CHALLENGE SAND PROSPECTS

TOWARD S BIJILDING AN ASEAN

KNOWLEDGE,-SOCIETY:
SOME OBSERVATIOI\S'
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ABSTRACT
O f l a t e , t h e r e .i t a r . e b e e n i n c r e a s i r r ge f i o r t s t o c r e a t e a k n o r v l e d g e s o c i e t l ' ( o r k - s o c i e t y )
among ASEAN member cotrntries both individtrallv ernd collectively. Taking into
;tccottnt the importAnce'of a k-societt'for ASEAN, a conceptwider than k-economy,
this paper will elaborate on the aspect of knon,leclgesharing (or the lack of it) and
the consequent challenges and prospects towards building an ASEAN knor,vledge
society. The paper is dirrided into threc. sections: (1) The possibility of a knort'ledge
society (k-society) within ASEAN (2) Limitations in creating an ASEAN knowledge
societl, (3) Prospects arrd Chr-rllengesfor ASEAN knorvleclge societies vis-i-r'is the
Etrropean Union (EU) experience.

PRELUDE
fhe birth of ASEAN (or the Association of Southeast Asian Nations),
comprising Malaysia, the republics of Indonesia, Philippines, Singapore and
the Kingdom of Thailand in Augtrst 7967 was indeed a historic moment. It
marked the beginnings of muiti-lateral relations among member countries,
the first of its kind, in the region rvhich had the ultimate objective of bringing
into its fold all the Southeast Asian states.2The Bangkok Declaration, signed
on B Atrgust 7967, to commemorate the birth of ASEAN by the five founding
members was a commtrniqtr6 caliing for joint efforts to promote economic
cooperation, social progress and cultural development in the region. Apart
from that, ihe association also ;rimecl at safeguarcling the political and
e c onor nic s t abil i ty o f th e re g i o n a g a i n s t b i g pow er ri val ry and to serve as a
f o r t t m f o r t h e r e s o l r - r t i o no f i n t r a - r e g i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s . 3 T h e B a n g k o k
Dec lar at ion s t r c c i n c tl y u n d e rs c o re s th e s e obj ecti ves, i t states that:

The Association represents the collective rvill of the nations to bind

themselves together in friendship arnd cooperation and, through joint
efforts arnd sacrifices, secrlre for their peoples and for posierity the
blessings of peace, freedom, and prosperity.{
 '10,
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In other \vorcls, the prin-\ary aim of the grouping was to create alr
" A S E A N c omml l l ri ty " , i .e . a c o rn ml l n i ty i n di pl omacy, economi cs, cul ttrre
anc l ot her s . s Th e v i s i o n o f c re i -rti l rgi ' u r A S E A N cornr-r-runi tystrcceederl , to
s or ne ex t ent , i n p a rti c u l a r w ,i th th e g ro w t h of i ts members from A S E A N 5 to
ASEAN 10 within a span of 30 vears. Nonetheless its flaws or lirnited
engagernent within the grouping and the general populace of ASEAN
c or r nt r ies has e .a rn e di t th e a p p e l l a ti o n " an i magi ned comml l ni t.y" .
Since its birth, ASEAN has irrdeed progressed beyond the fields of
diplor nac y , c trl ttrra l a rrc -ls o c i a l a c ti v i ti e s. Its mai l r area of focus apart fronr
secr-rrityespecially in the communist counter-insr-rrgencyperiods of the 1960
ancl 1970s has been economics. Economics became an important agenda
par r t ic ult r r lya fte r th e e rrrl o f th e Vi e trra rn W ar. The subj ect tt,as fi rst rai seciai t
t lr e A S E A N S trmrn i t o f 7 9 7 6 a t Ba l i . T h e Decl arati on of A S E A N A ccord si gned
in 1976 at t es t s to th e i mp o rb a n c e o f re g i on;rl economi c cool )erati on basecl on
t he pr inc iple o f n a tu ra l e c o n o mi c c o m p l ernentari ti es. Tl -redecl arati on sLates
that:

Menrbcr statcs shall takc coop-rcrative

a r c t i o ni n t h c i r n u t i o r r a l a n r j
r e g i o n a l d e v e l o p n r c r r t p r r l r g r c r m n l c s L, r t i l i z i n g a s i a r a s p o s s i b i e t h e
r c s o L r r c c sa ' r v a i l t r b lier r t l r c A S E A N r e g i o r r t o L r r o a c l e nt h c c o m p i c r n e r r t a r i t v
of their respcctive cconomies."

From then on the gro\ /th of ASEAN has been benchmarked by regional
ec onom ic c o-o p e ra ti v e fra m e w o rk s rv h i le constar-rtl yhol di rrg onto the non-
int er v er r t ionis t a p p ro a c h i rr d o m e s ti c p o l i ti cs of member cotrntri es. In 1,984,
B r t r nei Dar t r ss a l a ffrw a s a d m i tte d a s th e s i xth member. In 1995, V i efnam al so
j o i r r e c l A S E A N . L a o P e o p r l e ' sD e m o c r a t i c R e p u b l i c a n d B u r m a / M y a n m a r
bec anr e r nem b e rs i n 1 9 9 7 . C a ml ro d i a j o i n ecl i n 1999.
T oday , AS EA N e c o rro m i c c o o p e ra ti on co\/ers the fol l orvi ng areas:trade,
irrvestment, indtrstry, services, finance, agriculttrre, forestrv, energy,
t r ar - r s por t at io na n d c o m m u n i c u ti o n , i n te l lecttral property, srnal i arrd rnedi trm
ent er pr is c s , a n c l to u ri s m. T h e te n me rn ber cotrntri es that make trp A S E A N
lr av e a c or nl-ri rre dC D P o f Eu ro 1 ,1 1 7 b i l l i on (2001), btrt demonstrate l arge
e c o n o m i c c l i s p a r i t i e sa m o n g t h e m . \ / i t h a p o p u l a t i o n o f s o m e 5 0 3 m i l t i o n
people, t hey m a k e u p o n e o f th e l a rg e s t regi onal markets i n the rvorl d.T
Yet the development of a free trade area among member countries
onlv m at er ial i s e c l s o m e 2 5 y e a rs a fte r AS E A N rt' as fi rst fotrndecl. In 7992,
m em ber c oun tri e s s i g n e d a n a g re e me rrt on the reducti on of tari ffs and non-
t ar if f bar r ier a rrd th e c re a ti o n o f a fre e tra d e area, cal l ed A FTA (or the A S E A N
F r ee T r ade A r e a ). AF T A i s e x p e c te d to b e compl eted by the year 2008. The
objec t iv e of AF T A i s th c e s ta b l i s h me n t of free trade betw een i ts membe' rs,
wit h t ar if f s r e d trc e d to 0 -5 p e rc e n t.
\ n 7 9 9 6 , t h e i c l e a o f s h a r e d p r o s p e r i t y w a s f t r r t h e r e n h a r t c e ' dr t ' h e n
membe'r corlntries adopted the framework for Elevating Functional
C o o p e r a t i o n r , r r i t ht h e t h e r n e o f " S h a r e d p r o s p e r i t y t h r o t r g h h t r m a n
dev elopr nent , tc c i -rn o l o g i c a lc o mp e ti ti rre ness,and soci al cohesi vc' ness." The
f ollor v ing pla n s \,v e rc i c l e r-rti fi e du n d e r t hi s framew ork.

