M.

A Education
PROGRAMME

Paper : Philosophical Foundations of Education-II

Course No. : EDU18301CR
Semester : 3rd

Directorate of Distance Education

University of Kashmir
Hazratbal, Srinagar
Course Prepared By

Dr. Habibullah Shah

Assistant Professor (Education)
Directorate of Distance Education
University of Kashmir
Srinagar

Course coordinators
Dr. Javeed Ahmad Puju and Dr. Syed ishfaq Ahmad Shah
Assistant Professors (Education)
Directorate of Distance Education
University of Kashmir, Srinagar

Format and Editing ______________________________________________________

Dr. Habibullah Shah and Dr. Showkat Rashid Wani
Assistant Professors (Education),
Directorate of Distance Education,
University of Kashmir, Srinagar

Published By
Director
Directorate of Distance Education
University of Kashmir
Srinagar

ISBN: 987-93-82288-77-0

Year of Publication: 2013: Reprint 2021

Directorate of Distance Education

University of Kashmir
Srinagar
Course No. EDU18301CR Philosophical Foundations of Education-II

Unit I Fundamental Philosophical Issues

i) Epistemological Issues
ii) Ontological Issues
iii) Axiological Issues

Unit II Radical Thought in Education

i) Radicalism – Concept & Meaning

ii) Paulo Freire – Conscientization
iii) Ivan Illich – De-schooling Society

Unit III Indian Schools of Philosophy

i) Hinduism
ii) Buddhism
iii) Islamic Traditions
With special reference to their educational implications

Unit IV Western Thinkers:

i) John Dewey
ii) Bertand Russel
iii) Immunal Kant
Their contribution to Educational thought & practice of
education
 Introduction to Paper
Dear Students,
This paper comprises of four units which highlights the conceptual understanding
of philosophical foundations of education The main objective of this paper is to orient
you to the substance of “philosophical thinking” on problems and issues related to
education.
Unit I: It deals with fundamental issues pertaining to philosophy of education like
epistemological, ontological and axiological issues. The unit explains what is knowledge,
reality and values with special reference to their types and educational implications.

Unit II: It deals with the radical thought in education with special reference to meaning
and concept of radicalism. It highlights the contribution of great radical thinkers like Ivan
Illich and Paulo Friere.

Unit III: This unit tends to explain Indian schools of philosophy. In dealing with the
Indian schools of philosophy and their impact on (or implications for) education, we have
included Hinduism Buddhism and Islamic Traditions. Each of these schools is based on
its distinct and separate assumptions and postulates. By going through these schools of
thought you will learn how the concept of education and its process during the epoch of
these schools.

Unit IV: This unit discusses the contribution to educational thought & practice of
education of different western thinkers thinkers like John Dewey, Bertand Russel and
Immunal Kant.

Wish you a happy reading!

Coordinator
Course No. EUC18301CR Philosophical Foundations of Education-II

CONTENTS

Lesson No Theme Page No

1. Epistemological Issues 1-14

2. Ontological Issues 15-24

3. Axiological Issues 25-36

4. Radicalism 37-53

5. Paulo Freire And Conscientization 54-72

6. Ivan Illich And Deschooling Society 73-88

7. Hinduism 89-110

8. Buddhism 111-135

9. Islamic Traditions 136-150

10. John Dewey 151-184

11. Bertand Russel 185-207

12. Immunal Kant 208-231

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UNIT I

LESSON NO. 01: EPISTEMOLOGICAL ISSUES

Lesson Structure
Introduction

Objectives

Meaning of Epistemology

Types of Knowledge

Forms of Knowledge

Let Us Sum Up

Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

Introduction

Traditionally, philosophy is referred to as a body of views resulting

from systematic reflection on what are considered to be the most fundamental
questions of life. The questions include those of reality, knowledge, truth and
value. However, with the development of philosophic thought in modern
times, philosophy is now looked upon more as an intellectual activity of
analysis, clarification and criticism of beliefs and ideas. Philosophy in other
words is the root of all knowledge. It is considered as mother of all sciences.
Philosophy has interpreted man and his various activities in a comprehensive
manner. It helps to coordinate the various activities of the individuals and the

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society. It helps us to understand the significance of all human experience. “It

explores the basic source and aims of life. It asks and tries to answer the
deepest questions to life. It clarifies life and the basic values of life. This clarity
is very essential because it provides us with the wisdom to face the challenges
of life. Wisdom is the supreme instrument in the hands of man in the struggle
for his successful existence.

Dear students, philosophy is the search for knowledge. This search is

critical. Hence, the first problem which arises before a philosopher is about the
nature of knowledge and its limitation. Therefore, epistemology is the most
fundamental branch of philosophy. It discusses philosophically truth and
falsehood, validity of knowledge, limits of knowledge and nature of
knowledge, knower and known, etc. Defined narrowly, epistemology is the
study of knowledge and justified belief. As the study of knowledge,
epistemology is concerned with the following questions: What are the
necessary and sufficient conditions of knowledge? What are its sources? What
is its structure, and what are its limits? As the study of justified belief,
epistemology aims to answer questions such as: How we are to understand the
concept of justification? What makes justified beliefs justified? Is justification
internal or external to one's own mind? Understood more broadly,
epistemology is about issues having to do with the creation and dissemination
of knowledge in particular areas of inquiry. This lesson will provide a
systematic overview of the problems that the questions above raise and focus
in some depth on issues relating to the structure and the limits of knowledge
and justification. An attempt has also been made to discuss the epistemological
issues in education and types of knowledge, which also come within the
domain of philosophy.

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Objectives

After going this lesson, you should be able to:

• Discuss the nature and meaning of epistemology;
• Explain the types of knowledge ; and
• Discuss the various forms of knowledge?

Meaning of Epistemology

Epistemology is one of the core areas of philosophy. It is concerned with

the nature, sources and limits of knowledge. As a branch of philosophy,
Epistemology is concerned with the discussion of the problem concerning
knowledge. The word epistemology is derived from the Greek word,
"Episteme” which means knowledge. The term was introduced into English by
the Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier. Epistemology deeply focuses
on all aspects of knowledge as knowledge is the principal stock in trade of
educators and philosophers. It deals with knowledge as a universal matter and
aims to discover what is involved in the process of knowing. It studies the
nature, conditions and values of knowledge without deciding before what
consequences of its study would be. It also means preliminary study of
knowledge undertaken at the very beginning of work of scientific
systematization. It asks such questions as:
• What is knowledge?
• How is knowledge acquired?
• What do people know?
• How do we know?
• What we know?

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• Is there something common to all different activities to which we apply

the term knowledge?
• Is knowing a special sort of mental act? If so, what is the difference
between belief and knowledge?
• Can we know anything beyond the objects with which our senses
acquaint us?
• Does knowing make any difference to the object known?
Besides, the epistemologist raises certain other questions such as:
How does a man know what is real?
How do we get knowledge and how can we be sure it is true?
The epistemologist is not interested in amassing and classifying facts
and subjecting them to statistical analysis. The epistemologist has ideas how
people think and feel, but he does not claim to be able to explain them
scientifically. The epistemologist may possess all the information commonly
described as "knowledge", but still he will ask the question, "What is
knowledge after all?" Different epistemologists ask this question in different
ways.
The above mentioned description clarifies the scope of epistemology. Its
subject matter is the process, methods, objects, characteristics, conditions,
validity, and fallacies of knowledge. It should be remembered here that
epistemology uses the philosophical methods of induction and deduction,
analysis and synthesis. Some epistemologist advocates that knowledge is
considered as the out put of different truth and beliefs and study of this process
in which knowledge is created is called epistemology.

