as
also the reduction in maintenance cost of track by about 20 to 40 percent.
2. It reduces the creep due to increase in the length of rail in turn friction as well.
3. Expansion effect due to temperature is reduced which in turn also reduces the creep.
4. Due to discontinuity of joints, a source of track weakness is reduced. The defects,
such as hammering at rail joints, displacement of joints, disturbance in alignment and
running surface, which result in bad riding quality, are eliminated.
5. Long rail length being heavier, dampen the intensity of high frequency vibrations due
to moving loads.
6. Welding increases the life of rails due to decrease in the wear of rails at joints.
7. Welding facilitates track circuiting on electrified tracks.
8. Welding rails provides on large bridges for the span length are helpful as they result
in better performance.
9. The cost of track construction by welding of rails decreases due to less number of rail
joints.

3.1.5 Creep- definition, cause & prevention:

Definition:
Creep is defined as the longitudinal movement of rails with respect to sleepers
in a track. Creep is common to all railway tracks, but varies in magnitude, the rail in some

19
places, moves by several centimeters in a month while in other locations the movement of
rails may be negligible.
Causes/Theories of creep:
The various theories propounded for explaining the probable causes of creep in rails are:-
(i) Wave action or wave Theory:Wave motion is set up by moving loads of wheels. The
vertical reverse curve ABC is formed in the rails ahead of the wheels, resulting from
the rail deflection under the load, is the chief cause of creep. The wheels push the
wave with a tendency to force the rail in the direction of traffic. As the wheels move,
the lift in front of the moving load is thus carried forward by the wheels and causes
creep, whereas the lift at the rear of the wheel gets back to its normal position.

The pitch and depth of wave depend upon the following:-

1. Track modulus
2. Stiffness of track
3. Stability of formation
The wave action can be reduced by adopting following measures:-
1.Angular and heavy ballast-which develops good interlock
2.Increased stiffness of track
3.Lesser sleeper spacing
4.Bigger section of the rail
(ii) Percussion Theory:This theory states that the creep is due to impact of wheels at the
rail end ahead at joints. The horizontal component ‘P’ of ‘R’ tends to cause creep
while the vertical component tends to bend down the rail end vertically i.e to make a
battered rail end. Hence as and when the wheels leave the trailing rail and strike the
facing rail end at each joint, it pushes the rail forward resulting in creep. Though the
creep is very small in single impact but cumulative effect of number of wheels in
quick succession results in sufficient creep.

20
 The creep by this theory will increase due to following factors:-
1. Due to weak and loose fish bolts.
2. Due to worn out fish plates
3. Due to loose packing at joints
4. Due to wide expansion gap
5. Due to heavy axle loads moving at high speed.
(iii)Drag or Dragging Theory: It states that backward thrust on driving wheels of the
locomotive of train has got a tendency to push the rail off the track backward while
the other wheels of the locomotive and the vehicles push the rail in the direction of
travel as explained in wave action theory and they have greater effect as compared to
drag effect. This results in creep of rails in the direction of movement of trains.
(iv) Starting, Accelerating, slowing down or stopping of a Train: When a train is starting
or accelerating, the backward thrust of the engine driving wheels tends to push the
rails backward. When it is slowing down or coming to a stop, the braking effect tends
to push the rails forward.
(v) Expansion or contraction rails due to Temperature: Creep also occurs due to
variation in temperature. The creep in this case is influenced by the range in
temperature variation, location of track, whether exposed or shady surroundings, etc.
(vi) Unbalanced-Traffic: (a)In a single line system if heavy equal traffic runs in both
directions, the creep is almost balanced. Otherwise heavy traffic in one direction will
cause creep, which is partly balanced by light traffic in opposite direction. (b) In the
double line system trains on a particular line being unidirectional, creep occurs in both
the lines.
Remedies or Prevention of Creep:
Prevention is always better than cure. If creep is not prevented in time, it will result
in derailment. Following are the common methods adopted to prevent creep.
a) Pulling Back the Rails:If creep is distinctly visible, the remedy is to pull back the rails
to their original position. For doing this first inspect the track, note the extent of
pulling back distance and determine the point from which to begin. Now start pulling
the rails back to their original positions by means of crow bars and hooks provided
through the fish bolt holes of rails. In pulling back, the positions of joints relative to
sleepers must be maintained, and both the rail joints must be in their relative
positions. Pulling back the rails is a very slow and tedious process and is only possible
when a small length is to be dealt.
b) Provision of Anchors or Anticreepers: The creep of the track can be prevented by use
of anchors and sufficient crib ballast. For creep of 7.5 cm to 15 cm, in a month 4-

21
 anchors per rail and for creep of 22.5 cm to 25 cm 6-anchors per rail are used in the
Indian practice.
Anchors are fastened to the foot of rail and kept in perfect contact with the side of the
sleeper being the side opposite to the direction of creep. If creep occurs in both
directions, anticreepers are provided on both the sides of sleepers, starting from the
centre of the rail and should never be fixed near the joints.
Anchors are fixed to rails either (i) by wedging action (ii) by clamping or (iii) by a
spring-grip

c) Use of steel sleepers: Sleepers should be of such a type and with such fittings that
they effectively prevent the rail from creeping on them. Secondly, the sleepers must
have a good grip with the ballast to resist the movement of the sleepers in the ballast.
Steel trough sleepers are the best for this purpose. Increase in the number of sleepers
will also help in the prevention of creep.
3.2 Sleepers:
3.2.1 Definition, function & requirements of sleepers
Definition:
Sleepers are the members generally laid transverse to the rails on which the rails
are supported and fixed, to transfer the loads from rails to the ballast and subgrade below.
Functions of Sleepers:
Sleepers perform the following functions:-
(a) To hold the rails to correct gauge.
(b) To hold the rails in proper level or transverse tilt i.e, level in turnouts, cross-overs,
etc., and at 1 in 20 tilt in straight tracks, so as to provide a firm and even support to
rails.

22
 (c) To act an elastic medium in between the ballast and rails to absorb the blows and
vibrations of moving loads.
(d) To distribute the load from the rails to the index area of ballast underlying it or to the
girders in case of bridges.
(e) To support the rails at a proper level in straight tracks and at proper super elevation on
curves.
(f) Sleepers also add to the longitudinal and lateral stability of the permanent track on the
whole.
(g) They also provide means to rectify track geometry during service life.
Requirements of Sleepers:
An ideal sleeper should possess the following characteristics:-
(a) The sleepers to be used should be economical, i.e., they should have minimum
possible initial and maintenance costs.
(b) The fittings of the sleepers should be such that they can be easily adjusted during
maintenance operations such as easy lifting, packing, removal and replacement.
(c) The weight of sleepers should not be too heavy or excessively light, i.e., they should
have moderate weight, for ease of handling.
(d) The design of sleepers should be such that the gauge, alignment of track and levels of
the rails can be easily adjusted and maintained.
(e) The bearing area of sleepers below the rail seat and over the ballast should be enough
to resist the crushing due to rail seat and crushing of the ballast underneath the
sleeper.
(f) The sleeper design and spacing should be such as to facilitate easy removal and
replacement of ballast.
(g) The sleepers should be capable of resisting shocks and vibrations due to passage of
heavy loads of high-speed trains.
(h) The design of the sleepers should be such that they are not damaged during packing
processes.
(i) The insulation of rails should be possible for track circuiting, if required, through
sleepers.
(j) The design of sleepers should be such that they are not pushed out easily due to
moving trains especially with steel sleepers with rounded ends.
(k) An ideal sleeper should also have an anti-sabotage and anti-theft qualities.

3.2.2 Classification of sleepers:

Sleepers can be classified according to the materials used in their construction:
1. Wooden sleepers
2. Metal sleepers: (i) Cast iron sleepers (ii) Steel sleepers
3. Concrete sleepers: (i) Reinforced concrete sleepers (ii) Prestressed concrete sleepers

3.2.3 Advantages & disadvantages of different types of sleepers:

1.Wooden/Timber sleepers:

23
 Wooden sleepers are regarded to be best as they fulfil almost all the requirements of
an ideal sleeper. The life of timber sleepers depends upon their ability to resist (i) Wear, (ii)
Decay, (iii) Attack by vermin, i.e., white ants and (iv) Quality of the timber used.
Advantages:
(a) Timber is easily available in all parts of India.
(b) Fittings of wooden sleepers are few and simple in design.
(c) These sleepers are able to resist the shocks and vibrations due to heavy moving loads
and also give less noisy track.
(d) Wooden sleepers are easy to lay, relay, pack, lift and maintain.
(e) These wooden sleepers are suitable for all types of ballast.
(f) They are best for track-circuited operations and moreover, wooden sleepers are over-
all economical.
Disadvantages:
(a) The sleepers are subjected to wear, decay, attack by white ants, spike killing, warping,
cracking, end splitting, rail cutting, etc.
(b) It is difficult to maintain the gauge in case of wooden sleepers.
(c) Track is easily disturbed, i.e., alignment maintenance is difficult.
(d) Wooden sleepers have got minimum service life as compared to other types of
sleepers.
(e) Maintenance cost of wooden sleepers is highest as compared to other sleepers.
2.Metal sleepers:
Due to the growing of wooden sleepers, their high cost and short life, metal sleepers
are now being widely adopted in India. Metal sleepers are either of steel or cast iron. Cast
iron is in greater use than steel for sleepers because it is less prone to corrosion.
Advantages:
(a) Metal sleepers are uniform in strength and durability.
(b) In metal sleepers, the performance of fittings is better and hence lesser creep occurs.
(c) Metal sleepers are economical, as life is longer and maintenance is easier.
(d) Gauge can be easily adjusted and maintained in case of metal sleepers.
(e) For metal sleepers, frequent renewal is not required.
(f) They have good scrap value, easy in manufacturing and not susceptible to fire-
hazards.
Disadvantages:
(a) More ballast required are greater in number, and difficult to maintain and inspection.
(b) Metals, C.I., or steel, are liable to rusting/corrosion.
(c) Metal being good conductor of electricity interferes with track circuiting.
(d) Metal sleepers are unsuitable for bridges, level crossings and in case of points and
crossings.
(e) These sleepers are only suitable for stone ballast and for rails for which they are
manufactured.

24
Cast iron sleepers have been extensively used in India and on a small scale in South America.
They are of following types:- (1) Pot or Bowl sleepers (2) Plate sleepers (3) Box sleepers (4)
C.S.T-9 sleepers (5) Rail free Duplex sleeper.
The various types of steel sleepers used in India are:- (1) Key type (2) Clip-bolt type (3)
Saddle or spring type
3.Concrete Sleepers:
These sleepers were added due to chronic shortage of wooden sleepers and need for
better design and economy of sleepers on suitable basis. These sleepers are mainly of two
types:-
(a) Reinforced concrete sleepers
(b) Pre-stressed concrete sleepers
Advantages:
(a) These sleepers are free from natural decay and attacks by vermin, insects, etc.
(b) They have maximum life when compared to other sleepers, the life under normal
conditions is 40-60 years as compared to 15-20 years for wooden sleepers.
(c) This is not affected by moisture, chemical action of ballast, cinder and sub-soil salt.
(d) There is difficulty in the track-circuiting, required for electrifying the track.
(e) The high weight of sleepers helps in minimizing joint maintenance by providing
longer welded lengths, greater stability of the track and better resistance against
temperature variation.
(f) The sleepers have higher elastic modulus and hence can withstand the stresses
induced by fast and heavy traffic.
(g) Concrete sleepers in the elastic fastenings offers an ideal track in respect of gauge,
cross-level and alignment.
Disadvantages:
(a) The weight of concrete sleeper is as high as 2.5 to 3 times of wooden sleeper,
requiring the mechanical appliances for handling.
(b) These sleepers require pads and plugs for spikes.
(c) They damage the bottom edge during the packing.
(d) The scrap value is almost nil.
(e) The damages to the concrete sleepers is very heavy in case of derailment.

3.3 Ballast:
Ballast is the granular material usually broken stone or brick, shingle or kankar, gravel or
sand placed and packed below and around the sleepers to transmit load from sleepers, to
formation and at the same time allowing drainage of the track. It provides a suitable
foundation for the sleepers and also hold the sleepers in their correct level and position,
preventing their displacement by lateral or longitudinal thrusts.