80
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a ASEAN P l a n o f A c t i o n o rr So ci al D evel opment

o ASEAN P l a n o f A c t i o n on Cr.rlttrreancl Information;
a ASEAN P l a n o f A c t i o n orr Science arrd Technology;
a ASEAN Stra te e i c P l a n o f Ac ti on on the E nvi rorrrnent;
o A S E AN Pl a r-ro f Ac ti o n on Drtrg Abtrse Control; ancl
a ASEAN P l a n o f A c t i o n i n C o rnbati ng Transnati onal C ri rne

M eanwhil e ,' u t,i th th e d e rn a n c l fo r g reater economi c openness and partl y

as a lesson learnecl from the 1997 fir-rancialcrisis, ASEAN decided to rnove
fr om A F T A t o a n A SE AN E c o n o mi c C o m muni ty (A E C ). The A E C n,i l l be
c h a r a c t e r i z e c lb y n s i n g l e m a r k e t a r - r dp r o c l u c t i o n b a s e , w i t h f r e e f l o w o f
g ooc ls , s er v ic e s , i u ' u ' e s trn e n ta n d s k i l l e d l abour, and freer fl or,r'of capi tal by
2020,.
Externally,ASEAN has ftrrtherexpandecl
r,r'iththc ASEAN Pltrs3
gr ot r ping, whic h i n c l u d e s AS EA N p l u s J a par-r,C l -ri r-ra and S outh K orea. Thi s
m ac r o- r egiona l e n ti ty i n rro l v i n g rra ti o n sb e yond the S otrtheastA si an botrndary
is arclttantum leap from thc trstral strb-regional cooperertion referrecl r'ariotrsly
i ts nat ional ec o u o mi c te rri to ri e s (o r N ET s) or gron' th tri angl es strch as the
IM T - CT ( lndon e s i a -Ma l a y s i a -T h a i l a rrd Gro." t' thTri ansl e), S IJOR I (S i ngapore.-
J ohor - lliat r ) t r ia n g l e a n d BIMP -EA G A (B rtu rei -l ndonesi a-Mal ;i ysi a-P hi l i ppi nes
E as t A S E A N G ro rv th T ri a n g l e ). C o n rp a re d to these N E Ts, A S E A N P l trs 3 i s
a gr eat er anc l fo rm i d a b l e tra r-l i n gb l o c k a nd a w orthy cornpeti tor to U S and
i t s bilat er al t r a c l i n r p a rtn e rs .
T her e ar e ma n y i n te rn a l a n c l e x te rn al dynami cs that r,r' i l lcl etenni ne the
e x t ent t o r , r ' hi c h e c o n o mi c i n te g ra ti o n ' u vi l l strcceed i n the A S E A N regi on.
O ne, t hat is t he fo c trs o f th i s p a p e r, i s k n o' ut' l eci geshari ng. There has becn
increasing attentiorr frorn ASEAN in the sharing and clissemination of
kuon, lec ls e am o n g rn e rn b e r s ta te s w i th th e trnderstandi rrg that i t i s one of
th e m ain int er n a l c l y n a rn i c s th a t r,r' i l lL rtrshfor greater ecor-l omi ci ntegrati on.

I(NOWLEDGE SHARING
The as pec t of " b tri l d i n g k n o r,r' l e d g es o c i eti es" has become hi gh pri ori ty for
AS E A N in t he l a s t fe r,r,y e a rs . In e rk e y rro te address at the A S E A N R egi onal
W or k s hop in 2 0 0 0 , th e th e n S e c re te -rry Gerreral of A S E A N , Mr R ocl ol fo C .
Sev er ino s t r es s e c l " tl te re a re fe n , th i n g s at tl -ri s ti me more trrgent or more
i m por t ant f or A SE AN th a n b tri l d i n g k n o w l ecl ge soci eti es" .'
T he f oc t r s o n s h a ri n g k n o w ,l e c -l gie.e . bui l di ng know l edge soci eti es,al bei t
a lit t le delay ed , i s c ru c i a l fo r th e s trs ta i n a bi l i ty of an A S E A N col nmul l i ty. It
is also indicative of the grorvin5; i*portance of information and
commtlrrications technology (lCT) as a tool for rlevelopment and the
realis at ion of k-s o c i e ty . T h l rs , c ffo rts to b u i l cl know l edge soci eti es i n A S E A N
wer e inex t r ic ab l y l i n k e d to a s i mtrl ta rre o u seffort at devel opri ng ancl shari ng
i n f onnat ion au d te c h n o l o g y . N o n e th e l e s s, Mr. S everi no .,r' asqtri ck to poi rrt
ollt , " k r lowr led g e s o c i e ti e s o r " l e A rn i n g s oci eti es" are not merel y know l edge
at r c l lear r r ing in c -l trs tri e so r k n o w l e c l g e a nd l earni ng economi es. R trther, the
i d c a of a k uon ,l e c -l g es o c i e ty g o e s b e y o n d technol ogy anc-li ts appl i cati ons,

B1
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r 2005

s Lr gges t insa m o re i n te q ra tc d o r h o l i s ti c approach r,vherei ntl -rei mpact of the

inf or m at ion t r s e i s " n o t j trs t o n i n d r,rs trl ,and the cconotny btrt on soci ety as r-r
whole auc l ot r p re o p l e ' sv e r\/ l i v e s " r0In o t her rt' orc-l s,i nforrnati on techrrol ogy
is a t ool r - r otonl y to c re a te k -i n d trs tri e s a n cl k-ecorrorni esbut more i rnprortantl y
it is a v it i' r l t oo l fo r th e c re a ti o r-ra n d s u s t enance of a k-soci ctv.
A pc r t ir - re n tq tre s ti o n to a s k i s h o rv aggressi ve i s A S E A N i n promoti ng
t he s har ins of k n o w ' l e d g e a n c l re s e a rc h a m ong ancl n' i thi r-rA S E A N cotrntri es.