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According to Schommer (1990) in his article Effects of beliefs about the

nature of knowledge on comprehension published in the Journal of Educational
Psychology, vol 82 No (3), opined that epistemology may be described as a
system of five dimensions, conceptualized as beliefs about:
• the organization of knowledge: from simple and compartmentalized to
complex and highly integrated.
• the certainty of knowledge: from certain and absolute to tentative and
constantly evolving.
• the source of knowledge: from handed down by omniscient authority to
derived by reason.
• the control of knowledge acquisition: from the ability to learn is innate
and fixed at birth to ability to learn is acquired through experience.
• the speed of knowledge acquisition: from learning is quick or not-at-all
to learning is acquired gradually.
He further advocates that learners with simple epistemological beliefs
view knowledge as absolute, black or white, handed down by authority,
acquired quickly or not at all and that the ability to learn is fixed at birth. With
sophisticated epistemological beliefs learners embrace knowledge as complex
and tentative and the source of knowledge shifts from the simple transfer of
knowledge from authority to processes of rational thinking

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Realistic philosophers assert that the things we know exist

independently of any human act of knowing them. We also make direct contact
with them. In other words, what we see, hear, taste, touch and smell are not
ideas, impressions or sense data but are real solid objects that we can know
pretty much for what they are. Once we grant that the objects of our
perceptions are not ideas at all but object themselves. There is no difficulty in
understanding the nature of the outside world. It is not affected by being
known. According to idealistic philosophers, epistemology is the knowledge of
ideas. For an absolute idealist like Hegel, knowledge is valid to the extent that
it forms a system. Since reality itself is a system, our knowledge of reality is
true to the extent that it becomes systematic. The more comprehensive system
and more consistent the idea it embraces, the more truth it may be said to
possess. Pragmatist epistemologist considers the mind to be active and
exploratory, rather than passive and receptive. Man does not simply receive
knowledge; he makes it truth does not lie solely in correspondence with
external reality because reality for man is not independent of the ideas that he
proposes in order to explain it. Knowledge is transaction between man and his
environment. To conclude, all pragmatists agree at least that the meaning of an
idea lies in its consequences after it has been put into operation. Thus, we find
realists, idealists and rationalists and critical philosophers in the field of
epistemological problem.
About the possibility of knowledge, one finds different approaches such
as agnostic, skeptic and mystic. All these approaches have thrown light on
different aspects of knowledge. Besides, different epistemologists have
criticized the views of other fellow epistemologists and this discussion has

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given rise to the interesting literature. Kant's famous book "Critique of Pure
Reason" is a permanent contribution to epistemological literature.
Bertrand Russell is famous for distinguishing "knowledge by
description" (a form of knowledge that) and "knowledge by acquaintance" in
Problems of Philosophy. Gilbert Ryle is often credited with emphasizing the
distinction between knowing how and knowing that in The Concept of Mind. In
Personal Knowledge, Michael Polanyi argues for the epistemological relevance of
knowledge how and knowledge that; using the example of the act of balance
involved in riding a bicycle, he suggests that the theoretical knowledge of the
physics involved in maintaining a state of balance cannot substitute for the
practical knowledge of how to ride, and that it is important to understand how
both are established and grounded. This position is essentially Ryle's, who
argued that a failure to acknowledge the distinction between knowledge that
and knowledge how leads to vicious regresses. In recent times, some
epistemologists (Sosa, Greco, Kvanvig, Zagzebski) have argued that
epistemology should evaluate people's properties (i.e., intellectual virtues) and
not just the properties of propositions or propositional mental attitudes. One
reason is that higher forms of cognitive success (i.e., understanding) are said to
involve features that can't be evaluated from a justified true belief view of
knowledge.
In general, the main epistemological problem is to state and assess the
basis on which knowledge rests and claims to knowledge are made. There are
different types of knowledge, the most important of which are briefly
summarized as:

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Types of Knowledge

i) Revealed Knowledge: Simply put, revealed knowledge may be

described as knowledge that God discloses to man. In his omniscience
God inspires certain men to record and write his revelation in
permanent form, whereby it may become accessible to all mankind. In
layman’s language, we may say that knowledge which is revealed by
almighty God on any human being is known as revealed knowledge. As
Holy Quran was revealed by God on Mohammad (S.A.W). Similarly for
Christian Holy Bible is the revealed book ; for the Hindus, it is the
Bhagavad-Gita and the Upanishads. Divinely authenticated, to promises
that those who accept it can never, according to their own lights, be
mistaken. Human interpretation may distort parts of it, but in itself it is
Divine truth. Revealed knowledge is confined to whatever a religion or
sect accepts as the Word of God. It is true for ever.

ii) Authoritative Knowledge: We accept a good deal of knowledge as true

not because we have checked it our selves but it authenticated by the
authorities in the concerned field. In other words, this is knowledge
accepted as true because it comes from experts. Knowledge found in
encyclopedias, refereed journals and text books usually is regarded as
authoritative knowledge. Other sources are monographs and specialized
publications by recognized professional people. Most of our factual
knowledge is based on authority; much of it is a record of the
achievements, experiences and facts that our culture considers of
sufficient value to perpetuate.

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iii) Intuitive Knowledge: Intuitive knowledge is the out put of intuition.

Intuition is perhaps the most personal way of knowledge. Intuitive
knowledge is knowledge that a person finds himself in a moment of
intuition. Intuition is by no means the monopoly of mystics, saints and
gurus only. It is believed that scientists, artists, philosophers and
religious leaders, who have experienced moments of deep
contemplation all testify to the fact that some of their most creative
accomplishments have occurred following sudden insights or moments
of inspiration. Mystical writings, paintings, autobiographies, mystical
poetry and personal essays are the reflections of intuitive knowledge.

iv) Rational Knowledge: Reason is a source of knowledge from which we

derive universally valid judgments that are consistent with one another.
The principles of formal logic and pure mathematics are paradigms of
rational knowledge. Those who stress reason as the important factor in
knowledge are known as rationalists. According to rational approach,
the method of pure reason is most accurate way of giving knowledge.
Pythagoras Theorem is example of rational knowledge.

v) Empirical Knowledge: It is a gospel truth that senses are the gate way of
knowledge. Locke said that there was nothing in the intellect except
what was first in the senses. Leibnitz countered that there was nothing
in the intellect except the intellect. In effect, however, both implied that
the intellect could do nothing without the senses. Empirical knowledge
is that type of knowledge which is confirmed by the evidence of senses
or which is gained by senses. The view that knowledge comes from the
senses is known as empiricism. By seeing hearing, smelling, feeling and
tasting we form our picture of the world around us. Knowledge,

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therefore, is imposed of ideas formed in accordance with observed

empirical or sensed facts. The emrical approach believes that “look and
see” is the source of knowledge.

Forms of Knowledge

The various forms of knowledge are as under:

a) Explicit knowledge: This form of knowledge is capable of being

expressed in words or may be numbers. It can be shared either through
electronic devices or through traditional means. Explicit knowledge can
be transmitted to a wider section of the society and has been the major
form of Western knowledge as opposed to the Japanese understanding
that knowledge is something that is not easily visible and/or can be
expressed.

b) Tacit knowledge: This form of knowledge can be said to be highly

personal and difficult to communicate or share with others. It includes
such knowledge as subjective insights and intuitions. Tacit knowledge is
dependent upon ones actions and ideals, values or emotions.

c) Received Knowledge: Knowledge can also be seen as facts and correct

information with instructors (teachers) being seen as experts who have
mastered the required facts. It is the duty of the teacher to present
knowledge through such devices as notes, assist the learner to commit it
to memory and to test its mastery.

d) Subjective Knowledge: Knowledge is occasionally characterized by

absence of unanimous accepted facts. You may have noticed, for
example, that various scholars do not agree on some basic things such as

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definition of common disciplines. This has meant that learners too are
encouraged to develop the present level of knowledge as per their
experience and understanding. Under subjective knowledge, the
opinion of the teacher is never final, since teachers act as facilitators of
knowledge, guiding learners to how to achieve their fullest potential.

e) Procedural Knowledge: This view considers knowledge as neither

factual nor made up of correct answers. It argues that no single scholar
has fully understood the facts to enable him/her to force his/her
opinion on others. It extends learners a chance to express what they
consider as complex problems with evidence. It assumes that the
teachers are equipped and well informed to assist the learners in
analyzing the challenges through different situations/alternatives.
Knowledge here is made of different facts and experiences.

f) Constructed Knowledge: It views knowledge as contextual and relative,

uncertain and tentative, yet capable of making positions, choices and
commitments to oneself. A knowledgeable person is one who is fully
aware of uncertainty but still has the courage to encourage learners
towards informed opinions and reasoned judgments and commitments.
It considers learning as going beyond academics to create learners with
a universal view of the world.
Briefly speaking, epistemology is the most important branch of
philosophy. The question of what knowledge is and how it is acquired – is
naturally an important one in the discursive domain of philosophy of
education. Yet, educational notions of epistemology still rely almost exclusively
on text in order to define, store and convey knowledge.

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Self Checking Exercise

1. Define epistemology and identify its relevance and scope.

2. Mention the various types of knowledge.

Let Us Sum Up

We started this lesson by looking at the nature and types of knowledge.