3.3.1 Functions & requirements of ballast:

Functions of Ballast:

25
 Ballast perform the following functions:
(i) It transfers the load from the sleeper to the subgrade and then distributes it uniformly
over a larger area of the formation.
(ii) It holds the sleepers in position and prevents the lateral and longitudinal movement,
due to dynamic loads and vibrations of moving trains.
(iii) It imparts some degree of elasticity to the track.
(iv) It provides easy means of maintaining the correct levels of the two lines of a track
and for correcting track alignment.
(v) It providesgood drained foundation immediately below the sleepers and helps to
protect the top surface of the formation. This is achieved by providing coarse and
rough aggregates with plenty of voids.
Requirements of ballast:
(a) It should be able to withstand hard-packing without disintegrating.
(b) It should not make the track dusty or muddy due to powder under dynamic wheel
loads but should be capable of cleaned to provide good drainage.
(c) It should allow for easy drainage with minimum soakage and the voids should be
large enough to prevent capillary action.
(d) It should offer resistance to abrasion and weathering. Abrasion means wear due to
rubbing action of particles with each other and weathering means cracking and
shattering of the material due to variation in temperature, moisture and feezing.
(e) It should retain in position laterally and longitudinally under all conditions of traffic,
particularly on curves, where it should be able to prevent transverse displacement of
sleepers.
(f) It should not produce any chemical action with rail and metal sleepers.
(g) The size of stone ballast should be 5 cm for wooden sleepers, 4 cm for metal sleepers
and 2.5 cm for turnouts and crossovers.
(h) The materials should be easily workable by means of the implements in use.
(i) The ballast should be available in nearby quarries so that it reduces the cost of supply.
It should also fulfil the requirements of quality, amount of traffic, life and
maintenance cost.

3.3.2 Materials for Ballast:

The different matrerials used as ballast in India are broken stone, gravel, sand,
soft aggregates like moorum, kanker, overburnt and broken brickbats, blast furnace slag and
sometimes selected earth.
1. Broken stone: This is the best material for the ballast and almost all important
tracks are provided with stone ballast. Broken stone satisfies all the specifications and
requirements of good ballast. The best stone for ballast is a nonporous, hard and
angular, which does not flake when broken. For stability graded broken stone ballast
is better than ungraded one. Graded stone of 5.08 cm to 1.9 cm size is found to
provide the maximum stability, where as workability is better with smaller size
ballast.

26
 2. Gravel: Gravel comes next in the rank for its suitability for use as ballast and used
in large quantities in many countries. This is obtained either from river beds or from
gravel pits.
3. Ashes or cinders: This material is available in large quantities on railways from
coal being used in locomotives. It has excellent drainage properties as it is very
porous. It is cheap and largely used in sidings but cannot be used for main lines as it is
very soft and gets reduced to powder under wheel loads and makes the track very
dusty. The great drawback of ashes is its corrosive quality and therefore it corrodes
steel sleepers and foot of the rails.
4. Sand: It is reasonably good material as ballast as it is cheap and provides good
drainage. The great drawback of the sand is its blowing effect due to vibration. Sand
ballast is sometimes covered with a layer of stone or brick or some such material to
prevent it from blowing about too much. The coarse sand is preferred to fine sand.
The best sand consists of a good quantity of fine gravel and sand which is used on
narrow gauge tracks.
5. Moorum: It is the soft aggregate and is the result of decomposition of laterite and
has a red or sometimes a yellow colour. The best moorum for ballast is that which
contains large quantities of small laterite stone. It is recommended as a ballast for
sidings and main tracks when they are newly laid and the embankments are not
sufficiently consolidated.
6. Kanker: It is lime agglomerate which is common in certain clayey soils and is dug
out of the ground. Where stone is not available, it is used as road metal and as ballast
for railway tracks. It is soft in nature and reduces to powder under loads. It is used for
M.G and N.G tracks with light traffic and where a better type of the ballast is not
available.
7. Brick ballast: Where no stone or substitute is available for use as ballast, over
burnt bricks are broken into small sizes and used. It powders easily and produces a
dusty track. Rails of tracks laid on brick ballast many a time get corrugated. Brick
ballast is good for drainage.
8. Blast Furnace slag: It is a by-product in the manufacture of pig iron and is suitable
for ballast material. Slag suitable for use as ballast is obtained by pouring molten slag
collected at the blast furnace into shallow pits of thin layers, allowing it to cool, and
then by digging, crushing and screening.
9. Selected earth: For sidings, earth, if of suitable quality is sometimes used as ballast.
It is also sometimes used on new formation as a temporary measure. Hardened clay
and decomposed rock are suitable materials.

3.4 Fixtures for Broad gauge:

All those fittings which are required for connecting the rails end to end and for fixing
the rails to the sleepers in a track are known as fixtures and fastenings.

The different functions of these fittings are:-

(a) To keep the rails in the proper positions.
(b) Connection of rail to rail.
(c) To set points and crossings properly.
(d) To allow for expansion and contraction of rails.

27
They includes:-
1. Fish plates
2. Spikes
3. Bolts
4. Chairs
5. Keys
6. Blocks
7. Bearing plates

The various types of fixtures and fastenings listed above are briefly described below:-

1. Fish plates: These plates are used to maintain proper alignment of the rail line. They
maintain the continuity of the rails and also allow expansion or contraction of rails
caused due to temperature variations. Generally these plates are made up of mild steel
and 20 mm in thick. They are 45.6 cm long and provided with 4 nos. of 32 mm
diameter holes.
2. Spikes: They are used to hold the rails to the wooden sleeper. A good spikes should
have following qualities:- (a) It should have sufficient strength to hold the rail in
position. (b) It should help in maintaining proper gauge. (c) It should be easy to fix
and replace from the sleepers. Indian railways uses different types of spikes such as
dog spikes, screw spikes, round spikes, standard spikes and Elastic spikes.
3. Bolts: They are used for connecting (a) Fish plates to the rails at each rail joint. (b)
bearing plates to timber sleepers. (c) Sleepers to bridge girders. etc. Different types of
bolt used in Indian railways are Hook bolts, Fish bolts, Fang bolts, Rag bolts.
4. Chairs: They are used to hold the double headed and bull headed rails in required
position. They are made of cast iron having two jaws and a rail sheet. In order to fix
the double headed or bull headed rail to a chair, the rail is placed between the two
jaws of the chair.
5. Keys: They are small tapered pieces of timber or steel to connect rails to chairs on
metal sleepers.
6. Blocks: They are inserted in between the two rails running close to each other and
bolted to maintain the required distance.
7. Bearing plates: They are placed in between the flat footed rails and timber sleepers
on a track. They are made up of cast iron or steel.

28
CHAPTER 04

Geometric for broad gauge

Topics to be covered in this chapter..

4.1Typical cross – sections of single & double broad gauge railway track in cutting and embankment
4.2 Permanent & temporary land width
4.3 Gradients for drainage
4.4 Super elevation – necessity & limiting valued

4.1Typical cross:

-: Single line Broad Gauge track:-

-:Double line Broad Gauge Track:-

SI No Particulars B.G Slope

01 Embankment 1. Single line 6100mm 2:1
width of bank 2. Double line 10210mm
02 Width of cutting 1. Single line 5490mm 1.5:1
excluding side 2. Double line 10000mm
drains

29
Terms:
1. Subgrade : Subgrade is the naturally occurring soil, which is prepared to receive the ballast,
sleepers and rails for constructing the railway track. This prepared surface is also called
formation. Formation could be in embankment, level or cutting, depending upon the ground
conditions.
2. Embankment: It is the raised bank of earth or other materials constructed above the natural
ground. It is constructed when railways have to be carried in low grounds or valleys.
3. Cutting: The raised ground or hill is cut or excavated for providing the line at the required
level below ground level.
4. Level: It is prepared surface which receives ballast without raising or lowering level of the
ground.
5. Formation: The prepared surface which is ready to receive ballast is called dformation. The
stability of the track depends upon the quality of the formation under it.
4.2 Permanent & temporary land :
Permanent land:

Permanent land is land which will be required permanently after the railway is open for
traffic and the work of construction is complete. Under this head will be included all land to be
occupied by the formation of the permanent line of railway with side slopes of banks and cuttings,
and the berms connected therewith; catch water drains and borrow pits or such parts of them as it is
necessary to retain; the entrances to tunnels and shafts belonging to them; the sites of bridges, and
protection or training works; station yards; landing places for railway ferries; ground to be occupied
by works belonging to the railway such as gas works, arrangements for water supply, septic tanks,
collecting pits, filter beds and pumping installations, & c., ground for the storage manufacture or
acquisition of materials; land for sanitary zones, cemeteries, churches, plantations; gardens, and
recreation grounds, sites for stations, offices, workshops; dwelling houses and other buildings
required for the purposes of the railway, or the accommodation of the staff, with the grounds, yards,
roads, & c., appertaining thereto. Under this head will also be included land outside the permanent
railway boundary, which will be required for the permanent diversion of roads or rivers, or for other
works incidental to the construction of the railway, which are made for public purposes and will not
on completion of the works be maintained by the railway authorities.

Temporary land:

Temporary land is land which is acquired for temporary purposes only, and which is disposed of after
the work of construction is completed.

4.3 Gradients for drainage :

A gradient is normally represented by the distance travelled for a rise or fall of one unit.
Sometimes the gradient is indicated as per cent rise or fall. For example, if there is a rise of 1 m in 400
m, the gradient is 1 in 400 or 0.25 per cent. Gradients are provided to meet the following objectives:-
a) To reach various stations at different elevations.
b) To follow the natural contours of the ground to the extent possible.
c) To reduce the cost of earthwork.
d) Allow drainage of surface and sub surface water.

The following types of gradients are used on the railways:

(a) Ruling gradient
(b) Pusher or helper gradient

30
(c) Momentum gradient
(d) Gradients in station yards

Ruling Gradient :

The ruling gradient is the steepest gradient that exists in a section. It determines the maximum load
that can be hauled by a locomotive on that section. While deciding the ruling gradient of a section, it
is not only the severity of the gradient, but also its length as well as its position with respect to the
gradients on both sides that have to be taken into consideration. The power of the locomotive to be put
into service on the track also plays an important role in taking this decision, as the locomotive should
have adequate power to haul the entire load over the ruling gradient at the maximum permissible
speed. In plain terrain: 1 in 150 to 1 in 250 In hilly terrain: 1 in 100 to 1 in 150 Once a ruling gradient
has been specified for a section, all other gradients provided in that section should be flatter than the
ruling gradient after making due compensation for curvature

Pusher or Helper Gradient:

In hilly areas, the rate of rise of the terrain becomes very important when trying to reduce the length
of the railway line and, therefore, sometimes, gradients steeper than the ruling gradient are provided
to reduce the overall cost. In such situations, one locomotive is not adequate to pull the entire load,
and an extra locomotive is required. When the gradient of the ensuing section is so steep as to
necessitate the use of an extra engine for pushing the train, it is known as a pusher or helper gradient.
Examples of pusher gradients are the Budni-Barkhera section of Central Railway and the Darjeeling
Himalayan Railway section.

Momentum Gradient:

The momentum gradient is also steeper than the ruling gradient and can be overcome by a train
because of the momentum it gathers while running on the section. In valleys, a falling gradient is
sometimes followed by a rising gradient. In such a situation, a train coming down a falling gradient
acquires good speed and momentum, which gives additional kinetic energy to the train and allows it
to negotiate gradients steeper than the ruling gradient. In sections with momentum gradients there are
no obstacles provided in the form of signals, etc., which may bring the train to a critical juncture.

Gradients in Station Yards:

The gradients in station yards are quite flat due to the following reasons: (a) It prevents standing
vehicles from rolling and moving away from the yard due to the combined effect of gravity and strong
winds. (b) It reduces the additional resistive forces required to start a locomotive to the extent
possible. It may be mentioned here that generally, yards are not levelled completely and certain flat
gradients are provided in order to ensure good drainage. The maximum gradient prescribed in station
yards on Indian Railways is 1 in 400, while the recommended gradient is 1 in 1000.

A good track drainage system should essentially ensure that no water percolates into the track at either
the surface or the sub-surface levels, and the arrangements for the drainage of sub-surface water
should be good and effective. Track drainage should be handled in two distinctive phases.
1. Surface drainage Surface water due to rain or snow, or from adjacent areas should be drained
off properly by designing well-planned and effective surface drains.
2. Sub-surface drainage In case water percolates into the formation due to bad soil or such other
reasons, the formation gets adversely affected and this has a bearing on the safety and
stability of the track.