( 1) I s A r t A S EA I/ IQro z u l ed g e -S o c i e ty P ossi bl e?
Ther c hav e be e n s i g n i fi c a n t d e v e l o p rn e n ts i n A S E A N i ndi cati ng the posi ti ve
p r os pec t s of r :e a l i s i n gr-rrrAS EA N k -s o c i e ty. The establ i shment of an A S E A N
Inf onnat ion I n fra s trtrc tu re th a t n ' a s a d o p te d throtrgh the H anoi A ccord (1998)
i s a c a r s ei n p o i n t .

A S E A N I N F O R M A T I O N I N F R A S T R U C T U R E( A I I ) A N D E -
ASEAN
The i- r ir nof bt r i l c l i r-l ga k n o w ,l e c l g es o c i e tl n,i thi n the A S E A N comrntrni i y i s
e r , ' identt hr ot r g h th e p l .rn o f a c ti o rr i ' rc l o p rtecl i n H anoi i n D c' ccmber 1998,r,t,hi ch
called f o r t h e establishr-nero r tf a n A S E A N I n f o r m a t i o n I n f r a s t r u c t u r c '( A I I ) .
T h e A S E A N m e r n b e r s c o l l e c t i v e l y r e s o l v e r l t o c l e v e l o p rt h e i n f o r m a t i o r - t
cont er r tof t he AIf b y 2 0 0 .1th ro trg h a g re e mentson the cl esi gn,stanc-l arc-l i zati on,
i nt er - c or r nec t i o n a n d i n te r-o p e ra -rb i l i tyo f Informati on Technol ogy S ysterns
( bv 2001) . T his ' u v a sth e i n i ti a l ;rs re e l n e n t that eventual l y l ecl to the proposal
for es t ablis hin g a n " e -AS EA N " .
T he c onc e p t o f e -A SE AN a i n rs to p trl l together ancl i ntegrate A S E A N
rnembers' efforts in inforrrratiorr and commtrnications technology while
m aint aining lin k s rv i th th c C l o b a l In fo rmati on Infrastructtrre. Through i nter-
c o n n e c t i v i t y , e - A S E A N r , t , o t r l cal t t e m p t t o h a r m o n i z e p o l i c i e s , r e c t r l a t i o n s
anc-lstandarcls in infonnation arrclcomrntrnications technologv rvithin ASEAN.
I t r v o t r l c -p
l l a c e p r i o r i t y o r - rt h c . t r s e o f t h a t t e c h n o l o g y f o r t o u r i s m , t r a d e ,
cdt r c at ion and e m p l o y m e n t. It n ,o u l d p a v prarti ctdarattenti on to cooperati on
i n t he dev elol-rm e n to f h u ma n re s o u rc e s fo r i nforrnati on and con-l rnl l l l i cati ons
tc c hr r ology . I t r,r' o trl db e s o v c rrrme n t l e d but pri rrate-sector dri ven. rl
Hc lwer r e r, w h i l e th e i d e a o f a c o l l e cti r,' ei nformati on i nfrastructtrre' i s
e s s ent ial as a m e i rn s o f k n o w ,l e c l g ea n d i n f ormati on netu,orki ng ancl shari ng,
ther e ar e gli, r ri n g o b s ta c l e s to w ,a rd s re a l i s i ng e-A S E A N . Thesc obstacl esrzary
ac c or c ling t o th e ty fr" o f n e trt,o rk i n g a n d sl -rari ngi n A S E A N . These can bc
div ic - led iir t o g o v e rn me n t to g o v e rn me n t shari ng, pri vate scctor to pri ' u' ate
sector sharing ancl people to people sharing. I{esearch institutes and
tr niv er s it ies f a l l trn d e r b o th g o \/e rn me n t to government and pri vate sector
to pr iv at e s ec to r s h a ri n g .
T he digita l d i v i d e a n c l th e c l i s p a ri ti e si n i ncome di stri buti on, edtrcati on
a nd lit er ac y le v e l s a mo n g me mb e r c o u n t ri es i s a rnaj or obstacl e for the l ack
o f s har ing and n e tw o rk i n s b e trt,e e n p e o p l e to peopl e .

82
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AscnrrK-Socit'f17

THE HUMAN DEVELOPMENTINDEX AND ASEAN

A S E A N c ount r i e s to d a y a re s ti l l c o n s i d e re d a part of the thi rd \^/orl d al thotrgh
ther e is obv iotrs c l i s p a ri ty a mo rrg ti re c o u ntri es i rr terms of i nfrastnrcttrrai
d ev elopm ent a s w e l l a s G D P g ro r,rrthra t es, some of the A S E A N countri es
hav e per f or m e c l mo re i mp re s s i v e l ), th trn mal l y of the E r.rropearrsoci eti es.
B t t t r nos t of S o u th e a s t As i a ' s a p p ro x i m a te l y 503 mi l l i on peopl e are poor and
a r e not well ec l r-rc a te d .
T he Ht r m a n D e v e l o p me n t Irrd e x (o r H D I) show s sorne of the di spari ti es
re f lec t ing a r esi o n c l i v i d e c l i n ma rry a s p ects. Tabl e 1 shor,r' sthat the gap i n
th e HDI v alt r e o f AS EA N c o trrrtri e si s b i g rvi th S i ngapore reachi ng 0.9 r,vl " ri l e
L ao P DI { m ana g i n g 0 .5 a . E v e n a rn o n g th e C LMV nati or-rs(C arnbodi a, Laos,
M y anm ar and Vi e tn a m ), u ' h i c h o rrl y re c e ntl l , became.A S E A N nrembers, the
gap is ev ident , w i th L a o s re c o rc l i n e th e l o r.t,estH D I ranki ng.