We also looked at some modes of knowledge transfer where we noted that
making new knowledge available may not result in it being transferred and
accepted by all. We noted further that the process of knowledge transfer is
further complicated because those who have the knowledge may be ignorant of
their capacities or may be considering their knowledge as less significant and

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may end up not transferring the same to others. The process of knowledge
transfer is further complicated because those who have the knowledge may be
ignorant of their capacities or may be considering their knowledge as less
significant and may end up not transferring the same to others. This lesson also
went into various forms of knowledge, giving particular emphasis to the
traditional and modern approaches to education with regard to types of
knowledge.

Check Your Progress

1. Discuss the meaning and relevance of epistemology in the area of
education?
2. What do you mean by Epistemology? Write a short paragraph on:
i. Explicit knowledge
ii. Tacit knowledge
iii. Received Knowledge
iv. Subjective Knowledge
v. Procedural Knowledge
vi. Constructed Knowledge
3. Explain the various types and forms of knowledge?
4. Write short note on:
vii. Revealed Knowledge,
viii. Empirical Knowledge and
ix. Intuitive Knowledge.

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Suggested Readings

1. Brubacher, John S. (1962). Modern Philosophies of Education. Tokyo:

McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
2. Butler, J. Donald (1968). Four philosophies and their practice in education and
religion. New York & London: Harper and Row.
3. Dupuis, A. M. (1972). Philosophy of Education in Historical Perspective. New
Delhi: Thomson Press (India) Ltd.
4. Durant, W. (1961) The Story of Philosophy, New York: Simon and Schuster
5. Hocking, W. E. (1959). Types of Philosophy. New York: Charles Scribner's
Sons.

6. Howrad, T. (1980) Philosophy, An Introduction, Buffalo, NY: Prometheus

Books.

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UNIT I

LESSON NO 2: ONTOLOGICAL ISSUES

Lesson Structure
Introduction

Objectives

Historical Background of Ontology

Meaning of Ontology

Some Fundamental Questions of Ontology

Branches of Ontology

Let Us Sum Up

Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

Introduction

Reality is the core focus of philosophy. Ontology is the main branch of

metaphysics which discusses in detail about reality and its different aspects. It
represents the speculative side of philosophy. It is concerned with the real
essence of things. Ontology is the science of ultimate reality. It considers
questions as: Does the universe as a whole show evidence or rational design or
is it ultimately meaningless? Is what we call mind or spirit nothing more than
an illusion bred by the present inadequacy of scientific knowledge or does it

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possess a reality of its own? Are all organisms determined or are some free? In
this lesson, we shall discuss in length about ontology and its different branches.

Objectives

After going this lesson, you should be able to:

• Explain the historical background of Ontology;
• Describe the meaning of Ontology; and
• Explain the branches of ontology.

Historical Background of Ontology

While the etymology is Greek, the oldest extant record of the word
ontology is the Latin form ontologia, which appeared in 1606, in the work
Ogdoas Scholastica by Jacob Lorhard (Lorhardus) and in 1613 in the Lexicon
philosophicum by Rudolf Göckel (Goclenius).
The first occurrence in English of "ontology" as recorded by the OED
(Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, 1989) appears in Bailey’s dictionary
of 1721, which defines ontology as ‘an Account of being in the Abstract’ -
though, of course, such an entry indicates the term was already in use at the
time. It is likely the word was first used in its Latin form by philosophers based
on the Latin roots, which themselves are based on the Greek. It is believed that
every philosopher has touched the roots of ontology while discussing the
philosophical issues. History reveals that Parmenides was among the first to
propose an ontological characterization of the fundamental nature of reality. In
his prologue or proem he describes two views of reality; initially that change is
impossible, and therefore existence is eternal. Consequently our opinions about
reality must often be false and deceitful. Most of western philosophy, and

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science - including the fundamental concepts of falsifiability and the

conservation of energy - have emerged from this view. This posits that
existence is what exists, and that there is nothing that does not exist. Hence,
there can be neither void nor vacuum; and true reality can neither come into
being nor vanish from existence. Rather, the entirety of creation is limitless,
eternal, uniform, and immutable. Parmenides thus advocated that change, as
perceived in everyday experience, is illusory. Everything that we can
apprehend is but one part of a single entity. This idea somewhat anticipates the
modern concept of an ultimate grand unification theory that finally explains all
of reality in terms of one inter-related sub-atomic reality which applies to
everything.

Meaning of Ontology

Ontology is the philosophical study of the nature of being, existence or

reality in general, as well as the basic categories of being and their relations.
Traditionally listed as a part of the major branch of philosophy known as
metaphysics, ontology deals with questions concerning what entities exist or
can be said to exist, and how such entities can be grouped, related within a
hierarchy, and subdivided according to similarities and differences. Ontology
concerns determining whether some categories of being are fundamental, and
asks in what sense the items in those categories can be said to "be". It is the
inquiry into being in so much as it is being, or into beings insofar as they exist—
and not insofar as, for instance, particular facts obtained about them or
particular properties related to them.
For Aristotle there are four different ontological dimensions: i) according
to the various categories or ways of addressing a being as such, ii) according to

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its truth or falsity (e.g. fake gold, counterfeit money), iii) whether it exists in
and of itself or simply 'comes along' by accident, and iv) according to its
potency, movement (energy) or finished presence.
Some philosophers, notably of the Platonic school, contend that all
nouns (including abstract nouns) refer to existent entities. Other philosophers
contend that nouns do not always name entities, but that some provide a kind
of shorthand for reference to a collection of either objects or events. In this latter
view, mind, instead of referring to an entity, refers to a collection of mental
events experienced by a person; society refers to a collection of persons with
some shared characteristics, and geometry refers to a collection of a specific kind
of intellectual activity. Between these poles of realism and nominalism, there
are also a variety of other positions; but any ontology must give an account of
which words refer to entities, which do not, why, and what categories result.
When one applies this process to nouns such as electrons, energy, contract,
happiness, space, time, truth, causality, and God, ontology becomes fundamental
to many branches of philosophy. Hence in this way ontology becomes the
study of realities.

Some Fundamental Questions of Ontology

Principal questions of ontology are "What can be said to exist?", "Into

what categories, if any, can we sort existing things?", "What are the meanings
of being?", "What are the various modes of being of entities?". Various
philosophers have provided different answers to these questions.
One common approach is to divide the extant entities into groups called
categories. Of course, such lists of categories differ widely from one another,
and it is through the co-ordination of different categorical schemes that

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ontology relates to such fields as library science and artificial intelligence. Such
an understanding of ontological categories, however, is merely taxonomic,
classificatory. The categories are, properly speaking, the ways in which a being
can be addressed simply as a being, such as what it is (its 'whatness', quidditas
or essence), how it is (its 'howness' or qualitativeness), how much it is
(quantitativeness), where it is, its relatedness to other beings, etc.
Further examples of ontological questions include:
• What is existence, i.e. what does it mean for a being to be?
• Is existence a property?
• Is existence a genus or general class that is simply divided up by
specific differences?
• Which entities, if any, are fundamental? Are all entities objects?
• How do the properties of an object relate to the object itself?
• What features are the essential, as opposed to merely accidental,
attributes of a given object?
• How many levels of existence or ontological levels are there? And
what constitutes a 'level'?
• What is a physical object?
• Can one give an account of what it means to say that a physical
object exists?
• Can one give an account of what it means to say that a non-
physical entity exists?
• What constitutes the identity of an object?
• When does an object go out of existence, as opposed to merely
changing?

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• Do beings exist other than in the modes of objectivity and

subjectivity, i.e. is the subject/object split of modern philosophy
inevitable?
Briefly speaking, Ontology is the main branch of metaphysics. It
represents the speculative side of philosophy. It is concerned with the real
essence of things. Ontology is the science of ultimate reality. It considers
questions as: Does the universe as a whole show evidence or rational design or
is it ultimately meaningless? Is what we call mind or spirit nothing more than
an illusion bred by the present inadequacy of scientific knowledge or does it
possess a reality of its own? Are all organisms determined or are some free?
Metaphysical questions usually arise when physical problems are considered
or solved.