31
4.4 Super elevation – necessity & limiting valued :
Superelevation or cant (Ca) :
It is the difference in height between the outer and the inner rail on a curve. It is provided by gradually
raising the outer rail above the level of the inner rail. The main functions of superelevation are the
following:
a. To ensure a better distribution of load on both rails.
b. To reduce the wear and tear of the rails and rolling stock.
c. To neutralize the effect of lateral forces.
d. To provide comfort to passengers.
Equilibrium speed :
When the speed of a vehicle negotiating a curved track is such that the resultant force of the weight of
the vehicle and of radial acceleration is perpendicular to the plane of the rails, the vehicle is not
subjected to any unbalanced radial acceleration and is said to be in equilibrium. This particular speed
is called the equilibrium speed.
Maximum permissible speed :
This is the highest speed permitted to a train on a curve taking into consideration the radius of
curvature, actual cant, cant deficiency, cant excess, and the length of transition. On curves where the
maximum permissible speed is less than the maximum sectional speed of the section of the line,
permanent speed restriction becomes necessary.
Cant deficiency (Cd):
It occurs when a train travels around a curve at a speed higher than the equilibrium speed. It is the
difference between the theoretical cant required for such high speeds and the actual cant provided.
Cant excess (Ce):
It occurs when a train travels around a curve at a speed lower than the equilibrium speed. It is the
difference between the actual cant provided and the theoretical cant required for such a low speed.
Centrifugal force on a curved track :
A vehicle has a tendency to travel in a straight direction, which is tangential to the curve, even when it
moves on a circular curve. As a result, the vehicle is subjected to a constant radial acceleration.
Radial acceleration = a = V2/R
where V is the velocity (metres per second) and R is the radius of curve (metres).
This radial acceleration produces a centrifugal force which acts in a radial direction away from the
centre.
The value of the centrifugal force is given by the formula:
Force = mass * acceleration, F = m x (V2/R) = (W/g)x (V2/R)
where F is the centrifugal force (Kilo newton), W is the weight of the vehicle (tonnes), V is the speed
(m/s), g is the acceleration due to gravity (m/s2), and R is the radius of the curve in metres.
To counteract the effect of the centrifugal force, the outer rail of the curve is elevated with respect to
the inner rail by an amount equal to the superelevation. A state of equilibrium is reached when both
the wheels exert equal pressure on the rails and the superelevation is enough to bring the resultant of

32
the centrifugal force and the force exerted by the weight of the vehicle at right angles to the plane of
the top surface of the rails. In this state of equilibrium, the difference in the heights of the outer and
inner rails of the curve is known as equilibrium superelevation.

Equilibrium Superelevation:
If θ is the angle that the inclined plane makes with the horizontal line and e is the
Superelevation than,
tan θ = Superelevation / Gauge = e/ G
Again, tan θ = Centrifugal force/weight = F/W
From these equations
=> e/ G = F/W
=> e = F x G/W
=> e = W/g x V2/R x G/W = GV2 / gR
Here, e is the equilibrium superelevation in meter, G is the gauge, V is the velocity m/s, g is the
acceleration due to gravity, and R is the radius of the curve in meter.
=>e =GV2/127 R
Where e is in meter, velocity in kmph, G is in meter and R in meter.

33
Maximum value of superelevation :
The maximum value of superelevation has been laid down based on experiments carried out in Europe
on a standard gauge for the overturning velocity, taking into consideration the track maintenance
standards. The maximum value of superelevation generally adopted on on many railways around the
world is one-tenth to one-twelfth of the gauge.

Gauge Group Limiting value of cant (mm)

Under normal conditions With special permission
BG A 165 185
BG B and C 165 -
BG D and E 140 -
MG All routes 90 100
NG - 65 75

34
Chapter-05

Points and Crossings

Topics to be covered n this chapter….
5.1 Definition, necessity of Points and crossings
5.2 Types of points & crossings with tie diagrams

5.1 Definition, necessity of Points and crossings:

Definition:
Points and crossings are provided to help transfer railway vehicles from one track to
another. The tracks may be parallel to, diverging from, or converging with each other. Points
and crossings are necessary because the wheels of railway vehicles are provided with inside
flanges and, therefore, they require this special arrangement in order to navigate their way on
the rails. The points or switches aid in diverting the vehicles and the crossings provide gaps
in the rails so as to help the flanged wheels to roll over them. A complete set of points and
crossings, along with lead rails, is called a turnout.

Important Terms:
Turnout:
It is an arrangement of points and crossings with lead rails by means of which the
rolling stock may be diverted from one track to another.

35
Direction of a turnout:
A turnout is designated as a right-hand or a left-hand turnout depending on whether it
diverts the traffic to the right or to the left. The direction of a point (or turnout) is known as
the facing direction if a vehicle approaching the turnout or a point has to first face the thin
end of the switch. The direction is trailing direction if the vehicle has to negotiate a switch in
the trailing direction i.e., the vehicle first negotiates the crossing and then finally traverses on
the switch from its thick end to its thin end. Therefore, when standing at the toe of a switch, if
one looks in the direction of the crossing, it is called the facing direction and the opposite
direction is called the trailing direction.
Tongue rail:
It is a tapered movable rail, made of high-carbon or -manganese steel to withstand wear.
At its thicker end, it is attached to a running rail. A tongue rail is also called a switch rail.
Stock rail:
It is the running rail against which a tongue rail operates.
Points or switch:
A pair of tongue and stock rails with the necessary connections and fittings forms a
switch.
Crossing:
A crossing is a device introduced at the junction where two rails cross each other to
permit the wheel flange of a railway vehicle to pass from one track to another.
Necessity of Points and Crossings:
a. Points and crossing are provided to help divert railway vehicles from one track to
another.
b. Giving precedence to the faster vehicles in the same direction, giving passage to a
train moving in the opposite direction.
c. To diverge or converge the tracks.

5.2 Types of points & crossings with tie diagrams:

Points or Switches: A switch consists of a stock rail and a tongue rail. A set of switches or
points consists of a left-hand switch and a right-hand switch. Switches are tapered rails with
the thicker end known as the heel fixed to the main track and thinner end known as the toe
moveable by means of which the flanged wheels of the train are diverted from one route to
another.
A set of points or switches consists of the following main constituents:-
a. A pair of stock rails, AB and CD, made of medium-manganese steel.

36
b. A pair of tongue rails, PQ and RS, also known as switch rails, made of medium-
manganese steel to withstand wear. The tongue rails are machined to a very thin
section to obtain a snug fit with the stock rail. The tapered end of the tongue rail is
called the toe and the thicker end is called the heel.
c. A pair of heel blocks which hold the heel of the tongue rails is held at the standard
clearance or distance from the stock rails.
d. A number of slide chairs to support the tongue rail and enable its movement towards
or away from the stock rail.
e. Two or more stretcher bars connecting both the tongue rails close to the toe, for the
purpose of holding them at a fixed distance from each other.
f. A gauge tie plate to fix gauges and ensure correct gauge at the points.

Important Terms Pertaining to Switches or points:

Switch angle: This is the angle between the gauge face of the stock rail and that of the
tongue rail at the theoretical toe of the switch in its closed position. It is a function of the
heel divergence and the length of the tongue rail.
Flangeway clearance: This is the distance between the adjoining faces of the running rail
and the check rail/wing rail at the nose of the crossing. It is meant for providing a free
passage to wheel flanges. The minimum and maximum values of flangeway clearance for
BG and MG tracks.

37
 Heel divergence: This is the distance between the gauge faces of the stock rail and the
tongue rail at the heel of the switch. It is made up of the flangeway clearance and the
width of the tongue rail head that lies at the heel.
Throw of the switch: This is the distance through which the tongue rail moves laterally at
the toe of the switch to allow movement of the trains. Its limiting values are 95-115 mm
for BG routes and 89-100 mm for MG routes.
Flangeway width: It is the vertical distance between the top surfaces of the running rail to
the top surface of heel block used between the stock rail and the check rail.
Types of Switches:
Switches are of two type:-
A. Stub switch: In a stud type of switch, no separate tongue rail is provided and
some portion of the track is moved from one side to the other side. Stud switches
are no more in use on Indian Railways. They have been replaced by split switches.
B. Split switch: These consist of a pair of stock rails and a pair of tongue rails. Split
switches may again be of two types-loose heel type and fixed heel type based on
fixation at heel. Again on the basis Toe of switches split switches are:-
1. Under cut switches
2. Overriding switches
3. Straight cut switches

Loose heel type switches:

In this type of split switch, the switch or tongue rail finishes at the heel of the switch to
enable movement of the free end of the tongue rail. The fish plates holding the tongue rail
may be straight or slightly bent. The tongue rail is fastened to the stock rail with the help of a
fishing fit block and four bolts. All the fish bolts in the lead rail are tightened while those in
the tongue rail are kept loose or snug to allow free movement of the tongue. As the
discontinuity of the track at the heel is a weakness in the structure, the use of these switches
is not preferred.
Fixed heel type switches:
In this type of split switch, the tongue rail does not end at the heel of the switch but extends
further and is rigidly connected. The movement at the toe of the switch is made possible on
account of the flexibility of the tongue rail.
Under cut switch: In this case the height of stock rail and tongue rail is same, it is desirable
to cut out a portion of flange at the foot of the stock rail so that the toe of the tongue rail is
accommodated under the head of the stock rail. Such types of switches are called under cut
switches.

38
Over riding switch:
In this case, the stock rail occupies the full section and the tongue rail is planed to a 6-mm
(0.25") -thick edge, which overrides the foot of the stock rail. The switch rail is kept 6 mm
(0.25") higher than the stock rail from the heel to the point towards the toe where the
planning starts. This is done to eliminate the possibility of splitting caused by any false flange
moving in the trailing direction. Overriding switches have been standardized on the Indian
Railways. This design is considered to be an economical and superior design due to the
reasons given below.
a. Since the stock rail is uncut, it is much stronger.
b. Manufacturing work is confined only to the tongue rail, which is very economical.
c. Although the tongue rail has a thin edge of only 6 mm (0.25"), it is supported by the
stock rail for the entire weakened portion of its length. As such, the combined strength
of the rails between the sleepers is greater than that of the tongue rail alone in the
undercut switch.

Straight cut switches: In this type the tongue rail is cut straight in the line with the stock rail
and hence termed as straight cut switches. This is done to increase the thickness of toe of

39
tongue rail, which as a result, increase the strength. This type of switch is suitable for B.H
rails.

Crossing:
A crossing or frog is a device introduced at the point where two gauge faces cross each
other to permit the flanges of a railway vehicle to pass from one track to another. To achieve
this objective, a gap is provided from the throw to the nose of the crossing, over which the
flanged wheel glides or jumps. In order to ensure that this flanged wheel negotiates the gap
properly and does not strike the nose, the other wheel is guided with the help of check rails. A
crossing consists of the following components:-

40
 a. Two rails, the point rail and splice rail, which are machined to form a nose. The point
rail ends at the nose, whereas the splice rail joins it a little behind the nose.
Theoretically, the point’s rail should end in a point and be made as thin as possible,
but such a knife edge of the point rail would break off under the movement of traffic.
The point rail, therefore, has its fine end slightly cut off to form a blunt nose, with a
thickness of 6 mm (1/4"). The toe of the blunt nose is called the actual nose of
crossing (ANC) and the theoretical point where gauge faces from both sides intersect
is called the theoretical nose of crossing (TNC). The 'V' rail is planed to a depth of 6
mm (1/4") at the nose and runs out in 89 mm to stop a wheel running in the facing
direction from hitting the nose.
b. Two wing rails consisting of a right-hand and a left-hand wing rail that converge to
form a throat and diverge again on either side of the nose. Wing rails are flared at the
ends to facilitate the entry and exit of the flanged wheel in the gap.
c. A pair of check rails to guide the wheel flanges and provide a path for them, thereby
preventing them from moving sideways, which would otherwise may result in the
wheel hitting the nose of the crossing as it moves in the facing direction.

Types of Crossings:
Crossings can be classified as:-

41
 A. On the basis of shape of crossing.
1. Acute angle crossing or V crossing
2. Obtuse angle crossing or Diamond crossing.
3. Square Crossing.

B. On the basis of Assembly of crossing.

1. Spring or movable wing crossing
2. Ramped crossing.

Acute angle crossing or V crossing:

An acute angle crossing or 'V' crossing is one in which the intersection of the two gauge
faces forms an acute angle. For example, when a right rail crosses a left rail, it makes an
acute crossing.

Obtuse angle crossing or Diamond crossing:

An obtuse or diamond crossing is one in which the two gauge faces meet at an obtuse
angle. When a right or left rail crosses a similar rail at an obtuse angle, it makes an obtuse
crossing.

Square Crossing:
When two straight tracks cross each other at right angles, they formed square crossing. This
type of crossing must be avoided on main lines because there is heavy wear due to dynamic
loads.

42
Spring or movable wing crossing:
In a spring crossing, one wing rail is movable and is held against the V of the crossing
with a strong helical spring while the other wing rail is fixed. When a vehicle passes on the
main track, the movable wing rail is snug with the crossing and the vehicle does not need to
negotiate any gap at the crossing. In case the vehicle has to pass over a turnout track, the
movable wing is forced out by the wheel flanges and the vehicle has to negotiate a gap as in a
normal turnout. This type of crossing is useful when there is high-speed traffic on the main
track and slow-speed traffic on the turnout track.