Table 1: HDI ( R a n k a n d V a l u e ) r-rn dIn c o rn e (GD P and D i stri buti on) of A S E A N

Countries

Country H D I ra n k HDI value CDP per capita CINI Index

(p o s i ti o n ) (USD)

S ingapor e 25 0.9 21,487

.'l a
Brunei JJ 0 .B (r(r 19,210 Ntr
Malaysia / 1
D1 0.796 c)ql? 19.2
T hailand 73 0.778 7 ^q^ 13.2
P hilippines 8,1 0.758 4,327 46.1
Vielnar-rr 108 0.701 2,490 37
I ndones ia 110 0.697 a aal
J/-to I J4.J

Myanrnar r29 0.578 Na 40.1

Carnboclia 130 0.571 2,078 Na
Lao P DR l aa
I.JJ 0.545 1 7qc) 37

R a p o rt2 0 05(al l fi gures are for 2003)

Sot r r c e:UNDP , H tttrrn ttD a l a l o p rtra ttt

In the field of education, disparities in aclult literacy rate, enrolment

ra t io in s c hools a n d p u b l i c e x p e n d i trl re o l -l ecl trcati onftrrther accenttratethe
gaf r am ong m e rn l re r c o u n tri e s a n c l p o s c .a htrge probl em for tl i e vi abi l i ty of
knowledge s ir a ri n g e rmo l l c th e s e c o u n tri e s. B rtrnei , Thai l arrd, P hi l i ppi nes ancl
S ingapor e hav e a h i g h a c l u l t l i te ra c y ra te rarrgi ne betn,een 92.7 to 92.5 " 1,,
w lr ile Lao P DR a n d C a mb o c l i a h a v e a re l ati vel y l ow er percentage of 68 to 73
%. (Seetable 2).

83
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10, 2 0r 0 5

Table 2: Edtrc;-rtion: Literac\', Enrohnent and Expenditrlre arnong ASEAN

corllltlies

Country Adult C o mb i n e d g ro ss P ubl i c expendi ture

literacy e n ro l m e n t ra ti o for on educati on (" /uof
rate ('2,) p ri ma ry , s e c o n daryand total government
tertiary schools ("/o) expendi ture)
Singapore 92.5 87 Na
Brtrnei 92.7 71 9.1
M alav s ia 88.7 71 20.3
' f hailand r-7 a
92.6 Ld..'5

P hilippines 92.6 82 17.8

Vielnam 90.3 61 Na
h-rclorresia 8 7 .9 6(, 9.0
Myanrnar 89.7 48 Na
Cambodia 73.6 59 15.3
Liio PDR 68.7 67 t1.0

t (' p o rt2005 (al l fi gures are for 2003)

S or r r c e:UNDP , H rtn tn tt D tu a l o p rttc tl R

P ov er t v a n d e c -l trc a ti o na re i n e x tri c a bl y' l i nkecl . It i s i mpossi bl e for poor

c ot r nt r ies t o ir rv e s t h e a v i l V i n e c l u c a ti o r r. B ut erren l arge arl l oc;' rti onsal one
c annot ens r lr e th e q tra l i t), o f e d trc a ti o n . T he p-rrobl emw i th al l S outheast A si an
c ot r r r t r ies ,as w i th A s i a n c o u n tri e s a s a w hol e, i s that w hi l e there i s emphasi s
plac ed on t he i m p o rta n c e o f e c l u c a ti o n a nd know l ecl ge, there i s a tendency
to promote existing knon'leclse rather than to encourase the crossing of
l< nowledge t r o u n d a ri e s .
S out heas t As i a o r e v e l l A s i a h a s b e en content for orrer centrui es to l et
the west invent ideas wl'rile Sotrtheast Asia/Asia glecfullv absorbs and
r egur git at es u re s te rn i n v e n ti o n s . N { o re o ver, S outheast A si a/A si a has been
lr . r lledint o t he b e l i e f th a t c re a ti v i tv mu s t be expressed vi a tl -redi sci l -rl i rreof
science. Therefore the study of science is more important than the study of
hnm an af f air s (i .e . s o c i a l s c i e n c e s )a n d e v en the study of the l atter must be
b as ed on qlr an ti ta ti v e -c l i n i c a l mo d e l s o f anal ysi s.
Besides, everl w,hen empirical data is available on Southeast Asian
s oc iet ies , t her e i s a n e e c l to i n c o rp o ra te the data w i thi n exi sti ng theoreti ca-
fr am ewor k s . Wri ti n g s , r,r,h i c ha re a th e o reti cal , are deemed to be l acki ng i n
" i n t e l l e c t u a l r . t , e i g h t " .B u t a d o p t i n g e x i s t i n g t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e r t ' o r k s t r n c l
applv ing em piri c a rld a ta , c o l l e c te d a n d c o l l a ted from researcharnorl s S otrthe;rst
A s ian s oc iet ie s ,o rl to th e s e fra me r,r' o rk srisks the possi bi l i ty of gl ossi ng over
a \/ery important point, viz. that Southeast Asian societies are not
hom ogeneous . If a n y ti ri n g th e y a re a h i g hl y di vergent - mul ti -ethni c, mtrl ti -
religious, and very complex societies. Tl-rereis an urgent need to reconcilc' or
c ons ider dat a i n th e l i g h t o f l o c a l p ra rti c tr l ari srns. Take the c;rseof the Mal ays
in S ot r t heas t As i a : th e rl tre s ti o n rn a v b e asked, " W ho are the Mal ays ancl

84
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rtrttlProspt'cts ,4-st'ru/
Torivrtl.s K-Socir'/rt