Branches of Ontology

Ontology has three main branches. These are as under:

1. Monism
2. Dualism
3. Pluralism
1) Monism: Monism is the ontological theory according to which there is
only one ultimate reality underlying the whole universe. Such a theory
is found in the philosophy of Spinoza. According to monism, all the
variety and multiplicity seen in the universe is due to the manifestations
of one ultimate reality in different forms. There is no place for plurality
or dualism in the universe. Monism is based on man's fundamental
tendency to seek unity in diversity. Thus, there cannot be two or many
ultimate realities because this will give rise to the difficulty of inter-

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relationship among them and this relation will finish all freedom
thereby making them far from being ultimate realities. Ultimate reality
can be only one, otherwise, it will not be ultimate.
We feel that there is one universal system found in vegetable
kingdom, among animals and the human beings. Therefore, we think
that there should be one ultimate power behind all this system because
if it is not so how can there be a uniform system in the universe? In man
himself whatever happens in the body influences the mind and
whatever happens in the mind influences the body. This shows that
there is one identical substance underlying both these. As Spinoza has
pointed out, the ultimate substance should be free and self dependent.
Therefore, there cannot be two or many ultimate realities because this
will give rise to the difficulty of inter relationship among them and this
relation will finish all freedom, thereby making them far from being
ultimate realities. Literally speaking, ultimate reality can be only one,
otherwise, it will not be the ultimate. In the words of Spinoza, monistic
philosopher, "If substance is that which needs nothing other than itself
to exist, if God is the substance and everything else dependent upon
him, then obviously, there can be no substance outside of God. Then
thought and extension cannot be attributed to separate substances but
are merged in God; they are attributes of one single independent cause
and bearer of qualities and events, the one principle in which all things
find their being".
2) Dualism: According to this Ontological theory, there are two ultimate
realities - the matter and the mind. Such a theory is found in the
philosophy of the modern philosopher Descartes. At the root of dualism

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there is the difficulty of establishing a relation between the matter and

mind having contradictory characteristics. Dualism is also found in the
philosophy of Aristotle and ever since his time dualism has been
propounded in philosophy in different forms. Its main difficulty is the
establishment of a relation between the two realities - matter and mind.
If this relation is external it does not relate them. If it is internal the two
become merely two forms of the same one ultimate substance.
3) Pluralism: According to this ontological theory, there are many ultimate
realities in the cosmos. Pluralism means the theory according to which
the ultimate reality is not single but many. This philosophy believes that
every living being and everything has its own distinct and independent
existence. For example, in the world around us we find multiplicity and
variety. There are innumerable stars and planets in the universe and our
sun and earth is one among many. It has been found by scientific
discoveries that some stars are at such a distance from the earth that
their light traveling with fast speed take several million years to reach
the earth. In comparison with such a vast universe, how small is an
atom or a molecule. Similarly, in the vegetable kingdom, innumerable
multiplicity and variety is found in plants and trees, flowers and fruits.
In the animal kingdom, there are innumerable species of animals. In the
human world again, every man is individually unique from all others.
All this proves the existence of multiplicity, variety and plurality in the
world. This is the philosophical theory of pluralism.

Let Us Sum Up

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In this lesson, we thrown light on ontology and came to know that

ontology is a science or study of being: specifically, a branch of metaphysics
relating to the nature and relations of being; a particular system according to
which problems of the nature of being are investigated; first philosophy. It is
also believed that ontology is an explicit specification of a conceptualization.
The term is borrowed from philosophy, where ontology is a systematic account
of Existence. For knowledge-based systems, what “exists” is exactly that which
can be represented. When the knowledge of a domain is represented in a
declarative formalism, the set of objects that can be represented is called the
universe of discourse. This set of objects, and the describable relationships
among them, are reflected in the representational vocabulary with which a
knowledge-based program represents knowledge. Thus, we can describe the
ontology of a program by defining a set of representational terms. In such an
ontology, definitions associate the names of entities in the universe of discourse
(e.g., classes, relations, functions, or other objects) with human-readable text
describing what the names are meant to denote, and formal axioms that
constrain the interpretation and well-formed use of these terms." In this lesson,
we also discussed the various types of ontology like Monism which is the
ontological theory according to which there is only one ultimate reality
underlying the whole universe. Such a theory is found in the philosophy of
Spinoza. Similarly in dualism, there are two ultimate realities - the matter and
the mind. Such a theory is found in the philosophy of the modern philosopher
Descartes. At last, according to Pluralism, there are many ultimate realities in
the cosmos. Pluralism means the theory according to which the ultimate reality
is not single but many. This philosophy believes that every living being and
everything has its own distinct and independent existence.

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Check Your Progress

1. Discuss the meaning and relevance of ontology in the area of education?

2. Explain the various branches of ontology?

Suggested Readings

1. Brubacher, John S. (1962). Modern Philosophies of Education. Tokyo:

McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
2. Butler, J. Donald (1968). Four philosophies and their practice in education and
religion. New York & London: Harper and Row.
3. Dupuis, A. M. (1972). Philosophy of Education in Historical Perspective. New
Delhi: Thomson Press (India) Ltd.
4. Durant, W. (1961) The Story of Philosophy, New York: Simon and Schuster
5. Hocking, W. E. (1959). Types of Philosophy. New York: Charles Scribner's
Sons.
6. Howrad, T. (1980) Philosophy, An Introduction, Buffalo, NY: Prometheus
Books.

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UNIT I

LESSON NO 03: AXIOLOGICAL ISSUES

Lesson Structure
Introduction

Objectives

Meaning of Axiology

Meaning and Nature of Values

Types of Values

Need and Importance of Value Education

Let Us Sum Up

Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

Introduction

In this lesson, we shall discuss in detail axiology and need of value

oriented education in contemporary era. The most important and the central
problem of modern philosophy is the theory of values. Values are the guiding
principles of life. They are important because every human action is the
reflection of an individual value and every human institution the out growth of
social values. Values are of great concern in present era where value crises is
seen every where. The branch of philosophy which studies in detail all aspects

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of values is termed as axiology. In this lesson, we shall discuss in detail axiology

and need of value oriented education in modern era.

Objectives

After going this lesson, you should be able to:

• Explain the meaning of axiology;
• Describe the importance of value education and
• Explain the various types of values.

Meaning of Axiology

The general study of values is called as "axiology". It concerns itself with

three main questions- (1) whether values are subjective or objective, i.e.
personal or impersonal (2) whether values are changing or constant and (3)
whether there are hierarchies of value. Let us examine these issues briefly:-
1. To say that there are objective values is to claim that there are values
that exist in their own right regardless of human preferences. Such
values as goodness, truth and beauty are cosmic realities. They are part
of the nature of things. Certain things are objectively true. Certain
actions and certain qualities are inherently good. Certain things are
beautiful in themselves. Education has an objective value, it is
worthwhile in itself. To maintain that values are subjective is to claim
that they reflect personal preferences. To be valuable is to be valued by
someone.
2. Some people argue that there are values that are absolute and eternal
variable and changing. These values are as valid today as they were in
the past and they are valid for everyone regardless of race or class.

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Charity, it is sometimes argued, is a good for all men everywhere at

all times. Other people maintain that all values are relative to men's
desires. As our desires change, so do the values that express them.
Desires, and so values, change in response to new historical
conditions, new religions, new findings in science, new developments in
technology, advances in education and so forth. Paradoxically however,
such standards are closely linked to absolute values or at least to values
that are more or less permanent.
3. Just what attitudes the thoughtful person takes to values depends on his
general philosophy. The philosophic idealist maintains that there is a
fixed hierarchy of values in which spiritual values are higher than
material ones. The idealist ranks religious values high because, he says,
they help us to realize our ultimate goal, unity with the spiritual order.
The philosophic realist also believes in a hierarchy of values, but he
ranks rational and empirical values high because they help us to adjust
to objective reality, the laws of nature and the rules of logic. So in
nutshell we may conclude that axiology in the comprehensive study of
values and in order to understand the axiology in a broader
perspectives, we have to understand the meaning and nature of values.

Meaning and Nature of Values

Value is that which is important, that which is the object of the

individual's effort, it is that for which one lives and for which he is prepared to
make the greatest sacrifices. A qualitative analysis of value is made by the
economics of a value which exists in practical utility in exchange. Generally
speaking, anything that satisfies human desire, is considered to possess value,

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things such as a bank account, art objects, friends and various mementos.
Ethics makes a qualitative analysis of value. Value helps one in one's progress
to the goal of life. It leads to self realization and self development.
Value is closely related to interest, since only that thing is treated as
valuable which appears to interest the individual, a whole society or entire
mankind. Values differ with interest! Books have no value for the uneducated
man; while for the scholar these are worth, their weight in gold if not more.
And even among scholars books on different subjects would be valuable to
different individuals. To take a simple example, food has a value for the
hungry but for the man whose stomach is full; it is far less valuable. So long as
one is suffering from hunger even the simplest food has tremendous value,
even water can be immensely valuable to one who has been thirsty for a long
time. Values change with the level- of development also because for the
materialistic man it is the physical which will possess the greatest value. On the
other hand, the intellectual and the spiritualist often attaches little value to the
material comforts of life.
Values abound everywhere in education, they are involved in every
aspect of school practice, they are basic to all matters of choice and decision
making. Using values teachers evaluate students and students evaluate
teachers. Society evaluates courses of study, school programmes and teaching
competence and society itself is evaluated by educators.