Ramped crossing:
In case of complicated yard layout with heavy but slow speed traffic, the throat to nose
clearance is negotiated by use of special manganese steel blocks over long distance. The
wheel flanges roll over this distance extending from a little beyond the throat to little beyond
the nose. The top level of these special blocks is so arranged that the thread of wheel is taken
off the table by the wheel flange riding the blocks. So the entire wheel load comes on the
flange and this type of crossing may be used with safety for slow speeds.
Terms in connection with Crossings:

43
Theoretical and actual nose of crossing (T.N.C and A.N.C):
The toe of the blunt nose is called the actual nose of crossing (ANC) and the theoretical
point where gauge faces from both sides intersect is called the theoretical nose of crossing
(T.N.C). The difference between T.N.C and A.N.C is given by:-
T.N.C – A.N.C = N × t
Where N = Number of crossings t = Thickness of the nose crossing.
Number and Angle of Crossing:
A crossing is designated either by the angle the gauge faces make with each other or,
more commonly, by the number of the crossing, represented by N.
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
N= 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇.𝑁.𝐶

There are three methods of measuring the number of a crossing, and the value of N also
depends upon the method adopted.
1. Right angle method:

This method is used on Indian Railways. In this method, N is measured along the base of
a right-angled triangle. This method is also called Coles method.

2. Centre line method:

This method is used in Britain and the USA. In this method, N is measured along the
centre line of the crossing.

44
3. Isosceles triangle method:
In this method, N is taken as one of the equal sides of an isosceles triangle.

The right angle method used by Indian Railways, in which N is the cotangent of the angle
formed by two gauge faces, gives the smallest angle for the same value of N.

45
Chapter-06

Laying & Maintenance of Track

Topics to be covered in this chapter…
6.1 Methods of Laying & maintenance of track
6.2 Duties of a permanent way inspector

6.1 Methods of Laying & maintenance of track:

The operation of laying out and connecting sleepers and connecting rail and sleepers is
known as Plate laying. The point of commencement of the new track to be laid is the existing rail
head. In new track sleepers are laid directly over the formation, after compaction the track is then
lifted and ballast is packed around the sleeper.

There are three distinct methods of Plate laying in railway track. These are:-

1. Telescopic Method
2. Tramline/ Side Method
3. Mechanical/American Method

1. Telescopic Method of Construction of Railway Track:

This method is used very widely in India. A large central depot is constructed near the
junction of the existing railway or highway and the proposed railway line. The manual force is
divided in to (i) Material gang (ii) Linking-in-gangs (iii) Packing-in-gangs.

i. Material gangs: These gangs unload the materials from the trains. They carry the materials
to the rail head and supply them to the linking-in-gangs. These gangs distribute sleepers,
rails, fishplates, bolts etc. to the required places.
ii. Linking-in-gangs: These gangs mark the centre line of the proposed track and place the
sleepers at required place. Rails are placed on the sleepers. Successive rails are joined
together by fishplates, bolts with expansion joints. After joining the rails are fixed to the
sleepers.
iii. Packing-in-gangs: These gangs correct the rails to the required level and gradients by
packing earth or ballast below and around the sleepers.

2. Tramline Method Railway Track Construction:

This method is used where tram carrier are installed for carrying earthwork or in rainy
season due to difficulty in movement of cart.. The basic difference between this and telescopic
method lies in the conveyance and spreading of the sleepers. The track can be assembled at more
than one point simultaneously, which is the great advantage of this method. Sometimes an
additional track is laid on the side of existing track for which this method is best.

3. Mechanical Method Railway Track Construction:

This method involves all mechanical work. This method consists of fixing rails to the sleepers
and lifting the whole unit by heavy cranes. First one is linked with the rail head, then the train moves

46
ahead by one rail length and the same procedure is repeated. This method is un-economical one and
is not used in India.

Plasser Quick Relaying System (PQRS method): This is a mechanical method of laying railway track
in Indian Railways. This method is used for relaying existing track under traffic condition without
interrupting the flow of traffic. Following equipments are used for PQRS method of plate laying.

a. Sleeper layer
b. 5 tonne portal crane
c. Track jacks
d. Hand gantries
e. Engine
f. B.F.R (open wagon for carrying long rails)
g. B.F.R for carrying sleep
h. B.F.R for old materials

An auxiliary track is laid with a gauge length of 3.4m. This is to carry the required equipments and
materials for laying new work. The auxiliary track is laid over wooden blocks on cast iron posts at
two metres interval. The level of auxiliary track is laid with the same level of track. The portal crane
moves on the auxiliary track and it is used to lift and carry the rail panels. Sleeper’s layers is a
machine which is used for laying sleepers with required spacing and alignment. The jacks are used
to support the track laying at uniform level. Hand gantries are used for moving the rails in
longitudinal direction at lifted position.

Maintenance of Track:

Necessity of Maintenance of track:

a) Increases the life of track.

b) Provides comfortable ride to the passenger.
c) Provides safety to goods.
d) Increase the life of rolling stock.

47
 e) Operating cost is reduced.
f) Safety to passengers.

Maintenance of railway track consists of:-

(i) Daily maintenance.

(ii) Periodic Maintenance.

(i) Daily maintenance:

a) For daily maintenance the track is divided into sections of 5 to 8 kms lengths.
b) Each section is look after by a gangs.
c) The daily maintenance consists of:- General inspection of the track, Checking up of all
fastenings and fittings, Tightening of bolts wherever required, Reporting by unusual
occurrence.

(ii) Periodic Maintenance: The periodic maintenance consists of detailed inspection of the track to
detect defects in the track which may not be detected during daily maintenance. The various aspects
of periodic maintenance are:-

a) Maintenance of track alignment

b) Maintenance of track drainage
c) Maintenance of track components
d) Maintenance of level crossing

Maintenance of track materials:

a) The top surface of the rails should be kept at the same level
b) Ballast under sleepers should be regularly packed
c) Defective sleepers should be replaced immediately
d) Worn-out rails should be replaced
e) Kink or fracture rails should be replaced
f) Fastening should be tightened and oiled
g) Gauge should be checked and corrected
h) Ensure that both the rails are at same level
i) Maintain track drainage properly
j) Oiling and greasing of fishplates regularly
k) Flanges and check rails should be kept free from dust

Maintenance of track on Bridges:

a) Proper embankment should be provided near the bridge
b) Avoid scouring near abutments and piers
c) Flood control measures should be taken near the bridges
d) Riveted joints should be inspected periodically
e) Bed blocks should be checked regularly
f) Steel bridges should be painted regularly
g) Bearings of the girders should be oiled regularly
h) Masonry works should be inspected regularly
Maintenance of rolling stock:
a) Lubrication of all reciprocating parts and bearings
b) Worn-out parts should be replaced the rolling stock

48
 c) It is necessary to clean the different parts every day
d) All axles which have run 3,22,000Km should be Replaced
e) A passenger vehicle used for 30years should be dismantled and re-assembled
f) The locomotive boilers have to be carefully maintained and removed every 15 years

6.2 Duties of a permanent way inspector(P.W.I):

The duties of permanent way inspector (P.W.I) can be divided into 3 heads:-

a. Duties in the field work

b. Duties in the office work
c. Miscellaneous duties

Duties in the field work:

1) The P.W.I is personally responsible for maintain the track in a safe condition for passage of
trains.
2) He inspects track of his section at least 2 to 3 times in a week, notes down the defects with
distance and kilometrage from telegraph posts by using different symbols for different
defects and rectifies them to keep track in best condition for continuous service of track.
3) He inspects track by push trolley or by travelling on an engine or brake van.
4) He keeps all the records of programme of work to rectify the defects and make renewals,
progress of maintenance work and relay of track.
5) He imparts instructions to Gang mate, keyman,gateman at level crossing and A.P.W.I.
6) At the time of accidents, he should make the track safe in shortest possible time and should
make enquiries for the cause of accidents.

Duties in the office work:

1) He takes care of the labour and materials, and also maintains the accounts of gangman,
keyman and gang mate as well as of materials.
2) He controls the workshops such as smithy, carpentry, welding, etc.
3) He prepares the estimates of the maintenance work and makes report of works.

Miscellaneous duties:

1) He attends all the monthly meetings of P.W.Is, usually at divisional Engineer’s office.
2) He has to attend the inspection if made by divisional Engineer or Assistant Engineer.
3) He also attends trhe inspection of Government Inspector for Railways with all the relevant
drawings and reports of work.
4) He officiates as Assistant Engineer in his absence as and when required.

49
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Broaly. te avaxae
N ndm
is expeted OcC
oeo . kich
a
SuperyArustura
Ra.

bidge
ghext Floos level(4FL):
a
on
dculated
conish
cordecd o
be tR
Hleoc eer corrmunicafion
povsble eod.
leel highos divided
sbne
-9 Component a Bridge: info
deulated
aofe.7het
horl
hu

hondhail,qundd yones
and Ho*vi
raprofed uuhrad pytk Aueh os
bes. irdès, ar ches and cablex ahova
Jwel bodny onefdes e
auper shruufure
 Ssy uehune is a appoofing m or

Abunents
iexs and 4bufmt piers
hling wals
h e p i e r s and alufmn.
dundaons

oh mai panh abr'da

app'roache8, beaninys nd

rainin woks k ap ltons,

E mt Mopes a akutments eh.

IIIIIIITIIIu SupeX
s/Tueh

Pier
Sub s/zuehure

Foundotion
Elevatvn
Lines alorw

AProach Arrach
uRing wdals.
Prer
tbutmant
;Plan
3 elasytcafion Bidaeb

Bmehes Con be la tied in

Vaious types cpending upor eollowig

OMarials ued w Consfruapon:

Under Ris categoy, bucqes

b choihed a himbe bodhes,meßch

brdes, Aeel ndhes, ked cemt
Condelk bridqe3, pte-resed haicaas and
CDTCO bidge
AUgoment 9
Con becos fed
Orlex ls -}la biJe
ke bidae
Lecaion Bnide ios
Cnd s , coegey i deR con he
Tveu
clouspud o deur VAemi -fKorouh
or

b dael
bedens fed
Undey i s he i d
Con

viaqat, hwa1
kqueclu
ano i dbnidge.
tehure opax struofum Aehon
Und l s bmidhas m h
CRohed
CRomed poal DamR idges.fnas
ie baloneed confleva bnde and
ponyhion h des.

Posihion "#ord larel

Undarts, -Je ies mbe
clowd fobmorsble. Vond
non- SabrmeN a ble ndae
N
L Undhx s e haidpes m he
cdoed o R onert 7emporamy
brides.
()oadinga
Rornibge) and el enlverta hove
en conihed by lndran Reacd Congre
clx AA c A d bvos
atcY dng ndngs he a Jenped

Cad

Fxed oY MoVeabl2.
honigacba Channels w k r
Fov
Pimannt and ient cleo ureruy
Cnnetb
h provided, slenirg movabl

bidaes ae eed

wingin
N
P s cul bmdaes
ni
109pa-znthDn Redundeneg
Ondaxis cuezoy
the bdges Can

be clse deformi'naufe rices

and indeJ»minaf baidae.
N
SpSpay lenyt:
nde s cokor rrdge
spon lesanI
Cen be elowid
mindY bmdes (po 8 b om ro

Man obov. 9om andone ra

brode Csran ahove 190m.).

Coyneo) .

Undx thas eolegeRAtel

bmdes n be c fied Conneste

give oY welded mdnas.

N
 claicoion mdae
Tenporary hmdnes
Porannf igges
Bnde R fntoon

Stcel Masonry R.cBidqes 13on.steel cvlvds Prorne

Conera&
ond Plain C.¢

Slab & Do Arch Pool carklar ck.sfone, R.c-e.

Sla,
Cubmersible re mL
Cou
Fxeh s a
ES fxed pom Open spendreltbdhinge- 3-inges
Tye Typ
T
comye
Girdar Suspenbion Movebl con tlerd
T
Parabelie shoitvhal ascd
forado-
Crirour
Cqirdx n Supersiy Skened S
Tp Ty
plok -hne
Type TyP TSa Type
Rcauive muns an iden Brighet:
An deal bid mees ta tolloeirga

rumens Nul¢:l qke fkre cilbio

anay, tnes a0
with
9t Auvesha iotended unchion
Utmey fety and Convenianee.

94iaesthihealy oun
9 4 sLconomi co
Chaplex-02
rde l Invhqakon, hydrelej
A nd Planring
Togies be covRd iHis
ischaylex,.
Seltion bidse s , Ai'goment
Detrminafion loo drschorg
ond keonem Man.