what are their socio-clrltural characteristics?" Despite some comlnon

cl - r ar ac t er is t ic sd, i ffe re n c e s e x i s t a mo n g th e Mal ays of the A rchi pcl ago, for
instauce, in the practices of the Adat Liirvs and the importation of "Aralric"
valttes aucl norms ais-n-z'isindigenotrs Maiay practices in the performing arts
a n d r it uals r ' v hi c h c l e a rl y v a r)' fro m o n e Mal ay grol l p to arrother.12
It is widely ackr-rowledged that the moclern era is a knowledge era and
Sout heas t A s ian s /As i a n s a re re m i n d e d to o that they now l i ve i n a gl obal i sed
wor ld m eaning, i n e ffe c t, th a t l i k e i t o r n o t S outheast .,\si a/A si a i s open tcr
w es t em and t he l a rg e r g l o b a l i n fl tre n c e s .
T hot r gh in re c e n t \/e a rs ,i n So trth e a s tA si a, there has been admi ssi on on
the par t of t he rtrl i r-rge l i te th a t c re a ti v i tv i s i ncl i spensabl e,i n practi ce there i s
n o r ez r liz at iono f i ts tru e me a n i n g . T l ' re reh a s not been even a seri ous attempt
by ASEAN countries to take steps to accluire, more independently r.t,ithin
the r egional c o n te x t, k n o w l e d g e o f o n e a nother' s cul ture. C onsci ousl y or
unconsciously they tend to learn about one another from those outside the
r e g i o n . I n f a c t , t h e c - l i s c i p l i n eo f r e g i o r r a l s t u d i e s i n S o u t h e a s t A s i a i . e .
Sor - r t heas tA s iar r S tu c l i e s r.t' a sb o rr o u ts i c l e the regi on. K now l edge of the
regior r as a r v ho l e to c ' ri s mo s tl v a c c l tri re d from books authored bv schol ars
fro m ot r t s ic - let he re g i c -rn .rr T h i s " s tri k i n g fe aturc" of S otrtheastA si an sttrdi es/
h i st or iogr aphy p ro mp te d h i s to ri a n N i c h o l as Tarl i ng to rai se thc qtresti on i f
i n d eed, " S out he a s t A s i a a s a re g i o n i s a n outsi ders' col rstruct?" rr

SOUTHEAST ASIA AREA STUDIES

C om ell Univ er s i ty i n th e U n i te d Sta te s i s the pi oneer i nsti tuti on of hi gher
learning offering Sotrtlieast Asian Studies as a discipline of study. The
p r os r am m e was i n tro d u c e d i n 1 9 5 0 a s s i s te dby fr,rncl i ngfrom The R ockefel l er
Founclation. This was followeci bv the establishment of the Centre for
s ts i a n S t t r d i e s i n H u l l U n i v e r s i t ] , , U n i t e d K i n g c l o m i t r 7 L ) 6 2h. t
S o r r t l - r e e rA
Atr s t r alia, t he C e n tre o f So u th e a s t A s i a n S ttrdi es \\,as establ i shed i n Monash
University, Melbolln-re irr 1955. This rvas followed by the setting up of the
l{esearch Schooi of Pacific and Asian Studies af the Australian National
University in Canberra. In Europe, the Center for Asian Studies in Amsterdam,
ti r e Nor c - lic I ns t i tu te o f As i a n Stu d i e s i n Copenhagen, the E col e Fratrcai se
d 'E x t r em e O r ie n t i n P i i ri s a n d th e In s ti tr. rt A si enkr.rncl ei rr H amburg \,vere
e .s t al- r lis hed as te a c h i n g a n c l re s e a rc h i n s ti ttrti ons foctrsi ng on thc' di sci p-rl i rre
o f A s ia/ S or " r t he a s tAs i a n A re a S tu c l i e s . 1 5
M o s t o f t h e s e u n i r r e r s i ' i i e sa l s c ' ro f f e r t h e s t u c l y o f S o u t h c a s t A s i a n
l a n gt r aees as a c ru c i a l c o m p o n e n t o f th e d i sci prl i neof S otrtheast A si an A rea
St r . r dies .W hile fe l l o w So u th e a s t As i a n s c or-rl clharcl l y cornmrl ni cate i n the
l a n gt r age of t he i r n e i g h b o u rs , Ame ri c a n , E t rropean and Jtrpaneseresearchers
coll\ ' er s : r nt in o n e o r rn o re l a n g tra e e s s p o kerr i n the S outheast A si an regi on
b e gan t o em bar k o n i n te n s i v e re s e a rc h , mostl y anthropol ogi cal i n natttre, to
u nder s t and t he re g i o n . It w a s o n l v i n th e mi cl -1970s, that S otrtheast A si an
Stt r dies began t o b e o ffe re c -li n So trth e a s tAsi a.
Univ er s it y o f Ma l a y a i n Ktra l a L u rn p u r w as the fi rst to start the program
o f S out he. as tA si a n Stu c l i e s ,o ffe re d a t i ts F acul ty of A rts and S oci al S ci ences.

85
l n t i , B i l n n g n r1t 0 , D i s c t n b t r2 0 0 5

T his r r ' as f ollo w e d s u i t b y o th e r re g i o n al uni versi ti es. Today the N ati onal
University of Singapore ancl Thammasat University in Bangkok offer
Southeast Asian Studies at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. The
i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r o f r , r n i v e r s i t i e sa n d r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t i o n s s u c i r a s t h e
I ns t it ut e of S o u th e a s t A s i a n S tu c l i e s (ISE A S ) i n S i ngapore w i th a focus on
S o r - r t h e a sA
t sia/Regiorral affairs encorlraged research and disseminated
k nowledge on S o u th e a s t A s i a .r6 It a l s o p a ved the w ay for the bi rth of exchange
programmes involving nlrmerous Sotrtheast Asian universities and research
o t r t fi t s .
The ASEAN University Network (AUN), the Southeast Asian Studies
Regional Exchange Prosram (SEASREP)and the Asian Scholarship Foundation
(ASF) are examples of initiatives created to encourage the sharing of
kno',t'ledge of Southeast Asia transcending national (political) boundaries.
T he bir t h a n d i n te re s t i n re g i o n a l s ttrdi es,i rr parti ctrl ar S outheast A si an
S t t r dies and A SE AN S tu d i e s , i n i n s ti ttrt i ons of hi gher l earni ng i n A S E A N
c ot t nt r ies is a p ro mi s i n g s ta rt to b ri d g i n g t he gap i n know l edge-shari ng among
ASEAN member cottntries. The endeavoLlr, however, does have some
s et bac k s and l i mi ta ti o n s .