Nature of value
Nature of value depends upon the basis of criteria of satisfaction. Value
is that which gives satisfaction. Here the question arises as to who gets the
satisfaction and of what type? It depends upon the ‘analysis’ of the situation,
anything, property, sentence and activity etc, can be valuable or has values.

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Values are determined by the situations. Value decision shows the nature of
value. We must know some characteristics before deciding the values.
* Necessity: The child/individual must know the necessity of values before
practicing them. Due to the necessity of the meaning of some elements in
a sentence it becomes valuable. The maximum value is given to those
things without which we cannot exist. (Food, shelter, water, clothes). Next
we have to consider the things which provides comforts for us (books,
radio, T.V.) later intoxicants and decorative.
* Obligation: Some of the value decisions are obligatory; it is difficult to put
them in practice. They are different from general decisions. e.g., education
is valuable, so to achieve it is obligatory.
* Based on the liking of decision making: The value decisions are
according to the liking of the decision maker. One who is fond of flowers
considers them to be the most beautiful thing in the world. Those who
have more respects for women, for them women is the best creation God
in the world. In this way, differences in the value decision arise, nothing is
intrinsically valuable, but it has value because it is liked, is appropriate or
necessary. According to Gots Halk, there are three elements in the
formation of value, i.e., objective subjective and rational depending on the
situation and the three elements possess values in the decision-making.
* According to spiritualists and philosophers: The values are spiritual
because spirituality is only the criterion of auspiciousness. According to
materials the value are inherent in happiness. The object itself is not
valuable but it has value that it gives happiness. From the comparative
studies of values, it comes to be known that all the values are measurable;
the moral values are permanent, unique and original. They are not

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commensurable with other values. Their knowledge leads to the

emergence of duties, intelligence and moral obligations. Moral values are
truth, beauty and goodness. When all these values are re-united together,
the ultimate aim of self realization becomes a reality. It is a permanent
ultimate value.

Types of Values

Burbacher in his book, ‘Modern Philosophies of Education’ has attempted to

divide educational values into two categories- i) related to likes or immediate
values and ii) related to intelligent likes or remote values.
1. Related to likes or immediate values: These are the values which fulfill
the biological and psychological needs of children. Only immediate
objects are able to satisfy these values. The remote objects do not possess
any relevance.
2. Related to intelligent likes or remote values: These are the values
which are closely related to intelligent and rational needs. It is known
that each programme of school satisfies the diverse needs of teacher and
children, but only some of these needs have been important. Further, all
these needs are not likely to be satisfied. Thus each person will make an
intelligent selection out of all these needs and try to get maximum
advantage from all the activities of the school. Hence these values are
more or less related to intelligently selected likes and needs. These
values are further divided into two categories such as instrumental
values and intrinsic values:
I. Instrumental or extrinsic values: These values have been used
because of their consequence in realizing some other values. Thus,

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they are means to the attainment of other objects, and are good for
some higher end. According to Brubacher, “Instrumental values are
judged as good, because they are good for something.” Organic
values (Bodily, economic and recreational values) are termed as
Instrumental values. They are temporary and extrinsic. They are
subjective and change in accordance to the change in
circumstances.
II. Intrinsic values: The instrumental value if of worth due to its
consequences while an intrinsic value is of worth on its own
account. Intrinsic values are end in themselves and are permanent
and ultimate values. In the words of Brubacher, “Intrinsic values
are values which are judged good, not for something else, but in
and of themselves.” These values are complete in themselves and
do not depend on anything external. They are not subjective but
objective in nature.
III. Apart from the instrumental and intrinsic values, there are many
objects which are valuable from the point of view of both the
categories. However both kinds of values are interrelated, mutually
complimentary, supplementary and are more or less essential for
the growth and development of children.

Need and Importance of Value Education

The main function of the education is the development of an all-round

and well balanced personality of the students but nowadays more emphasis is
unduly laid on knowledge based and information oriented education, which
takes care of only the intellectual development of the students. Consequently,

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the other aspects of their personality like physical, emotional, social and
spiritual are not properly developed. Modern age of science and technology
has created certain evils like industrialism, mechanism etc. In spite of
spectacular achievements in science, man is not happy and contented. Powerful
tools of destruction like Atom bombs, Hydrogen bombs etc. are in the
possession of man kind. Thus, Man has become the monarch of the entire
world and aspirant of controlling the whole universe. But he is still the slave of
many undesirable passions. In the present era, the erosion of values has led to
the spread of callous, selfishness, unlimited greed, bribery, narrowism,
rowdyism, hooliganism, violence, destruction, abuse of human rights, gross
injustice, frustration and crises of character.
All types of corruption, bribery, dishonesty, disloyalty, nepotism and
other such practices from top to bottom are increasing. There is social
exploitation everywhere. People do not hesitate to exploit others for their own
benefit. The present society has lost its faith in social, cultural and moral
values. Hence, one finds complete disorganization of values. This acts as a
serious impediment to values.
Briefly, when social, moral, cultural and spiritual values are
disintegrating, when religion is losing its hold, when power and knowledge are
being misused for vested interests, when nations do not trust one another,
when black marketing, corruption, barbarism, indiscipline, violence are fast
spreading, it is essential that education should be value oriented.
Realizing the need and importance of value education, the former president of
India Dr. A.P.J Abdul Kalam during his inaugural speech of Summer Session of J & K
State Legislative Assembly on 28-07-2006 and also during Addressing Function in
connection with the Diamond Jubilee Celebrations of J & K High Court in SKICC

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Auditorium, emphasized that value oriented education should be imparted not only in
the Secondary and Higher Stages of education but right from Primary stage of
education. He opined that only Value oriented education can promote individual and
social welfare, love, peace, universal brotherhood, good will and mutual understanding.
On both the occasions he further said that ‘Youth is Power’, who can change the
attitude of their parents but it is possible only when we impart value oriented education
to them.
Let us summarize the need and importance of value-oriented education as
under:
1. Moral Development: Value education forms the foundation of character
and moral development. It is able to inculcate in children humility,
truthfulness, tolerance, honesty, sincerity, courtesy, sympathy, fellow-
feeling, affection, spirit of service and sacrifice. These form a noble
character of child and develop his personality.
2. Resolving Conflicts: In the present age people have more or less
materialistic attitude. This has given rise to different types of conflicts
such as old beliefs and new beliefs, old values of life and new values of
life. Thus there are many social and ethical conflicts. Value education
makes us in resolving these conflicts.
3. Co-operative Living: Value education makes us to live and work co-
operatively. Narrow feelings and attitudes are never praised and
appreciated by others.
4. Developing Democratic Qualities: In pupils the value education is able
to develop democratic qualities like liberty, equality, fraternity, justice
and co-operative living. It lays emphasis on the dignity of the individual
and the sacredness of human personality.

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5. Sublimation of Instincts: Value education sublimates and redirects our

sex instinct into desirable and healthy channels. It influences all aspects
of human life and society of which he is a part. It develops in pupils the
desired social awakening.
6. Basis of Humanitarianism: Value education forms the basis of
humanitarianism which stands for peace, goodwill and understanding.
It is helpful in fostering the brotherhood of man and unity of the world.
Absence of value education is responsible for exploitation, corruption,
disaster, selfishness, aggression and hatred in the world. People are
becoming useless creatures. There is chaos and disorder. Betterment of
the world is more or less dependent upon value education. It will
eradicate the present ills of the world.
7. Cultural Development: Value education plays vital role in the cultural
development. Value education preserves as well as reinforces culture.
Both values and culture go hand in hand and influence each other.
Values must have a place in the curriculum.
8. Developing Wider Attitude: Value education will make a pupil
dynamic and enlightened. This will be able to develop in him a wider
attitude towards life. He starts taking interest in social service by
sacrificing his selfish motives.
9. Decoration of Soul: Our soul is assumed to be a part of the ultimate
truth i.e., God. So our duty is to keep it pure and perfect as this is
possible through value education. The individual gets self-disciplined
through such education.
10. Maintaining Harmony: Value education is able to create harmony in all
aspects of educational philosophy. The value-oriented education has

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harmonized psychological, social and ethical traits. It develops,

harmony between physical and mental structure. It helps to develop a
complete man having a sound mind and a sound body.