2. r bord.
AHux, ceaanea on
Ond

N e
econnogsance, Colleshon
Drhiled gDund
adesuahydraulie/ound defa and sbsol
nverhakin Jorno an impoxhn pa
Burrnay
decids

en d yebhe.
fohle
ual zovdned
ovdnea

h
The ilor a
b
ou nd aethehre
inwmna t Reonew

xad Crsidrdns. 9
ondex to 1ti deal
Brid hnaks hav
chovocfisps
O
and hon-exodoble

Sible,
mattrial dndelion hasld be
oraiable of a hor- depth -
ohmens CAnd piers higp. C

unyeelding
pouibl.

n o t o d el
and
bewell dejined

R houl hR

BArem of bidga
hols han rm, purmon ent,

raig ano hyh banks

here puld noconuena ef orge

tibtves in vi ridgr le
x hovld heminimun obyrusfion
Thofarel erwayso aß o hav mimun

9 n oYdax o cuehi tconpn hr

o d he 2a availohilit
hovld
h abour
oouion rdafeal
rans pov
intha riat vicint
ite,
 envromen
e
cen inyuut

yvihaila-houls he. r h hat

heiyt and Moferuso
adeuate ehcal
adeeuale
he an dapafh idge
ovailoba
n
navisionc
odvex
alsbeponbl
sa
and eLonomal app roocke.
tD pwide_ wse

d g A1oment
cpndiq upor _ungle_
Pluamver
.3
oiapmun coan be foro hres
SquerR ARgomnt
mdga is at n

Sk ARn mt:
is - hmdoea at Seme angl
 As
As s poable, i s alua deirable

t
rovide u aalizomnt.
t h
Skeu amnt pupore emh olleusing
dsadvontage
Mil is reuirna
ConBtr uaon k bidaes. Mamferaree

hmdges i olso dieu

h e wale -PrAmure on pfers Co
olipmnt
oment is also Rycenim
becaun 7 non-unitrm w
underneafh R rdar tupesshrupma,

h un daion a
ed bde i
acfon.

Ont h enial defa *or he

bide denin aisoMeM ment
oes
whid iaula b
R moximum oo
peetd t o c y Rridgg fe
dunh de peabd e brdge
 1he In diay ods CoTe hos rtoty
ommen ded o t HV maymum disckorga
hih o i d g on a nera Mrn
houdd be ned to should be
defurmingd b cengidexofion of ltr
tune k ooinn methoo

rorn uinll ond othe ehamaoterishes

eotehmet
empiia rmla app/ed
By u

rohënw mehod, pmfdad

Byana
to evalaote r th
poxhlposible
ed h Vori ou ehovs
con c e r n

,
pmploye metho

6) from hychauku chanaedeishs i fA

from

allonin
aprey allouing
and py
rVelcit
h o cor
ds avouloblo, i
om
digeoR obseed
on 7he sfredm a e

in vicinit
mpvical Metods:
Some temmenly utempical

mhods sad eed sim ofion

9 i ckn' *rmula.
{Ve's orela

Tnalis formul
mula
Caab Jang h a cuv '
C qgY's e rm b

Khen's ormula
bnon's mla.
0Dickn's amta
3t was erlydepted i Nkern
Andta b nod can be used in moyf
hstates to ndra ope Po pey
dokn comft.

8C. M
2- diseharg me
in

M a fhmentk
C = Consfant.
 coufhment axea and
Accevdtra
gainfl. c vaiea on
amen

Vale c

Northuy ndio
Cenfvel Froka
13 77-1 9

wessero ndia 32.0.

y ves mola:
uthern kndia.
hisrma is used ny

C M:
coat.
ufin 29 km pem
Hee, C 6:71 Aven
7
XySArea ufn 2y-161 kn 7oq
Cwa
oeas.

10. kily

gish
cole

cmtidoyofion,
ov key in
ovess ony(fan shaped ofhmur
forsmell
& 123-2/M
6Y ava bhee 60 fo 000 Km
8 123.2vM -262a (1M-99

fex Cafckmenps.

123.23-2 M
Mto.36

Nawob Jaa_ ohaduy rmla'

c( (a-b.la)
whx A, b» g c ae cons/an

b
1
C 51:S oY North lndia.
8 1 eufh ndia.
CeaeNs
(o8quM- 0.04
&= 6 .cM

whe &disthag mse

emen t Km
 khoslasJoemun
, is a aional fovmu1 is bosed
9 haeution
P )
R +tL
R P-L

= Runet
P RainL
L losses
fuenein

Aceerdin tp hhord aspr

(XPrenes oud in
He
empexhw
lones is o fahranheif.
temperofpwe_,T

ma C . S y p n b i c o m e s :

nemalu

R =P-327

LL 4.27
B e e n ' s ornula
rofonal canh
n
s wvml
wh P Penx HoRxptefed.
Ptoak oo
Y dbseed
Aomt
Dbsenvad rainhll

Xpecfoo rona

Rekenal Method
lod depends pon
The ize
coss

ollhehrs T s Bhdes
clinete 'ov Ram
a

Dasbdfon
Dorohon ainlt.

Cedmant Avan acsho dudes.

Cafehmunt area
apR

a e e b l a covar

Let or an ndvi dusl Mrtam

F Tofa minal con.
T duvaken raindl s hess.
 mton e r v y ain l s3 cm/h

duing geint dahion Th

ime Concenf rohon. )

9 1i de"nto a he thme hken
Rach
b un hed-p
bnd cpehmenf
he
pephoy
C TEARs
know os hhe
poin
Cieol foine.Tdegtnds on

Longt copkment ara

HoD
pughnek and der
Slepe
3 3 S

T H

wk, ione h hous

the cencenprstion
L D t a n u hon caikeal
pon h
bidq k .
Jeve ren #i enral point
Hall
e bnchfit i mefvg.
 c h a lpeinf

cofhment

sk

Calolaion Run
= 0o P%A
m/h
DischaNA D

ve
Te 41
Tim f comcerafon,
tma
consfent, depenos o type- so7.
00Acnomy on
N
wattru
etonh wkicd he'unley
un der a b u upex3pmfw

brmd
 Tmaosuvement s aren

n bdaa s knor
nohral afuans

i unphsru
aven ha_rivex ov
prreanhomp uokick Ka wrfor las

oaperusay

poinsnVba kepd in
oll llng6,
he
mire f n
rusuw

C yelactty due alx

N pesmifsibl

houle no exceed
undax bidy

he fod muek hading

r Mholo nt
guroacL bove hYdse
up wfe
NRL ry

an Rxfant thot
uh
uil caus fha Aram
ul x
af RO velocifiet
hsckor
profession oam y 8ceu damage
houls be fovdeo Vy dr oundapon
 Cwoin cut uals, if Ca. shrkoM
powemenboing ple, heet le
uiob deons.

Tha e hoard lal idges

Mhealdd he ls h Goomm.
cloanre houdod hA_alloused accordng

tnavgafiono cunament.
ischara Mini mum Vrhca
ceerence n m

. m 1S0

0-.0 m
91 30.o m
90o ms g00

150
1500
3000 m

weteJw
Methoes
ea h a d Boun daies

itiihon, novg oton

eind daoumaga ebonnel
Fmai H
boundoies
em dunnnga ord y
 usapru

Moald e u o th idf
homn n'd-dortk

non Menndein: notuwrel trems

widey Jhon om t allurial bess but

hweh dehotd banke ond
okonnels
bon dasn' e, innar-wafedy Moesd ba
pwee bank ot his
aee

rRams

beds ond raving Undaed onkaa

ho ba desormined
ingoY efrsa

Fmhadand di'schor uAing te

pood b

Reg.egnd'o

Le
Linaa wofkrw mefA.
mefr

tndsskwg. m/see
 eonpmie Span
h eCmomit pon a ritheeb he
educes Ovaro

a hde a minimuM h oyeatll

ovectl

cev a bvidaa cepends upon

moferiol ond ih nafwr

Aveilet Malle

au
Cchmafe end ofher Cmdh*n.

mxRwnomic Mo ung
cot h *pex- Mfruspurra
covt hau shuhon
7-rng darrivah le onemATaN ile
eudnAor oN moud

Supe-&rup vanel os
99
on ung
sc He ond paropets Voie
 dved Apeun

i y On pie and ih undefim

is (onspan.
wnd -fhiv
undafions atso (nuant

anaya eu0 onomic an

JEcon emie 9Pan

P

P
a const

Mans ar
mull hm dyej
ee onom
detrmine
conomderehl)
yees Bridza heig pieN em
hyhndopion
M och hidga
1S0
R.c.M
Mohdhe
Steel Civdex d
9.0
gtel tu bide
e
dA
clearea fme ba»ted
M
Alus
when Censrustd, e
a bidqs is

aufment end piers

mur uh a
nahuray
h reduehon t
Co shan
Confruchion
h A
walarusau ayia
y n

bau
c horer ary moximum
nder a bdeR
disehorqA he
cseaes. oCased velseity 9 v

s t a udean hedrng
Mrom.
on th sprnm side_Y
f
Js phunominon
htadrng up

upshrtam pide Vha

Ant
en h
9 aS

AHtlor C haeolwluted
7
() Aer man's mula

Molesuefh's prmwla
 Marnmeans rmu{

h y 2 ( -(.)
haA/ in mefres
apprpoch 1 mefre/seeonk
V veloi
dapovol audoerday 4ea
mefed areoa m
m
Con

A largud arra ot pjreay

E
C Coerknt , dhshov
0 to: 3s ( -o( (A)
MoAksuoorts Ymula

o.01S
-

Clearance
To avo d peit frte Aikir
e a Cne drenvms
h hriz on/ cleananeeMhesld
phed.
eleo i dth and /tvaetenl
he
be
t h elco hui-t. avoilebl r
 vedienlaothe

Free boovd
beee t H y r h l L drsfenoe

hhureenHa high od lel

deoed
hehwea vl
eAnd e
elpuin loy oux
allbaing loue
Urown

Poinf boaxd
bonrd
fo ovida tha fror
emnal
7
in oll ths *7
Aons
h alod Arahrg
vequree
f r e booro i
tbe fruks ond approeek
driset l2n
dey a krica.
av oi pas un

board i also rquird o allad

fae
dming ha mapmuum

due confvacon
lood doeharge
od

eitd allpo he
F a e boave
oCovss hkrihei case

novigahlu ivers.
 Bmid Free boaxd
6 0omm.
High level brdaos

Areh brid
600-q00mm

Cr dar ayDo S00omrm

Wan b l u sanms
Ch
ridee Feundafns
Topfes fo h Covetd r chort
31 Scou deh, inimu derTh 7 prudahion.
eod
oun deh'ons Sp
-

oll pundefon.
pilounodehon,
oundeshian
wlls
caissien ounda hon.
sinking
cams -
3 cof
derhMinimem derth unobn
c
SCOuY deeth:
vilocith am axceeds
hery
vtlout hich t e 2 d b l u
imi in
afurial can afpro
Partsl be
noyma scour
deefh is h
AouY occuysThe

i h middla
dwt
hun Coyyng h peok a d dharye
c o u r petxn oa bidse depens
acs k 0d. dhsckage be
d Alpe
ed neial.,olyomart
iro
d pie piex qRomy ie.t shapt 6Aize.
 and Aund daan oa
bid s imporfont o askimef he
er pceux dep7h.

(1) Sceuy der seons

ThalUutolMrtam uohan tomas

a deimauetfrd
na i equirey
regi_lopr S and
PmetA P, q a
hydraue moun depth d. Lac
ime ooratfenehs
develeped. Ouhions
e oalluvtal chonnel ig a dhebo

P 4.8 V &
wottnd peimefr
puY dertk, o (
Pd plore :ooes }%
ftou veo.ity v

A8R a3
A
4
Ccu
tBride net
Lintar wduruso
Kqim uiayh:

Norsmal Aco doph d - o 1 73(

dNevmal derh sceuv elp

cendifons i
HFL Rm

metres.
C
ubl ChonneA

dengned dshg m
Loceys lttoehn.

P mad ameer Ra bed mofehsin

uhax uatersoy exs han he Risin edh

0.61

W Peimwidfk 'of he Streem.

L
width sf usafvrsey Prvfded
Un der hbridax

Normel Kcour doPfh shen, Lw

 d Nemal deef u confrached

ScouY dopt x uai-luvial stvaams:

Jn8uasi- alluv?al
shreoms e h
end eredecbl
have f
6v igid banks
nomal Sour ceh hen 7ha
bedsHe
h
as
Copard

Atrn idih (ar

Conpuyed a-
COon be

is KnveDi
h n velsay velocih

dwV
usidjh
W u r fata
m

o.

wln dope kren

wy
d"ya
n Monni'n1 Coe i en

SSloPR
 H wleih and alo ar hPf

18 &
O60

xw

shadd no d
exceed
Mayimunn Ou dest,

m Aximun SoU dep

Minimum derh oun dafio

dert id purdoken i
det m neo
b Corsideydin a safe
hRoina Cotpac

accun efst if scous,

7hmirimum derh undakon can be

caletrted
 /t Sin

pondufin i mefes
Drio n cderh »f
Braminq Cepaa7

Anif
apol hm #ha
CAn 1.