(2) Linitatiorts irr Creating ur ASEAN Knozuledge Sociehl

The lack of intellectual indeperrclenceis a distinct handicap in the knowledge
er a as k no" r , le d g e o r /ca s i t i s u n d e rs to o d today does not refer speci fi cal l y to
r,trhatis krrown btrt to the capacity for the invention of icleas. And for this to
happ'rsnthere must be a suspicion-free flow and exchange of information (of
cotlrse this exch-rdesclassifieclor confidential inatters). Bureancratic practices
in getting accessto information, research materials such as archival documents
and goverument gazettes infringe Lrpon academic independence. In fact it
is easier to access records on colonial Malaya in Britain or on Indonesia in
Netherlands tiran it is in the respective Southeast Asian countries. A Malaysian
w or k ing on Th a i l a n d g e ts to l o o k a t C o l oni al and Forei gn Offi ce records as
w ell as t r ac le r e p o rts a n d o l d n e w s p a p e r cl i ppi ngs on the country of research
a lm os t im m ed i a te l v a fte r a rri rri n p ; a n c l r egi steri ng hi m/hersel f as a trser at
the P ublic Rec o rd s O ffi c e i n K e w , L o n d o n. The rt,hol e process of regi steri ng
a nc l being is s u e d a re a d e r c a rd i s d o n e i n l ess than an hotrr and cl assi fi cati ons
of nat ionalit y a n d e ti rn i c i ty a re n o t a n i ssue or prereqr-ri si te to be i ssued
r eader - c ar ds . In s o me So u th e a s t As i a n cotrntri es, a prospecti ve researcher
r,r'illhave to send in a written application along with a proposal of the research
p r ojec t at least th re e m o n th s p ri o r to th e date of starti ng research. A pproval
or permission to trse archives and resolrrce centres can take anytime between
3 t o 6 m ont hs a n d b e fo re a re a d e r-c a rd i s i ssued a certai n sum of money
m us t be plac e d a s n o n -re tu rn a b l e d e p o s i t!
A par t f ro m th e l i rn i ta ti o n s i n c o n dtrcti ng i nter-A S E A N research and
knowledge sharing, there are other sr-rbstantiallimitations to the creation of
an A S E A N k n o w l e d g e s o c i e ty .
Firstly, ASEAN is cornprised of countries that are divergent in
geolpaphv, history, culture and politics although there are some

B6
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nndProspacts
Toit,nrdsAscnttK-Societv

com m onalit ies a s w e l l . D i ffe re n t h i s to ri c a l experi ences,pol i ti cal devcl opments

as well as economic developments in the postcolonial era w,idened the
d iv is ion f ur t he r.
There exists disparitrr arxong member countries in terms of internal
and polit ic al de v e l o p me n ts . T h e re a re fo r i nstance, soci al i st \/ersus capi tal i st
blocks among member countries as well as military and religious-fundamental
regimes, which can make working together a challenge. ASEAN is also
e c onom ic ally d i v i d e d b e tw e e n th e " h a v es" and " have-nots" . S ome of the
cottntries are capable of achievirrg NIC statns while others grapple r,r,ithclosed-
cloor isolationist policies or have only recently engagecl in market -oriented
o pen ec onom ie s s u c h a s L a o s a n d Vi e tn a m .' 7
ASEAN is not ready to come to terms r,vith globalisation and the k-era
becattse it lacks common grounds or consensLrs.The aftermath of the Asian
Crisis demonstrated differences in approaches among member countries, in
fact it sent a clear image of a house divided; some cotrntries were pro-lMF
aid, ot her s aga i n s t a rn d s ti l l o th e rs re l u ctant to offer ai d to rrei ghbouri ng
af f ec t ed c ount ri e s . So me A SE AN c o u n tri es are ' u' ocaland constantl y voi ce
or-rtanti-giobalisation sentiments for fear of the crippling effect on peasants
and s m all pr oc l u c e rs rv i ri l e o th e rs i ra v e a dopted " gl obal i sati on i n total i ty" .
M eanwhile, pov e rtv re rn a i n s a b i g i s s u e w i th sorre of the A S E A N countri es;
the economic disparity unclerlines the different approaches and cautious
at t it ude t or v ard s g l o b a l i s a ti o n . T h e p ro b l em i s further exacerbated by tl -re
digital divide between the member countries
Some tnember countrics lack internal development such as
infrastmcture for growth, and other weaknesses snch as political instability,
te r r or is t - t hr eat a s w e l l a s mtrttra l s u s p i c i o n. A FTA i tsel f i s " pl agued by fears
alnong m em ber c o ttn tri e s c L l n c e rn i r-rg th e u neqtral cl i stri buti on of gai ns" .r8In
adr lit ion, t he t h rc a t p o s e d b v tc rri to ri a l d i sputes amons member cotrntri es
se r v es t o div ide m o re th a n u n i te .r' AS EA N nati ons act and react as i ndi vi dual
n at ions r at her th a n a c o l l e c ti v e g ro u p i n g i n settl i ng di sptrtes. S trch acti ons
tend to support the contention that "nationalism, and not regionalism, is the
m ot iv at ing f or ce i n th e g o v e rn a n c e o f th e organi sati on IA S E A N f" .t'
Las t ly , t h e re i s l i ttl e d i a i o g u e a mo n g and w i th the peopl e of A S E A N .
Meetings are trstrally held at state or official (elite) level, the people (masses)
l ac k an A S E A N s p i ri t o r a s tro n g s e n s e of a " communi ty" , arrd i n fact to
som e t he as s oc i a ti o n i s me a n i n g l e s s .

(3) ASEAI/ ais-i-ais ELI irr lorczuledgelinforntatiott sltnring

The s har ing of i n fo rm a ti o n i n g e n e ra l b e t w ,eenA S E A N shoul d be enhanced
in view of the recent economic regional grouping of manv cotrntries such as
the European Union (EU), NAFT.A and the mcre recent grouping between
the S out h A s ian c o trn tri e s i .e . S AA AC . O f these,the E U has made a si gni fi cant
i mpac t as a r eg i o n a l g ro u p i n g .
In June 2002, European Heads of State endorsed the cEurope 2005
Ac t ion P lan, wh i c h s e ts u p a n trm b e r o f targets to be achi eved by the end of
2005, w,ithin the overall objective of the Lisbon Council for 2070 of "making