Let Us Sum Up

The most important and the central problem of modern philosophy is

the theory of values. Values are the guiding principles of life. They are
important because every human action is the reflection of an individual value
and every human institution the out growth of social values. Values are of
great concern in as where value crises is seen every where through out the
world. In this lesson we came to know that the branch of philosophy which
studies in detail all aspects of values is termed as axiology. At the end of the
lesson, we summarize the need and importance of value-oriented education.

Check Your Progress

1. Discuss the meaning and relevance of axiology in the area of education?

2. Explain the various types of values?
3. Highlight the importance of need and importance of value oriented
education?

Suggested Readings

1. Brubacher, John S. (1962). Modern Philosophies of Education. Tokyo:

McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
2. Butler, J. Donald (1968). Four philosophies and their practice in education and
religion. New York & London: Harper and Row.

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3. Dupuis, A. M. (1972). Philosophy of Education in Historical Perspective. New

Delhi: Thomson Press (India) Ltd.
4. Durant, W. (1961) The Story of Philosophy, New York: Simon and Schuster
5. Hocking, W. E. (1959). Types of Philosophy. New York: Charles Scribner's
Sons.
6. Howrad, T. (1980) Philosophy, An Introduction, Buffalo, NY: Prometheus
Books.

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UNIT II

LESSON NO 04: RADICALISM

Lesson Structure
Introduction

Objectives

Historical Development of Radicalism

Radical Ideas of Great Thinkers

Carl Rogers
Robin Richardson
Lister
Paulo Freire
Ivan Illich

Let Us Sum Up

Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

Introduction

Radicalism is the political orientation of those who favor revolutionary

change in government and society. In other words, radicalism is the quality or
state of being radical; specifically, the doctrines or principles of radicals in
politics or social reform. It is the political orientation of those who favor
revolutionary change in government and society ideology, political orientation,

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political theory. In this lesson, an attempt has been made to understand the
term radicalism and its implications in the area of education.

Objectives

After going this lesson, you should be able to:

• Describe the meaning of radicalism ;
• Explain the historical development of radicalism ; and
• Discuss the contribution of various thinkers towards radicalism?

Historical Development of Radicalism

The term Radical (from the Latin radix meaning root) was used during
the late 18th century for proponents of the Radical Movement. It later became a
general term for those favoring or seeking political reforms which include
dramatic changes to the social order. Historically, early radical aims of liberty
and electoral reform in Great Britain widened with the American Revolution
and French Revolution so that some radicals sought republicanism, abolition of
titles, redistribution of property and freedom of the press. Initially identifying
itself as a far left party opposed to the right-wing parties; the Orleanists, the
Legitimists and the Bonapartists in France in the nineteenth century, the
Republican, Radical and Radical□Socialist Party progressively became the
most important party of the Third Republic (1871 – 1940). As historical
Radicalism became absorbed in the development of political liberalism, in the
later 19th century in both the United Kingdom and continental Europe the term
Radical came to denote a progressive liberal ideology.
According to Encyclopedia Britannica the first use of the word "Radical"
in a political sense is generally ascribed to the English whig parliamentarian

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Charles James Fox. In 1797, Fox declared for a "radical reform" of the electoral
system drastically expanding the franchise to the point of universal manhood
suffrage. This led to a general use of the term to identify all supporting the
movement for parliamentary reform.
As cited above, the term radical was first used in a political sense in 18th
century Great Britain. Initially confined to the upper and middle classes, in the
early 19th century "popular radicals" brought artisans and the "labouring
classes" into widespread agitation in the face of harsh government repression.
More respectable "Philosophical radicals" followed the utilitarian philosophy of
Jeremy Bentham and strongly supported parliamentary reform, but were
generally hostile to the arguments and tactics of the "popular radicals". By the
middle of the century parliamentary Radicals joined with others in the
Parliament of the United Kingdom to form the Liberal Party, eventually
achieving reform of the electoral system.
The term ‘radical’ has a variety of meanings, e.g. fundamental (a radical
error); far reaching (radical change); a person holding radical views (a radical);
a fundamental principle (getting to the roots of). Traditionally radicalism has
been associated with the political left as this has been the main oppositional
movement during the twentieth century challenging the conservative /liberal
status quo. Button (1995) points out that in the popular mind radicalism is often

identified with extremism but this is not the meaning given to it here.

A radical ideology thus attempts to go to the root of things, to question

the fundamental premises of dominant beliefs. Radical ideology comes into
existence when a group begins to challenge the status quo in society, e.g. in
relation to politics, economics, religion, race, gender, education. A radical
ideology is defined by what it is against as well as what it stands for. Radicals

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are driven by their vision of what a better society could look like and the need
to act in order to bring this about. They oppose injustice and inequality and
abuse of power and privilege. They challenge all forms of disempowerment
(lack of control over one’s life chances) and seek to promote empowerment
(being fully responsible for one’s life chances).
Adherents to the dominant ideology will always see radicalism as
dangerous but over a period of time radical ideas and demands often become
incorporated into the dominant ideology, e.g. the abolition of slavery, the
establishment of votes for women.
In the nineteenth century radicals fought for the abolition of slavery and
for better working conditions. Socialism and anarchism were the two radical
ideologies challenging conservative and liberal ideas. Socialism emerged in the
nineteenth century as a challenge to the liberal stress on individualism and the
growth of capitalism. Anarchism, or libertarianism, emerged in the eighteenth
century and in the popular mind is often equated with disorder and chaos. This
is because anarchists reject the need for external authority including that of
government. Some of their key beliefs are: i) authority is generally used to take
away people’s freedom; ii) a belief in the potential goodness of human nature;
iii) a stress on individual freedom, equality, co-operation and solidarity; v) that
the organization of society should work from the bottom up rather than top
down.

Radicalism in Education
What’s wrong with schooling? Why have there always been people who
want to set up educational initiatives outside the system? And why do some
educators feel the system needs transforming from within? What, in short, is
radical education all about?

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What is it about education that has attracted radicals in the twentieth

century? To answer this question we need to know something about the rise of
state schooling in the nineteenth century, i.e. education as part of the dominant
ideology. In the UK this occurred during a period of major capitalist
industrialization, urbanization and social class formation. Radicals argue that
the development of compulsory state schooling was essentially coercive in that
it was the way in which the growing middle class sought to control the rapidly
expanding urban workforce. Their purpose was essentially to train citizens and
workers for life in the modern industrial state. The main radical critique of
education is that it inevitably reproduces the social, political and economic
norms of the dominant ideology. In the west this is capitalist, technocratic,
individualistic, materialist and patriarchal. Education is therefore not neutral.
This is why one of the key questions is: Whose knowledge is of most worth?
Since radicals are suspicious of state education many radical initiatives have
taken place outside the mainstream system. Schools and education, the
argument runs, can never be neutral. Apple (1993: 3) writes:
“Education is both a ‘cause’ and an ‘effect’...The school is not a passive
mirror, but an active force, one that also serves to give legitimacy to economic
and social forms and ideologies so intimately connected with it.” All education
is a political act in that it gives strong messages about the distribution of power
and resources in society. Schools offer a particular selection from the sum total
of knowledge, e.g. it is ‘obvious’ that science, math, English, ICT are the most
important subjects; that European history is more important than Asian; that
boys are better at many things than girls.

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(Askew and Carnell 1998)

Challenging Schooling
Various writers in the 70s (e.g. Postman Ivan Illich and Wiengartner
1971) looked at formal education and found it seriously wanting. In particular
schools were seen as places which existed to reproduce the dominant ideology
and which ignored the real needs of young people. Much of the critique hinges
around the commonly accepted notion that learning can only really happen in
school. Thus the equation that schools = education = learning. Radical

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educators make a crucial distinction between what goes on in schools and

education. This is the vital difference between ‘schooling’ and ‘education’.
John Holt is famous for several books including The Underachieving
School (1969). Having worked in schools himself he decided in the end that they
were bad places for children.
Almost every child, on the first day he sets foot in a school building, is
smarter, more curious, less afraid of what he doesn’t know, better at finding
and figuring things out, more confident, resourceful, persistent and
independent, than he will ever again be in his schooling or, unless he is
unusually lucky, for the rest of his life.
Holt gives as an example the small child’s ability to learn language and
to keep on trying it out until he is able to communicate effectively with others.
What then happens when he arrives at school?
In he comes, this curious, patient, determined, energetic, skilful learner.
We sit him down at a desk, and what do we teach him? ... First, that learning is
separate from living. ‘You come to school to learn’, we say, as if the child
hadn’t been learning before, as if living were out there and learning were in
here and there was no connection between the two. Secondly, that he cannot be
trusted to learn and is no good at it ... He comes to feel that learning is a passive
process, something that someone else does to you, instead of something you do
for yourself (Holt 1969: 23).
Johnathan Kozol, like Apple, taught black American children in inner
city schools. As a result of his experiences and the ways in which he saw
schools perpetuating rather than challenging inequality he wrote this of
education.