Bicg founoafions

hundapien r
The
The seleeion
depends
ra parhuul»r ipe
Suirble
Nafu kely
knlkes
wees and x}ont
pse)Rb&Ne
beldarphe.
b me.

ylolil:h s eXpeYtisard eaui penf

Depundiong uper nfnhdp oay
ce fesoise -
Pundrysove bR
shal»d ourpofh'ons
() oer
onde ion
ouncoions
Pil
(d Oell
Oun dohions.
 Shal oundotons:
ndahon

id

shudud
undaho
neons

he voviou
a

oundahions
(a) OPun
Apread
hugdaron a
oper hocehon.
allod
eunda fon. a pe
This i s h mov Conmo yr
ng Opa
and Can be aid
oun defio
allousing nohira
opes
ex Ceuvahoo
ac keahle r
9 all ides" ond p
ides
P a

depth up Sm
plev oy abrfment
ha bo
Ayread o pwvi de

individus ppovd.

ounda hon is poyideo

maderae heiylt koil
Authienf H r pround
 pie

4:i

Plan

R oundatmtn hrigae
corwbineo fng
A rseo ma a
Ha tovexs entire area beneah Ya
b de and uppost al prs aund

apuymwnts. u n e albusublL Ao7 per

e
io DY da edds ar
heava
wol

rore ran rtDne-N-/P «f the arca.

Pro m economjcal fo
an f my
u eundepim in hat Aifafion,
he
Refthoun daion ued f veduc
Alament ohova Conpeble
 makir wetaht

n d appoyimaley

waipt Ycaakd.
Yca voSed.

loNai

Plon

ndq
P r l e Funons i
Theple ondeon
An doton a h r d a r pY'e o obument
BuppeArd 09
Rpile. A pil an
conatrufion Corposed
ezmam
encxef o r erl o
timbex
Cohinahon m.
il Lnd ahior Irb diyd
Columm Bappe pY uni
 i h mo he cat- - itu x e col.

This y Cofruson i adephod vher

depth.
30 exends fo v
b'mdy ans r ed
befpe
piles had Ppfa um
he cton
eiste
Pel.
Sidks
developea

Closcten pileb
breadl clauifed
l aR

Calegojes

ncnon.
_aincfion.

on
based on
Caxahion
melevials ana
oraiog besed on

CDpoS11fion.
doiho tonBo'se d e ow fon

parin Ple
b)ic ion) ple
() Sce pil
Csmacion ple

urlift pile
Poher Pie
Shect pile

Bosing_ile
Thes piles penebrakehrrougk

e i r boforns reob
h sogeand
A grsud tireusk
ahrd skim.t /aferal
me
kick TR piles po
olso gives
per and s crae Pe lacd
p
e beating p .
Casorm Capac

so
Moia

Roek

ichkon prle.
exends fo
oo t a

ae derh pes ce civeo up

SuchaJerh sJRert ichiono etjsfance
dewdo pe af e ides HRe pe
eouals loctod comiy on e pile3.
 lvickmal reicfance piles
beined tmulhayig honal
ionce o t X A Re avea
pil nonpnt
ch ith ha Aoil.
Re rchonalrers/one Conhee
he
neroea h
he Ple.
cxeesndg- e diamelor
divinq4 le

Plasin.He ples elesel

plhr

Loo soi

Scvew pilu:
Consik holad
A c e i

none
cofiton ov «l eidax uih
TDYR blades afp hatfon. Tk
blade ore en r clly 'rmods a - t c o n ,
 BcreD pil
beffom o t
end
ull ahen
tui
cui fh bleunf point , ue
conuife ConMsA

nd o be peneyofed
Scruo pil hen
Sand ond cloy
m e t point hollo
Prided auith
gerraled point ar
centcal point nd
roeind, gand mixed
cwelly

rarel 9Doun0
an roock

CCY e pile uith blauf priod

amet ftint

heltece
Scx rie tlh ghalre)
holfo
Conial pon Serafeo peint.
 Compachon piLes:

arukes to Coripat DOse

in oxdex inCxecahe*
qrarular S

ng
Ceepa therpil honse
de no Cao CAny

ur pa
shu«hm
uhee piles Onchox ewn Ke

de fo mohodape
nyeafod t er nmen
Preashub ov d w oven tuning

p/e

d.ov cl:nes res,

hwviz
shee ies a
u ed os bulk heads or
 cu b redoce Szepaga

en pliff.
ofepials

loss: o n d o

Co Composifon
W N M

Cema concre pi/es

8Timbex piles
sfeel pile.
Scno piles
(6 Cemposife pile.

OCnen concee pile:

mexe fe piles pe s els excelent

C,eme

Cpmatve rnik. Thes.e pi/es

Pi/es

Can

O di rided o fwo esps.

Pr- casf eenehefe pie.
c a f in-s'hu Conc&ef Ple3
 -cof_Concele Ples
heLSR ples
pilu ranuorfured io ehry.
he ma be apeye oY pralel pided.
pcagoral os round
h
hiak renEfaree
tn nap hee_ pile possen
chamtao achons
fo biolog c a and

q d b u n d . T h e
conerele he ples
he
toncree
and heuls
heuls epnfasled
fo M dade
Ce spond
Nprq
Forr copn1. ond
and cir ber
im
eo6ipmen
otnd hrawy
ssfalloion
handling and oiring

Co inif conpxefe. pi(es

bor dug he
Catin. s here
rga
sund Concrf

afh camen
h :led
oe placiy einfrscement
 in-spa contxele
hCommon types Co
Raymond pl Mac Aatn
piles ed
driven piles
Pi/e.
-
ormofrhe piles.
Bsbose

e, fronk
gmplex pes
uton
ufo btform pile
Pilesoe
conerefe pi/es av e
Caf tn-stpu
inhe grund.
und.

handle. and fo doive

exfra reinhramef
eAn

dovekeped duing
deuming
he renes
t uis operahons. h e r
OPexdhons. her
driving
handlin malerjal pile
no lafus Cons u c f e d as
ars
onsucfcd

enq7h ont
ired

pi/e
Potnsped87
RXta a
e
elninafed
le funks
oaePeposedvom

Timbex pil c'sctlay o

Jh
dsamefes
9quare Theare 20 fo 50cm
exceeding 2o fme
uesh a lenayh n
 s fop wih. Af Ie hopton
hsttom a ce-

shoe is provideos an d a he tor

aheel.rlole i ed. a a P
himhe pil ven, tor
up is heu
eoch membe
evel
n a concrefa
3am

Prov?ded o have a comg o

CA is
deult oY E v

Plofxm v
drive i l e pile /
impoible o
oy
haudcers. u r fmbey
fmber
haYa/rafum

valaal eily e ies

15

lonon) e c ol.

Sepr le
easeueo in lainy hree
Ssleel p?le

CHpies
Pox piles
c Tabe ple
 eeickonga_
Thee pi/es o uualy
trefle
uspobyeN o
eio). tey ererl
wkreh e ptle
piexs olso as copum
also as
cokms
and werk
u sek
eveb and
o n o

o ue a long pi/es

boin Capau t

x ples:
They as eefangulax ex
ecfegna to

orm led eh Concxete. vhone piles

ed wh is nof pesible
nd at

H Piles up to hoKe 8apa

diva

ube P
i s type nehes Y pipes

Jnve 19r
eAeel
hlle d ide }e hke piles
Cprcxe
Heiy Cirenla Cdos-Secfjon
eeo
hamdle and
R ox RO fo
ea doive.
Sand PileA
Thex pile ar omed by maKim heleg
i iRe aeumo and

Sard. for eAand Ued

ih ceneele f he Band fo
PrwenM

Come
puwa ok de p lapral funu re,

pocea/ 2m. 9s lafh

to
Sandpiles opiles
Jhameper. 7he
keet akout 1a Ames
a o Y et gs
Av ne Ruiloble Aur
ahd a
isa donge
o haxe
fo 7T eashqeke
plans osubjentas

Compokpile.
pile is med ken 2
A C oi
o a boved pil
C cemb'nofion i}huw
drmivey Piles o
uo býhrm
and

etoromical on dy
mauias. Tay
are.

ons/rue
 in Bndges
Bndges;
Ol oundafons

Cm

rutfor
Nd used

The Caisson is a
o u n o o f o n

Placing fem
The
The porpey
wofo.t
w a f e r , e term
undex
Cevea pe fion freneh
derived m e
easson 15 a

C
hex. IF
meaning
Co s5e uhih efor
hotnopen,
memlex th
auny menn 5

%stallirg c x mot
concxele or olax moferal
lle eith
b
Caen coissons

Cai ons
wels,
Open ceisons o
2.Open

Box Col aons

A bvx CoAMon 15 Soonulerf

Vemel ope at en co
hotfon. ox 4rally buil
.
imbex, TinfvrCe Coneefe and sheel.
i s yr ai on s Suoble
 eovring shofum 15 eovailab/e
haMo N
and hee
dep, and Lpo-ds
C

weNs,
Open Caisons ox

belh
he Dper caions are-ope
Dpen
boport.tay
e top and ha
anoy or beoy s/tapum
Ued
Qcous
Lialeo

opes ells may

ctrular, efangular, Double-p repurmbr

D-stped ends, puin hexaqon{
ui
ond usin octegoral

Recorydar aifh
Reeangular D-heped

wi hexoqo nol
CD oubk-D
Componn well ounod otion:

y i r d e x

Pearin
piex cap

Piex

wel cep
Tor pla
wl stini
vedhcal Rinoremar
A
Heizontal reinpecenn
-Botfom plur
wrl cb
coting edge.

onkig weMs:
re wl sinkin1 on doy
oounp9, ope xevaontur Ahl
N
aa 0 alo Aohso waenevels
and e well cuxb is
n Ca he wels fo b bunk
míd sfea, a Buifoble Cohr dam is

Cnsfres ud p i t -Jhe
well and
1sonos a mode.

Rca y f n g
The well &unk
maferal emide unde
he dortb.

C'our Aould be doing

exerdsed ing
ell inkng ihal Ha
beeau well V unsfable. Excavepn
f o ide ean hr den hy Stnding
dron Ros de uels. hen e
deo wefr Pnde euwesl becomes
re han mer hen cea voh*n
Csriee bu Jham o a oredex.

Punping eut e wotex hem -

ir ell flue sken

well han e dke enuk o hos
hos

SO
as.ed-ngh a clphopa
hat chances OR
 poDeoK. h e n
during Jis
/om.
he fo obou
well has he Sunk
Aould he he
Sinking heealex

ob bing chiseling on appyi

Ken ledqR

Ca he well being Sunkin

notma
Sandy rafa i Auek, up and
methed Kentledge ond qredadna

aileto inl t hxthex, in uih

Ca icional rei Jance drekoped
oufr pei phey 1 educe
denabla byoeing jet sfos
ell all
ou face
aoun d,

3.3: Cpfex doms

A Cferdonsia tempo'ay
u wkieh i built tomove
ae o an s t a an
mouke
 Po
ble
Candex bnaby dy Cerehfios.
c to
dams a uu4 reopuired
C
uch as dams,ock an nsfruckog
piers ano abupmenfe
ehaidae

Kequiremerfs o a eofferdarn:
he
k_rrajorabl
houlo
The cob chrm
Corufkon
uSafex
and

hald winfern ance. a n

ConafrutAon

mnimAM,

PunpMoul
ing ebefkrieny shble hoble
hnp an
ono
baofingove

cgain ovk, udaves and

e
lns, us
S l i d i n g u n d e x

ficdpofed vaeh.
an
C censfr usfed of AAp
9tshould tk

p/anned a fo
h o u l d hbeso
e
u
disman fLing
ar
ncilipafe. o y
malerials. N

es copfexclom

Ecrh u ceercem.
5
ock u etfhrccom.
ReckRock i b eotferam.

ire oall corchn

Doble Dall cecamn
(celllax coter.
 ThissRe Sinplasl form
coerda. 3h
enofhis avalabl and
ohN impervious
velos
be e d
o.9t hould never

over-fopping
oa hexe is derge
wafor.

1
Drain

SATITSZIZZ2ASWZA

Rorpi coecam
consfusfeo
Plating
can he ed
rockoNong t oum. k e
p o o t 3m
deythe uwfex
even n cox *suf
ord a uifsble
econemja places
uooa, Thy as
er c avaiohle i Pleny
 ADpe reltoyer pafhs Jaid
o oulox ac cor can.
aley

mexvious
oyer o?