87
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70,L)rscntbt,r
2005

Etrrope within ten years the most competitive and dynamic knowleclge-based
e c onom y in t he w o rl d " .2 r C o n s e q u e n tl y , t he E U i s i n the process of adopti ng
a ne\ / European law that will allor,r'EU members to share a lot of information
freely amongst them but at the same time prohibit members from sharir-rg
i n f or m at ion r , vi th n o n -me mb e rs fo r s p e c i f i c ci rcumstances (R egul ati on of the
Eur opear r P ar li a m e n t a n rl th e C o trn c i i c o n cerrri ns stati sti cson the.Irrformati on
S o c i e t v I C O M ( 2 0 0 3 )5 0 9 ] ) .
A lt hough th i s e x c l trs i o n i s s trp p o s e d to avoi cl cotrntri es w i th l i nks to
ter r or is m f r om o b ta i n i n g i n fo rma ti o n , many academi cs are concerned that
the exclttsion will also discriminate developing cotrntries in general. The EU
ia-,rr-in-progressmay sotrnd like an extrerne example or a premattrre rvaming
to A S E A N r ne rn b e r c o u n tri e s o f th e s trengths and fl aw s i n i nformati on
sharing; br-rtASEAN as a regionai grotrping with a collective bargaining power
s t ands a bet t er c h a n c e o f re c -l trc i n gth e ri sk of bei ng excl uded by the E U as
c om par ed t o t h e c h a n c e s o f i n d i v i d u a l n ati ons hopi ng to be i ncl uded i n the
i n f or nr at ion- s h a ri n g n e trt' o rk . F u rth e rrn o re, as more regi onal grotrpi nes are
formed, ASEAN can compete better with these othc'r grotrpints
i nt er nat ionally a s a s tro n g c o l l e c ti v e v o i c e for more FD I, R & D i nfrastrttctttres,
a nd ex por t m a rk e t.

CONCLUSION
It is not t he ir - rte n ti o nh e re to p ro v i d e s trc h a gl oomy pi cture' of the ftrture for
a n A S E A N k no w l e d g e s o c i e ty , b u t th e s y mptoms of the current predi caments
m us t be s t at ed e x p l i c i tl y b e fo re a re m e d i al cure can be prescri bed.
Regional i n s ti tn ti o n s v ,,' o rk i n g w ,i t hi n the pararneters of MOU s and
bilat er al or m u l ti l a te ra l e x c h a n g e p ro g ra ms such as the S E A S R E P (basecli n
th e P hilippines ) a n c l A U N (b a s e d i rr T h a i l and) offer a gl i mmer of hope for
th e pos s ibilit y o f g re a te r n e tw o rk i n g a m o ng A S E A N countri es to encol rrage
the exchange of irrformation. But these micro-level sharing must transcend
N4OU universities and institr-rtions to embrace all of Sotrtheast Asia.
The ASEAN Woy rvhich has been the catch phrase of ASEAN
ttovernrr,.entsand the ASEAN-ness promoted by ASEAN governments r,vill
rem ain elit is t a n d s ta te c e rrtri c fo r a s l o n g as the peopl e of A S E A N do not
feel that thev are a part of an ASEAN brotherhoocl or commttnit\' (imagined
or otherwise). It is irnportant that, at this juncttrre, more of ASEAN's
e dt r c at ed c om m u n i tl ' s h o u l d to g e th e r endeavotrr to share, create aud
i deat e t owar c l s th e re ;rl i s a ti o n o f a k -s o ci ety.
Thc active participation at the government-to-government level in
k nowlec lge s ha ri n g i n AS EA N i s e v i d e n t f rom vari otrs government i ni ti ati ves
in securitv, trade and trans-botrrrdaryrelatecl errvironmerrtal issues.
H ower . er , t his d o e s n o t tri c k l e d o r,r' rrto know l edge shari ng betw een peopl e
to people. Prirzate sector sharing is limitecl to btrsiness activity. Thus,
trniv er s it ies s h o u l d p l a y th e s tra te g i c ro l e i n bri cl gi ng the gap i n attai ni ng an
A S E A N k nowl e d g e s o c i e ty . An d a s s trc h , i ni ti ati ves sr-tchas the S E A S R E P
Travellirrg Classroom and the AUN Yotrth Exchange Programs rlre all

BB
 - C/rnl/crr{'cs
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.Asrrlr K-Sociatq

co m lnelldable a n c l e v e ry e ffo rt ml rs t b e mac-l eto errsure the sLrccessand

sl ts t enat r c eof s t rc h e ffo rts .