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“There is no such thing as a ‘neutral skill’, nor is there a ‘neutral

education’. Children can learn to read and write in order to understand
instructions, dictates and commands. Or else they can read in order to
grasp the subtle devices of their own manipulation - the methods and
means by which a people may be subjugated and controlled. Oppenheimer,
working on the final stages of development of the atom bomb, and his co-
worker Fermi (said) that they were ‘without special competence on the
moral question ... It is this, not basic skills but basic competence for basic
ethical enquiry and indignation, that is most dangerously absent in our
schools and society today.” (Kozol 1980: 89).
What is education worth if it does not include discussion of moral and
ethical dilemmas as one of its central concerns? A rich variety of alternative
approaches to education emerged again in the 1990s. Interesting case studies
can be found in Hern’s Deschooling Our Lives (1996), Gribble’s Real Education:
Varieties of Freedom (1998) and more recently Carnie’s Alternative Approaches to
Education (2003).

Radical Ideas of Great Thinkers

Is it possible for radical ideas to work within mainstream education? Are

there spaces within the dominant educational ideology where its practices can
be challenged? Both libertarian and social justice traditions do have proponents
within mainstream education. If schools are a major site of cultural
reproduction, it is argued, then they need to be subverted from within as well
as outside the system. Here we will present ideas of some great radical
educationists who viewed education from radical perspective.

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Carl Rogers

One of leading figures in the field of person-centred learning is Carl

Rogers best known in education through his classic work Freedom to Learn
(1994: 121). In this he sets out the three key teacher qualities that facilitate true
learning.

Realness in the facilitator:- the teacher needs to show her/himself as a real

person, open to and sharing their own feelings with the group; students meet
the person not just the role.

Prizing, acceptance, trust:- this means prizing the learner, prizing her feelings,
her opinions, her person; it is a basic belief that this other person is
fundamentally trustworthy.

Empathetic understanding:- this means the ability to understand the student’s

reactions from the inside; it relates to the appreciation of being understood
rather than evaluated or judged.
It is difficult to hold these three attitudes unless, like Rogers, Neill and
others, one has a deep trust in human nature and its potential. This is based on
a belief in the basic human tendency towards fulfillment, growth and self-
actualization. Such beliefs are the foundation upon which the school of
humanistic psychology was developed in the 60s and 70s by psychotherapists
such as Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. They also underpin important
forms of counseling and therapy today.

Robin Richardson

Someone who has played a major role amongst radical educators in UK

is Robin Richardson, who was influenced by both Freire and Rogers. In the 70s

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he was concerned that the curriculum seldom helped pupils learn about
current global issues and he played a major part in placing this on the
mainstream agenda. From the 80s onwards he was very influential in the fields
of multicultural and anti-racist education. Here he describes how he drew in
his work on two long traditions within education, the first focusing on the
‘person’ and the second focusing on the ‘political’.
Both traditions are concerned with wholeness and holistic thinking, but
neither, arguably, is complete without the other. There cannot be wholeness
in individuals independently of strenuous attempts to heal rifts and
contradictions in wider society and in the education system. Conversely,
political struggle to create wholeness in society - that is, equality and
justice in dealings and relationships between social classes, between
countries, between ethnic groups, between women and men – is doomed to
no more than partial success and hollow victories, at best, if it is not
accompanied by, and if it does not in its turn strengthen and sustain, the
search for wholeness and integration in individuals (Richardson 1990: 7).
His influence amongst UK educators with a radical bent has been
considerable, particularly in the fields of anti-racist education and global
education. Both Carl Rogers (internationally) and Robin Richardson (in the UK)
have shown how radical principles can be implemented within mainstream
education in order to creatively change self, education and society.

Lister

Lister advocated for a number of new initiatives and he referred to these

initiatives as ‘new movements’ in education acting as a vanguard, leading
social and political education into new territory and new styles of teaching.

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"The twin stresses on human-centred education and global perspectives

constitute a radical shift away from the dominant tradition of schooling (which
is knowledge-centered and ethnocentric). Thus the vanguard educators seek to
give education a new process and a new perspective on the world." He
identified a series of common features shared by these new movements:
1. Knowledge should have a social purpose aimed at improving the
human condition; it should involve both understanding and action for
change.
2. The curriculum should deal with major issues, e.g. war and peace,
poverty and development, human rights, multicultural society,
interdependent world.
3. Learning is about developing skills, not just about content.
4. In order to develop skills learning needs an active dimension, e.g. games
and role play.
5. Education must be affective as well as cognitive; attitudes and values are
as important as knowledge and facts.
6. Recognition of pluralism and diversity in own society and globally.
7. The curriculum should have an international and global perspective.
8. Education should also have a futures perspective.
Much of this has become accepted pedagogy today. Such 'vanguard
educators', Lister noted, shared a common interest in an issue-perspective
(content) and active learning (process) – two hall-marks of the radical tradition
in education.
The advent of the Conservative government's national curriculum in the
late 80s had major impact on these new movements and education generally.
The right-wing emphasis on traditional subjects and the importance of English,

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Maths and Science, meant that crosscurricular concerns all but disappeared for
a number of years. From 1997, under New Labour, the climate has changed
somewhat. There is recognition again of the importance of issues such as race,
environment and citizenship. But the dominant ideology in education is still
one of teachers as technicians in a market-led economy with SATs and league
tables used to measure performance of pupils, teachers and schools, the very
antithesis of radical ideas. Currently global citizenship and education for
sustainable development provide an important springboard for radical
educators in terms of content and pedagogy. It is also possible to find radical
educators working within most subject areas of the curriculum.
Briefly speaking, we need radical educators working within mainstream
education because:
Education in modern world was designed to further the conquest of nature
and the industrialization of the planet. This tended to produce unbalanced,
under dimensioned people tailored to fit the modern economy. Postmodern
education must have a different agenda, one designed to heal, connect,
liberate, empower, create and celebrate.

Paulo Freire

Freire was born and worked in north-east Brazil, one of poorest regions
in the world. He also contributed in the area of radical education. In the early
1960s, when his work became internationally known, 75% of people in this
region were illiterate, with a life expectancy of thirty. Half of the land was
owned by 3% of the population. Freire worked as a teacher in the slums and
became interested in adult literacy. Since only literate people had the right to
vote literacy was the key to social reform. In 1963 Freire’s literacy programme

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was extended to the whole country. However opposition to his literacy

methods grew amongst the political right who accused him of spreading
subversive ideas. In 1964 a military coup overthrew the government and Freire
went into exile rather than facing the risk of imprisonment. He was not allowed
to return home to Brazil until 1980. His book Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1972) is
a classic of revolutionary education.
So what did Freire do that made him appear such an enemy to the
political right? Firstly he was appalled by the degree of poverty and injustice
that he saw at first hand. People who lack the ability to read, he realized, lack
the basic tool for understanding life in modern society for they can’t
understand any form of written communication. In elections people were
expected to vote as their land-owning bosses told them to. Learning to read
was thus a first step in understanding more about their own social and political
situation. Freire and his team began by talking to people in the area where they
were working. What were the words and expressions people used most, and
the problems people faced in their everyday lives? They then chose a basic list
of words that had the most meaning in those people’s lives. They also chose
words that would help people to understand the social, cultural and political
reality that they faced every day, e.g. slum, plot of land, work, salary,
government, swamp, wealth. Because Freire wanted to avoid traditional
notions of schooling and imposed authority, the facilitator was known as a
‘coordinator’ and dialogue replaced old fashioned rote learning. This process
was known as conscientisation or ‘consciousness raising’. Freire believed that
people cannot be truly human until they have real freedom in society. This
process enabled people to become subjects rather than objects in their own
lives. His approach to adult literacy was revolutionary, it gave the oppressed

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the tools of their own liberation. It was a threat to oppressors (the landlords
and those in power) because it unmasked the tools of oppression, the ways in
which powerful groups kept others in subjugation. The aim was not to attack
the oppressors but to expose the social and political structures which
perpetuated inequality and injustice. Freire’s approach to learning -
participatory, non-hierarchical, drawing on the learner’s experience,
empowering, exposing of injustice, aiming at social and political
transformation - became internationally known in the 70-80s. In the lesson no 5,
we shall discuss in detail about his life and contribution to radical thought in
education.