(3 Kock Cb Cordom:
av

AAsckill sib coox

is
Compivd*imbex cibs, A cib is
C A Dk on den hovjzonfal
and c y oms Aeid
altoxnofe
ou se he Cbs oe open af the
bofom ov lled aeifh qock
gove ov taofh
 -sheet pil
25R
Rock lling

Single oa coordann:

hen aailoble wodkina SPace is linsfed

n
Cnd
axta to be enelodeo is bmall. s}
may h wed po he maximm depfh
wefex .he
C7fo dam ave nowry e d e up d
e d Mert ile .

Dou]ewall c damn:
Doube ol tojfex dwne orepnv?ded
to neowa laxq aren the deble
ceulor coorcon
made steel gheet
deuntusi
ble or
puihe
e a n
cetboy
aeas. '

C rdoams Cmpised drapkrag

drapkrag

ar
moihes

0Y
crnlar
cells
ces o
celularcoobn
Cels COUR
ees Seaie arcs
arcs

Jiaphraqm
th aaiqht co wals
Connefeo
uihsang ovextopping
and can

wote.
heceutax celular coer doun
Conplek
Cop s e d peries
connesfec hoorcs. and
cirdy
m moferialhan drphra.
uise
Are

cell Cell
AA Cirulor yP
NaphrL TYP
Ch-0
Bridge Swbstnutue and APpnoathe

The bai dge Substaut

S f s mog
ong

in regond to sign an
and
Sigoifi cand (onpnants Sts
Jts
influence 7ts 2onony.
and gneaty
lay out becaue 3f the man
1S Sigi-ficanb
desig
design
v o i e nt hak Can
exen cie Contnel
exen ie Conte
Pasibl load 1S tha
dlestgo PaoceA honuforu
Suhsnufunk
Th in bridge
(onetnuction.

mo ole mGn odi ng he Pno

Paepr
is efesignakeef by
The
The bridge tzaud Units and is 01ten
Spacng Sub snutune
Spocing cont facton in Pnoductng
he most Sgniti
most elonomica oig. Plaement and
the adso ill inf luencR
station he Substhucfurt
0T h SHnuture.
ha aLsths ics
the
(n s.sts o
The ba'dqe Substnu cturu
ments
the tollawing elk
1) Pians
i) Abufment piers

1 Ahut mentts

Whng Nels
41 Bmidge Pians w

The OT 4h 10termeoliote Sqponcts

diffan
h Superstnuctul. They may have man
on-igunations. Norn allyhe onu reuine to whgtand
not only high Vechcal ads oads
but lateral lcads
ou well bectuse ofha Voru 6ul s1ble lo afino
fects. hun Cast -in Plat on crete ructrs
h
onu USed it is Common Practice to catt
IK
PTert ond Superstnuctune monollth1 cally
adeguate uinfoncemsnt t moka haned oanens.
etictenF rigid faames hav
The her
numben 0f edvnancies hat 2i ve
added resenve
Sfnangth iot attountes
Prucest (oncnute
10 tha dstgn Cafcul afton.s,
placed on
Superututkures au nannally
in ahrh
in hr
Sf on P7e Cops
hat
bearun Can tnan smi longitudt na
b arrin
h
thansvenue
Ladero loaofs. Broadly,
nd
foll oui no
vnden ha follouwln
P1eRs 00 claMigied
Categori

I Sob d Pins
T1. 0pen Phens
 Solid Prens
he ay be Lon sl ru ted ithaq 81 mason"X
orL mas Connefe. ha Sa hent fea tune o
Solid bridga PTens
Co) Heght-
of a pre 15 mesuned up
Tha height
ar dha Springin
to tha Supponk levej of gindens
anch.The piert top is kep 1 4e 1-5 m
poi n f H
oveh H.F. L 3 r rivol 0 ne@m a
boad
eve

Cusmioning
hauneh Fortmati on
TUin
AAA aa.

h-f.L

bed -Leve

'A*A,
 P1e Batten

son Phan ma m
Th S1dos 01 a

idhn vanticol o batt2ned. nerallaa ha

hatten
ten
af 1 In 1 to
in 99 1s advidof. Shat
Piens have Veica Std.

CC Piert W1dth
W

io4A T he fien Sho uld ba

The top
Suh iet to a CLOmmodate h 6Se afs of
clra na 0 absuf
two beoardng8 Hh a

f bttwee n .
fccsding to ligh)
th top WTdh houl he egus t pn hrg

and Rankine t+ h5 h Span

Th NTduh 0 hs p1e ot bodtsm
nth.
15
1S genernal % ots+tl htgbt.
ahsn
of h pien Shourd ha flat-
Tha 4+p Sunfaa
or and
Sem- Clyculan gach,
fora9inden
is
Paovi ded
h Sko bak Hhsanch
Segmit o elkehcaf.

d) tengfh o Pen
Pien 1 kapt
Gfeoanaldhe lengh
W144h heyend
1- Hi mes he tp
centruins hs. 0otn /nuseg e) g'ndag
 Plus c l - afen and asR-uj ofen
this 1sto Preven- dia gonoShranin1 at tha
nds.

C) Cu 0nd Ease Nafenm

Tha pien ends ag
Panage o oten. Th nd on tha ups-tneam
Si ol 1s knou) a Cuf wGten ond het on tha
doun Snea d 1s Knoum agase Naten
otn
The Pra venk ka frima4ion eddies and
tha Conseguenk Scsu Ti ng efects.

Ptens ith Ser- Cinculan nds.

30

btkweun he fRas 30 l e n .
i erns
Piens With inchde4 anga

G0

35 t
Phens Wih Inclvdo ang bef t e n he -feca
6
 Piens h included ongu bekwen th fauy 6 t.

euilteec oncs o Grclg

Piens 4h fares f

Phers Hih faces intensetio g 0

P1en

The op k Pien Providur h

immeoioe be arino Sunfa f h Suppat 3
h SupenAnutund. St dstaibufu ksads
no i biorung f i e n mont uni-+91
1h Cop C o v e y h Corhne
Pier 0f A ana

op - k o par an Paojed75tm ban4

h Pan dimnion. *Ths .5 tm pro eohan

n 0nl improve Pten ppeartance

u 0 Pteletts 1 om on Nefn
 crupptnq idos. Tke fins Cop is boilt

ruin frced Concnte. uhich(vmres pnds to

M 150 gnaole oncncte,

Open P1en
Tho one cla1fe4 0
MuH pe ber 0 Multipla - Calumn.

8 Pre bn
3. lindnica Ptens.
4Trtle Piend.

Muttple And
k o 7 0ten use
on 2noun. Tha

Holl atha bottom n man

Sachion o
1n OVErt pay wObk hen
b Used. 9t 7s geded

tradhc nuns pora Co to u bed to

1n. Case 6F
ha (olumns
udure damae fo
damane
morn
0Lcfdan. } i5 ghten and a ba

etonomi co han h Solid prA, buf it ru_uines

morufoymnorlk an mofeni a.
 Reinfence
ConCnute

olision wa
P s Bend
pila pila kn 1s usef f Penovn
Unst obl 1und.Tk
(onsit rfonce
tonc nute o Heel Pile clri ven 1oto +
ha Capping a-hainL
rsund Pqovidd
gin derg. The1 one
main
Supth
ruinfane d Connute
tenally (onnecte b
f a
1s usee brh
0 &tes bracs.Tha pilkk
ba driving t turfand. and a
Suppot
Column b1 Pao1ecing apove gnund. T
gakstle.pilos on ufualbaffenco|.

Aetten
 Cindeo Pren
Consnat Df mild feel co
tnon
cyindbhg whrdh oL flled ith Concrufe.
when indun oru wed ri bridae a
Aoten Pidhs JuO Cndeny oru unk

c sLigh ditana apon ond Suitoh

1
baatn

A
A
A
P1en

-WL
rnain
Steel clinden
Glled
W777A A a ConcaLfe be
aFundafion lov
 tadeico Pery
The oru Used fn tempornan
wOYk und f r mhen wOK Tha a nade.

oR.C.C. 06 teel venkcos, hoa? Kontof

n diagana memberd. Th Conne ckons in

Steel tila my ba eHhen rdveted o

wel des. R (.Ctres typ2 Pin ansits
Cap a
o -
of Cincolan Columns wih abenl cop
In 0ndun to hui n
awoidmoma nt bein

nansfe rred o deck Columns

Conca hings o u fotneduced bifeen

Columns and he bemt Cp.

n Ca alovery an elevated raads

when nestla. Prens oA uwe, s
paovid Conneching diaphnngs|
b tHLen -h Columns.

J.
 The folloin 0fuu fone

. Seporote pren
9 hbof mink pren
3 Celluor pren
Frname Pians

Seponate Preng
The oU Somikme d h
Nh teef
budg.ou, ma b Pren

Concrufe Piam p t
Columns apone on
ma Combir
budae level. In Nten, he
bidge
Hh a Sold 8had t beto up t fls tr
ma hava the& aalVanta2 ova
lowe T
han Soli Shad ts

Column
 Aburmen Piem
multipl. pan ondh
n o
-Ihind o funth pien 1
bidgeseen
a) an abutmen ru(Ai v the
dosignd
Such 0 Pien
4hqust non -then Stos
and 1Knoa) a
15hiken In Secho
abufment Pien.

Celuon Pres
(onsis o wo
Tha Caliu/on P7en
Shells sn nected
Concenrtic R.C. .
ibs and honi xen ta bands ab
naofta
1ofenvols.
intenneliofe
Sul tabl
15 Alled
HA
Spack btween holls

Soona illen moteni hs N rwu

hrh tr
Saing mtnl (on cruf
This t 0Pre
motenio
a Cos
Costl
dyficuf4- Shuikria an
uhuallyrenuin
uAuolly
absun io Placing rinfon ce menty,
ooldifiono
.A" A. .

A A , V
 rame Pren
runult 1n nodued4
This t p 8 Prens
gindury on ethon
efechva Span nglhs fr
S1d ba Cen4ro 6 Jh Pien
ha
i0 -h (ost S Supen-
laoln AConom
nutur

1n
Sungaung i nden
Counle
Slab

1n riveny
Juh +yt o en i w e
Suqdsn flwd neon hill s
Subatted
and fu st Suhjested ts hahng
lbakn9 tnee nunk .
.Y Abukmants
Suppovts a
The
The oru ha end
on
heiri
h in back.
bak.
ritoin1ag 20nth
Supen&tnucfunu, Aone gs
4h mason t
TThe oru
oru built ethen
ma Conee or
o 0ndtnat
bruck WOK
Concute Th +oP Sundaca dfha
rwinfanced
A SupensBnu turu
obuf men ts naols. flaf uhtn
Semi Cirulon_anch.
is tru sses o 9 dan
ox helliptice| anch
In C0 Semgen Segmeto
top is
Supersfnutuna, tha abitmen a
Weepholes oru Pmovidad
nad Skew.
th ha
dfferunt lbveld hruugh idn.
arutmund to onn Saienralaieo
2onkh.
he Sabenk feakune af bida 0utmet
au

CHegr.
The higt of tha obufmant+ 1s kept
hs
u t o thot o P1rs.

b) Abuten atten
chutme nd-
The waten facu o
is wualy Kept Vantco os Could bo given
 ba 1ten o 1 1 t in 2
P1erk.ha face rehoining eankh 1s ven a

botten 1 in6 0 b SHe tpd doun.

ma

Cc) Abukmant tdth

The top Sidyh h aut ment uld
Provid enavh Spaa i ha bridae Seat and f
h4h Constnution ot wal t retain

arth Up to th Pprmoah Level.

d)Angth A butme
ohutmest y kept at kat
Th length
ayuo+o -hwid4h ofha brid
butment C
The ouig n S1malon + ha sf
pter Cop

abumems aru clay1fied unden

Bnoadh.
Aha folloino wO Cafe gonie

bufma Nad
ments Hhou ing ovalls.
a Ab
 Abutment OHh Wng Woll
h abk mentg r u
In ths (ak
Provi ded wth ing Nols wh1h m

( Straight Ning Wells, o

() Splayed ina Nalls a

(eRehunn ing Nells.

Thu datoils oa shandortd qnavit

NIh Wing wols AU Shown in Aq-L.
abutment
In this tye Tf abufment- hL winq wali:can
ahutnntr
be eithen Stnaigh o Splad. The
a
i n
Win Splayed Hh Walls TUL USed a Cnas
Smooth etny and exit
ruvuto Prrovie
Wnq
walls no onl

the eanth Prehun buf also

pHhstand
h Tnpac ve oad Oven hem

9AckrILL
NATURAL

BANK ALLS

(a) Stundond
(a) ynavit Abutmen
 A
Cb)Plan Sthoight W1nq wal (c) pln splopd

Hh utuna
dng
Woll

The ahuf ments

ths
GFUL Knoun o - obufmenfi. Tn
abutrnent 4s etendd o riht ongtes on both
he ends to Some dtanca. to Protecf a Lanlk
WOrk The aru Use uhan bank o r Steap

and rok

FHaep - toles

ack i

Sala4
fund odim

Plon
 T abufments With winq nalls Suff
nom 4 folloing disadvontags
to rustrict the flo»dpei
Tha
Te +end
Storu ond aiA
and henCL InCneAL

up stnaam flmd fevaf.

ruguir depen trunda
(6 Th ScOAT
ions.