ENDNOTES
I T h i s p a p e r r v a S p r e s e r n t e r la t t h e 6 ' r ' A S E A N U n i v e r s i t y N e t u ' o r k ( A U N )
E d r - r c a t i o r r aFl o n r r n , Y a r n g o n , N 4 y a n m a r , 1 5 - 2 8 A L r g L r s t2 0 0 4 .
r SEATO trnd MAi'HII-lNDO, trvo groupings formed prior to 7967 comprised
f e r v e r t n e m b c r c o u n t r i c s a r r d r t ' e r e i n d e e c l L ) r e c l l r s o r st o t h e f o r m a t i t - r r ro f A S E A N .
:' O v e r v i e l r , : A s s o c i a t i o n o f S o r - r t h e a sA t sian Nations, obtained from http:/ /
\\r\,v\,v.a sea t1s(]c.o r(g
r T h e A S E A N D e . c l a r r a t i o n ,B t r n g k o k , 8 A r . r g t r s t7 9 6 7 , o b t a i n e . r i f r o m h t t p : / /
w w w . a s e a n s e co. r g
5 A b c l . I l a h n - r a r rb . H n t i Y t r s o i i , " F . f f c c t i r , e P r o g r a m f o r A S E A N IndtrstriaL
C o c - r p e r a t i o n1 9 7 E - 1 9 . 9 3i"n l l . A . l { . M o k h z a r r i c t . a l . ( e d s . ) ,
A S E A N E c o l o l r i t : C o o 1 t c t ' n t i ont rt t d / / l c N r ' i L ,l t r t a n t n t i o t t n lE c o t t o t r t i cO r d t ' r , ( 1 9 8 0 ) .
" , btainecl frorn bttp:/ /
Dcclaration oi ASE,AN Concortl, Indonesia,24 Fcb 7c)76o
\ / \,v\\' .a sca nsec. ()rti
I I U - A S I ; A N , J . r r r u a r vl 0 ( ) 3 , s c r ' h t t F ' r ://t ' t r r o l ' r a . t ' r r . i n t / c o r n m / t ' x t c r n . rrl c l a t i o t r s /
t r s e a r r/ i n t r o / i r r c e
l x .h t r n
s "To\\,.rrds irn ASEAN singlr' market and single investtnent destirratiotr", Ong
I(eng Yong Sccretarv-Gcneral of ASEAN art the Boao Forur-n for Asia AnntraL
C o n f e r c n c e 2 0 0 3 , s e e r v r , v v r , . a s e ' a n s e c . o r1g5/ 3 6 5 . h t m
') " l J u i l c - i i n gK n o r v l e d g e S o c i e t i c s : A S E A N i r r t h e I n f o r m a t i o n A g " " (2(rJarrruary
9 d d r c s s b y F I . l r .M r . I l o d o i f o C . S e v e r i n o ,S e c r e t a r y -C c n e r a l o f A S E A N ,
2 0 0 0 ) ,K e y 1 1 s 1 A
a t t h e A S E A N I l e s i o n a l W o r k s h o p o n B u i l c l i r r g l ( r r o r , r , l c d g eS o c i e t i c s ,I ( u a l a L t u n p t t r ,
2 ( r J . r l l L r ( l r v2 0 0 ( ) ,s r ' r ' l r t t p : / / r , r ' r v r r , . a s t ' . t r r s e c . o r g / 3 J 2 I . h t r t r
r0 ibid.
II Sec httrr://\r'rvrr'.asci-lnsec.ors/3-l2l.htnr
r2 T l ' r c e x t e n t o i " A r a b i s ; r t i o n " o i t h e l t 4 a l a v c u l t l r r e ' , f o r i n s t e r r r c ei,s a c l e b a t c d
s r i b j e c ti n M a l r r v s i a .O n t h e v a r i o t r s r - n e a n i n g so f b e i n g M a l a v a n c l " N { a l a y n c s s " , s c c
'f
ir-r"rcrtlB r t t, r r r r a r r l ( ed . ) , C o t t f r ' s l i r r t ! t 4 n l r t r y r t a sNs 1
: n l n 1l 1d "c r t t i t t l A c t ' o - s .Bs o r r r r r l n r i a s ,
SirrgaproreS r :i n * a p o r c U n i r r e r s i t l ' I ) r c s s , ( 2 0 0 1 ) .
I i Arrong n,orks on Southeast Asitr, thc rnost cited and prolrabiy the earliest of its
k i n c l i s D . C . l i H . r l l ' s , H i s t o r r l o i S r t r t t l r a n sAf s i n , ( 1 9 5 5 , r c p r i n t e d 1 9 8 1 ) . T h i s u ' a s
f o l l c r r v e c lb \ t B r i i l r I - l ; i r r i s o n , S o t t t l t c n s tA s i n , A S l r c r t H i s t c n ' t 1L, o n d o t r : M a c r n i l l a n &
C o , ( 1 9 ( r 3 )N ; i c h o l a s T a r l i n g , A C o r r c i s eH i s t o r v o f S o r r t l t c n sAt s i o , N e r v Y o r k : P r a e g e r ,
( 1 9 6 6 ) ; ) ; D . l . S t e i n b e r g ( e c l ) , l r r S c n r c ho f S o r r t l t a n sAt s i n , N e n ' Y o r k : I ) r a e g c ' r ,( 1 c ) 7 1 ) ;
l i s t o r r y ,N S I , V ;A l l e t t t t L I t t r u i r t ,
M i l t o r r O s b o n r e ( 7 9 7 9 ) , S o r r t l t a n sAt s i n :A t r I t t t r o d t r c f o r tH
( 7 9 7 1 ) ,r l L r m e r o u s r c p r i r r t s t h e r e a f t e r ) a r r c l f i r r a l l y , N i c h o l a s T a r l i r r g ( e d . ) , T l t t
C n n t L t r i d r tH , a m b r i d g e : C a r n b r " i d g eU n i v e r s i t ' , , I ) r e s s , ( 1 9 9 2 ) .
' i s l o r r yo , l ' S o t r f l t c n sAf. s i r t C
T h e l a t t c r h o . u v e v e r ,i n c l L r d c s a t r t h o r s r , r ' h oa r e f r o m t h e S o t r t h e a s t A s i ; r t r r c g i o n .
r 1 N i c h o l a - r sT a r l i r r g , " T h e H i s t o r i a n s o f S o u t h e . a s tA s i A " , i n A n d r e ' u v T ] l T a n ,
M i c l r a c l I - l L s m i t h , I ( h o o I ( i r v K i r n ( c c l s . ) ,S r ' r / r i r t {A l t a r r r n t i u t P
' ( t ' s l t ( c t i t a sO f S o r t l l t c n s f
A s i n , l p o h : P e r a k A c a d e r r v , ( 2 0 0 4 ) ,p . 3 4 .
r 5 M o h a m m a d I { a l i b a n d T i m l - I t r x l e y ( e d s . ) , A r t I t r t r o d r t c t i o t tr o S o r t t l t t ' n sAt s i n r r
, i r - r t a p r o r eI:r r s t i t t r t e o f S o t r t h c a s t A s i a n S t r - r d i e s(, i 9 9 6 ) , p p . 2 - 5 .
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2005

1 6 I b i c l . ,p . 6 .
t 7 F or a f r an k a n a l y s i so f th e p ro b l e m s a n d chal l engesfaci ng A S E A N today see
K . K es av apany", AS EA N In T h e 2 1 ' tC e n tu ry" i n A ndrew TH Tarr,Mi chael LR S mi th
, Khoo Kav Kim (eds.),Set:lcinq AltcrrrntiucPt'rspactiacs Of Sorttlrcnst Asin, pp. 136-145.
The author is a former Singaporediplomat and currently Director of ISEAS,Singapore'
r ' : ' A m it av A c h e rry a C , o tts trttc ti nnc S a c ttri tyC onttrttttti ttl A si n, A S E A N
i n S outl rt' ttst
nt t dt lr cP r olt lanot i R a ri o rtnOl rd c r,L o n d o n a n d N erv Y ork: R outl edge,(2001), p. 1a3.
r e S ee'A ndr e w T a n , " U rrs p o k e n F e a rs :In ter-S tatetensi onsW i thi n A S E A N " , i n
A ndr er , t 'T H T a n , M i c h a e l L It S m i th , K h o o K ay K i m (eds.), S cal ci rtg A l ternnti zte
Parspactittes Of Sorttlrcnst Asin, pp. 772-18c).
2( l K . K es av ap a n y ," A SE AN In T h e ? 1 ' ' C enturv" i n A ndrer.r'TH Tan, Ir4i chaelLR
Smitlr , Khoo Kay Kim (eds.),Scckirtg AltcrttntiaePcrspcctiues 91 Sotttlrcnst Asin,p.744.
2t S ee eE t r r o p e2 0 0 5 Ac ti o n Pl a n , e rl ro p a .ev.i nt/eeurope/2005.

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