Aundotfonsma hava o be built 1n

1
Ce)
f r Senall
e t . Thesa ypes
ar 1ndicoted
Paid t
aftentiorn nugt ha
heights. Specia
i ing and obrut
ment
h uncion

rals Preven* Cnau.

Abutments HhatwinghJols

Tn this Cakg Collown

abutme nty on 12enernaf ue
+es Df
(a) unied ohutmes
ox abut ments
(c)Tee obufmaat.

(4) Anch oMpu mentS.

(a) urcted Abumeats
geoorally buil
1enarnaly bvilt-
0butmot 7
Th1s 4ype Stnck H1s
Prio to th lating TA o.
prossuu
boh St des -he eandh
lle d on

erneHon Can hegin ba

be toru
Supercfautuu

lacamnt ofA.

Excova-hon

+tomd Sinotun..

(b) ox ohutrmgts
This nplo Sho Span obi dgs
built jndegno WHh columns to oct a a

and eonlh Punune of h

oppnoccheb. 44 1s mos often use4 fos ovenpasd
OVenpos

wheru th Shal span ma b enplo ye foy

Podasnoin Passag.
 iA6utmank
E/FEIE

Saarn
opei wall Bnaed
Arutrmun
Pe destnains

Tee Abutmats

This Lsoks Gke 1 plan

h no be Com obsolate.
n
dD Arch Abufments
abufment is vse uhen
Thispe o
anthes or enplye betausa of thoi etonom
fn Cerkain Cond1ions. The hrgh inclined
otffhcul to handle
skewbauk hnusts or

Unless abufment can be Seoted 1n nock.

oru 04ten used fos Span
Thoru fore, the
oVen Q0nges

Rock
one

Tie Bon
4.3 Win Walls
wollsPrnovideof at
th
Thase oru

retain ha
ob h
tha ahu mets t
both ods
0ortth filhng o Hh apprioaoh roaq. Th
The
oru Contnucfed ob, Yhs Samg mofeniol atho
obutmnt. ha deungn t
06 ha main

ing wa dapend upon tho. natuw bankg.

tlipendtng wpon h tpe ob mafera ued,
als oru Cofegord Se a f|bus
thL
th wing
win1

olS.
) M sonny Ning
)Reinfnced Concrete wing Wals.

Wal
(a) ma sonny Winq
masonmin9.
walls i tha end
thea
The wal
retan
chrwptl 0 o a smal
noad-ay h
Construte4 Potol to h
Thei wetet facn is kapt
hou 0to +p ondeR to
then Venhcoor battere d. In
daoin b8 ha rufoine d tlling, woepholes
oru providad dhnuugh the hod othe Nal.
i ethu
Gje nenaly, th top H n
Kopt hori oto Sloping donwano.
 Nalls
(b Rennfonced Concret Wing

&nerio typ o Countenort

Cantilevenl

+ypa ufoi niod U,Jalls oru ysed o thR.C.

4heyr wing Nolir 1s olko
Wing Walls.h t+p
ihn Vopt 0 henizta Sloping donwands.

PETET=IT

(ounfenfoy
butt
TAFTETEHTE TEIETTT7

A A:0

(o) Canki leven

C) Countenfonk T
T

Plan, 1ng
Nalle
As per
-hein jouf t
ore clawied olloS
Wing Nall s.
Snai ght
Nolls.
Splaged Ning
d
W1nq NAS.
3 Kedvnn
 Shraht Wind Wolt s
The or Suitahl sSenal brudge
on.stauctea Cro sg dnans ATh o bankg.

be nanal Hhoru built+ fr a railwa-)

uhert the cogf
bridge
budge Spaci allg in Cite,

h Land s hgh.
ha Tn cane of hand and
Nalls
my b
ftok found ofion, 4k Wing

Constnucte steps. whgn the Soil 15 (,

thfaund
h o-fion hould be token to a
Unifosm bpth. Steppedfrund o-hons whsn
must ba bult wh Venfica oink,
Provi decd
will b a Ca k
aa othan i hen

toymeo du to uneua etHle met

Wals
Splajed
Constnuted enerall

a y A14 akutm en and are stnaiqht

0% Cuwed in Plan. Thein top ts 0.5 m

thik and huin ace

batte i o 1

0nd batk batterc tS 1 n . The

gn
Paovide o Sm oth ent ond ext to th
loN1n ofee.
 The CTL best Suited fox -ha Cno ssing ab a
oso adopted hin th n00d
ruverl. he CTL

has to nanno on Cno ss1ng ha budge, oy uhen

mong roads meet af ha oppmoach
wO ort

Stnuam

y5

Eonth 46

ingwal
lin
AbrutrnaF
Ponapek
o Rsad

Wing Walls
( Retumn
wals
ar ight angles
built ak
Theu aru

ot 1ts brlh ends. The o

to Hh ahufmem
retain k eandh ll1nq ob HA appnoach
desigmed to
W144h 1s 5 m, face 1s Venkical,
noad. thein top
batten in 4
and he bock 1s gven e14hen a
ahument has a Steppe
0Y Stepping
o7u Suitabl uhru -1ha bankj ort

bak
bak. Ths1
best filted uhere dh
ht gh ond nock. The or h

Cost o ha. Land 1 h1gh.

Ch-D5 CULVERT AND APPROA CHe
6.1 Clvent fot
a smal bricdlge
Cuven S
A
A noad ail way
railY.
bemafha
wcte
Carninng Hatenay sS
atenways
doe
uhn4he inecn
J+1suced Tha Waten wGy 1S priovided
not exceed 1 m.

ca
a reguin e d . n
Tn t 3 Spans,
1S lmite to hm
0 naad Culvend, Span
6f noilua -h Span
io Ltngh, uhanca 1 Caje

Can b igh a

Cwlvertts TLR
Tpes

ci Amch Culvert
i) sloh Culven

Gi) Pipa Culvent

() Bor Culvet

Anch Culvank
anth (uven Consi ss o
An
An
wdls andh, Pona pects and
ohutments, Win
Constnu tion mateiah
ha found ofons. Th
4he
Commonl USed oru brik wok oq (onnesa,
fl and Cuntain Nall ma dd ma mo
Provi ded dependi nq pon hu nafure D
h
eun daionAandnd velnity l o u .
 Slah Culvenk
Consisf of R.C.C.
A slah Culvenk

slab 14% 0 Hhoul heams

Hh ox wHh put Steol gin den to
Slob,
atrtosS he abukmnts
Coven ho Span

h othert details like ponopes,

and Piens.
ingwolis and - ne ce s
sorny fsundaton

oru Provt ded.

Ponepk Heonin

Rpo SuntaL

SLAR

Nall
wTY L

LongituaineSeotion
 ghuld ba desig
Te detk slab
slab desThe Cverfs on
a
Snoyd e desig«d
im portant highWa
wonAt e1fec eithen
ont -lang 0f
o7 4h
os 00- anc
Nehich,
eas AA nack
R 0a
AC a AA uheeled loadi
oadigg,
cloa loading.
two-Lans of

Cii) Pte (ulvo

when dischange
oTu pao vided
The is S'mall 0 hen Sufhenf
suffient
0 suam Usuall One
Usuall
cne

1S not avi lahk..

head
headwa
dia mefer
of han
1o
hon

mor
mor pi pes ob Thein
Thein
b1 le.
Si
Side,
place d Sids
ang
GO Cm
and oianeten upent
exact oumben

-ho. dsthonge and height fdf ban

upon
ol ea splayed
Fon eay approoch
Nof|s' oru paovided. Thesm pi pes can

1ng
NO, Cemeot
Ccment
Stons NOf,
SYons
masonrr
be bruiH
be (oncruf
cat 1non 0 Steef. A
Concrwfe,

bedding Shotud oo beiven hefo h

 Pi pes an eanth Cu shion ofsufuen
bckness on -he t P to Paotet 4 pi
efonomic ruacons
0tts. Fox
and heit
Culventr sheuld hava non- Prusun
rto
hov
heavy duy Prpes typ ISI tlay NP3

Confoyming to 1S:y58 -
1961. As fon a
Po SCi bla, honadient Should
0} 4h pipe Should
not be lew han m 1000.

Kenh Kin

INEN=TT= TIHE=TTET=71`T-

(0-

ongitudinc Secion
 box CulVen
mona numben
ong or
The Cormpru e

0 ectangulorr Squoru OpRning.

onu. Provided tf sil 15 soft and4
a Ni din
be toa d hato be Spread ven

An R (uva-
ound ofion oruo. boy
ahennahve sfa Pip Cannn
pest
15achaa
b CaThe obuf menty, fop and bejton
made ínto a monslithie
Slabs GU a
he Can be u f a
ri gid
m.
a Duble pan
Sinle spon of 3m
WGincy ourue
Rood Sunfae

7N/AN AVIIN

BVIAWZ/WY, VNWAW/N
 aUseWas
wa s Purca dip
Cause
A toa
uhich olowsflos t as overf. m
O Vents fa lw
08 may no hav ope nin o
tt haf Veots for lod
Nater 4 flod. 91
hn 1 nun a h{
Wote to flo
ort Suwbmerusibla brridgo
v Causewa
oHhenwise o low Levd ca use wa.

Tpes 0 Causeway

LON ve Cause W/

also Kno a li sh bu dae.

S41s
S15
Small rivany 0n Stnans, h
The beds Jhayeat, o n
main day tey mosf Pot a
qenernaly Upass oble wthot a bu dge. his
inVove .aue eoalh wok in Cothn foy Iridg
ppnoac hes. Banks o} Suth tyees o tneams
on tu doun ot an e sop. fr Stne ams
ort rivans in plains hovi Sandy beds, it
isten Suffhdent to bundles o
gnass oVatl. Qnd unoir K Sandy track.

h brundles cna ho - 3 0 , Jo 95 Cm
in oftam etu ho se ends aru Secuned
b longa tudt na fasdnes pr2xed fon b
Sakes
 Ipostan fno na1he
Fot
Fon Crio Ssings
Poin of Vi B is esseorti a to LL01
Puccq Pavng Df stona og bru
buk
meta on
Suhstantia
S io im mn toan on a

Concrate. To pre ve nt agoi ns postibl

bes
Scow ond undenmining a
(ut off o

deep 0n th
on NauSualy 6o cm
Sicde an 120 t150 m
on
upstraa low
am STela 1 paovided. Th
downstne wK
Coud be provide ed
Le ve Causewa lume Pi pes
Pipes
concnute Aum
0peni ng fomed Snean
0us -flow
1S Comhi nu

4hdu
th Mons an peniods
durtng
X

ATVIVIIV/WTIv
7ANVIZWVZVZA Z7TVINTYSV77ÄE
N
L Se cfiom

TFIFT-ETITUTILT FFFN
/s Duon
evel Caviela
 > HonRoil

VIAZ/AILI COURe

A pron w

D/s D-onf
CauewaY
Pave Lo ve
seway
LQva Cau
H 1S
Causewa
level
A gh
ble noad bidge d sig nad to e
Submui eve
le ve
in l0ds. s-fo nodion
ovartoppeed t t cause

isixed in Such a wa
o ra-f-icuring lovs-f-fer
intannuption aime not
dhan -Ihrue da af
moru

Six H
me
s in an ean
mora h an

A Suh cden nunhen o opning

he nortna 1od
nonenaf10v
provided.4o. llo
aru
Pas hnsugh
dschone
 rguined cloanance. The ar Pro vide d
Oh abutments and piensY flors gn slabs
ornches ttorrn ka eulnad nunbenn

Shpe oha &4pioa h s

01 0penin- "he
1s kapt as i n a0. when h Veo i t
pmonr
1S h1gh a and
Stneam hod 1sSoft the
COU1d ba f Concrute d hondern masonn
#
Cenfain dstana. Similon
Can be ba cnufe Cemank Con
tonmed
r morfaa,
Sek n Ceme
slob 0 ong block
CaUSeNG is
A ica 0 0 h9h Level de 0n
rrasling Pnov cae
Sooun belo. 94f
Shodd be f Colapsihla
Hhu. brädaa, th
+
 s Apnen

Coss- Sechorna Elwothn

MF:L

Appnooh
Koa
Nonna l
Leve

0penin HHK
pesin HA
R.c.C. Slch Ane
ongtudtna. Setion

lovaause