Ivan Illich

Ivan Illich is very famous for this philosophy of deschooling and is

considered as a think tank in the area of radical education. In the lesson No 6,
we had discussed in detail about his life and contribution to radical thought in
education

Let Us Sum Up

In this lesson, we discussed the etymological meaning of radicalism.

The term Radical (derived from the Latin radix meaning root) was used during
the late 18th century for proponents of the Radical Movement. It later became a
general term for those favoring or seeking political reforms which include
dramatic changes to the social order. The term ‘radical’ has a variety of
meanings, e.g. fundamental (a radical error); far reaching (radical change); a
person holding radical views (a radical); a fundamental principle (getting to the
roots of). Traditionally radicalism has been associated with the political left as

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this has been the main oppositional movement during the twentieth century
challenging the conservative /liberal status quo. We also discussed radical
education and questions related with it like; What’s wrong with schooling?
Why have there always been people who want to set up educational initiatives
outside the system? And why do some educators feel the system needs
transforming from within? What, in short, is radical education all about? We
also highlighted the radical ideas of various thinkers like Carl Roger,
Richardson, Lister, Freire and Illich. One of leading figures in the field of
person-centred learning is Carl Rogers best known in education through his
classic work Freedom to Learn. In this he sets out the three key teacher qualities
that facilitate true learning, Realness in the facilitator, Prizing, acceptance trust and
Empathetic understanding. Someone who has played a major role amongst
radical educators in UK is Robin Richardson, who was influenced by both
Freire and Rogers. From the 1980s onwards he was very influential in the
fields of multicultural and anti-racist education. Lister advocated for a number
of initiatives and he referred to these initiatives as ‘new movements’ in
education acting as a vanguard, leading social and political education into new
territory and new styles of teaching. "The twin stresses on human-centred
education and global perspectives constitute a radical shift away from the
dominant tradition of schooling (which is knowledge-centered and
ethnocentric). We also threw light on the radical ideas of Paulo Freier. His book
Pedagogy of the Oppressed is a classic of revolutionary education and is relevant
to the present scenario of education especially in developing and under
developed countries.

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Check Your Progress

1. Describe the meaning of radicalism?

2. Explain the historical development of radicalism?
3. Discuss the contribution of various thinkers towards radicalism?

Suggested Readings

1. Apple, M. (1993) Official Knowledge: Education in a Conservative Age,

London: Routledge
2. Apple, M. (2001) Educating the ‘Right’ Way: Markets, Standards, God and
Inequality, London: RoutledgeFalmer
3. Askew, S. & Carnell, E. (1998) Transforming Learning: Individual and
Global Change, London: Cassell Button,
4. J. (1995) The Radicalism Handbook, London: Cassell
5. Freire, P. (1972) Pedagogy of the Oppressed, London: Penguin
6. Gribble, D. (1998) Real Education: Varieties of Freedom, Bristol: Libertarian
Education
7. Hern, M. (1996) Deschooling Our Lives, Gabriola Island: New Society
Publishers Hicks, D. (2003) Thirty years of global education: what have
we learnt? Educational Review, November.
8. Holt, J. (1969) The Underachieving School, London: Penguin Education
9. Kozol, J. (1980) The Night is Dark and I am Far from Home, New York:
Continuum
10. Lister, I. (1987) Global and international approaches to political
education, in: C.Harber, ed. Political Education in Britain, Lewes: Falmer
Press

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11. Meighan, R. & Siraj-Blatchford, I. (1997) A Sociology of Educating,

London: Cassell Neill, A.S. (1966) Summerhill: A Radical Approach to
Education, London: Gollancz Orr, D. (1992) Ecological Literacy: Education
and the Transition to a Postmodern World, Albany: State University of
New York Press Pike,
12. G. & Selby, D. (1999/2000) In the Global Classroom, Toronto: Pippin Press
Postman, N. & Weingartner, C. (1971) Teaching as a Subversive Activity,
London: Penguin
13. Whitebread, D. (1996) Teaching and Learning in the Early Years, London:
Routledge

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UNIT II

LESSON NO 05: PAULO FREIRE AND

CONSCIENTIZATION

Lesson Structure
Introduction

Objectives

Life Sketch of Paulo Freire

Paulo Freire and Conscientization

Educational Thought of Paulo Freire

Let Us Sum Up

Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

Introduction

Paulo Freire is acknowledged as one of the most powerful voices in

education theory and practice of present era . He argues for a liberation of the
education system to allow educands to develop their own ideas and dreams. His
writing provides a cogent expostulation of the oppressive nature of the ‘expert’
teacher axiomatising one particular world view. In this lesson, we shall discuss
the life sketch of this great educationist and his concept of Conscientization
with special reference to his educational thought.

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Objectives

After going this lesson, you should be able to:

• Describe the Life Sketch of Paulo Friere ;
• Explain the meaning of conscientisation ; and
• Discuss the educational thought of Paulo Freire.

Life Sketch of Paulo Freire

Paulo Freire was born on 19 September 1921 in Recife, into the

household of an officer serving in the military police. Freire and his brothers
and sisters were educated in the traditional catholic way by their mother. His
father was in close contact with the spiritual circles in the town. He described
his parents often in his writing as a spiritist, although not a member of any
religious circles, good, intelligent, capable of loving every creation of this
planet.
As the economic crisis in 1929 in the United States began to affect Brazil,
the precarious stability of Freire's middle class family gave way and he found
himself sharing the plight of the common man. As a child he experienced the
extreme conditions of poverty. This crisis had a profound influence on his life
as he came to know the gnawing pangs of hunger and fell behind in school
because of the listlessness it produced. It also led him to make a vow, at the age
of eleven, to dedicate his life to the struggle against hunger, ‘so that other
children would not have to know the agony he was then experiencing’.
Freire returned to Recife to attend high school. His mother managed to
convince the director of the Oswaldo Cruz private high school, Aluizio Pessoa
de Araujo, to accept Paulo as a scholar student. Later, he returned to the school

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as a teacher of Portuguese. Paulo’s father died in 1934, when his son was
thirteen. As an awkward intelligent adolescent from the outskirts of the city,
making his way in a traditional upper class boy’s high school was not easy. It
took him a while to adapt to his new surroundings but he took his studies
seriously. He began Law School at the University of Recife in 1943. According
to Freire’s own information he was at that time strongly influenced by the
lawyer and philosopher Rui Barbosa and the medical doctor Carneiro Ribeiro.
Both were great Brazilian intellectuals who transcended the frontiers of their
own disciplines. Completion of his law degree qualified Freire to teach in
Brazil’s secondary schools. He taught ‘Portuguese language’ from 1944 to 1945.
In addition, he worked as a trade union lawyer and gave lectures on legal
matters for trade union members in the suburbs of Recife. In 1944 Freire
married Elza Maria Oliveira, a primary schoolteacher. In his autobiographical
notes he remarks that she was ‘catholic like him’. She encouraged him in his
systematic discussions of pedagogical questions. Until her sudden death in
1986, her influence on his practical and scholarly work can hardly be
underestimated. As Freire has mentioned the same in Pedagogy of Hope:
“I said to Elza: “You know what, I’m not going to be a lawyer. “Elza
said: “I was hoping for that. You’re an educator” (Pedagogy of Hope,
p.17).
The two work together for the rest of her life while raising five children.
In 1946, he took over as Director of the Pernambuco Department of Education
and Cukture of SESI (the Social Service of Industry), a government agency
decreed by then President Eurico Gaspar Dutra, to use funds from a national
confederation of factory owners to create programs for the betterment of the
standard of living of their workers. In Pedagogy of Hope, Freire details the

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significance of his 10 years at SESI, an experience which provided the

experiential relates in basis for his doctoral dissertation (1959) and his first
book, Education as the Practice of Freedom, a work he finished and published in
the early years of his Chilean exile (1965): He stress “one of our tasks as
progressive educators, today and yesterday, is to use the past that influenced
the present. The past was not only a time of authoritarianism and imposed
silence, but also a time that generated a culture of resistance as an answer to the
violence of power.” In 1961, he was appointed as director of the Department of
Cultural Extension of Recife University, and in 1962 he had the first
opportunity for the significant application of his theories, when 300 sugarcane
workers were taught to read and write in just 45 days. In response to this
experiment, the Brazilian government approved the creation of thousands of
cultural circles across the country.
In 1964, a military coup put an end to that effort, Freire was imprisoned
as a traitor for 70 days. After a brief exile in Bolivia, Freire worked in Chile for 5
years for the Christian Democratic Agrarian Reform Movement and the Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. In 1970, Freire published
the book Pedagogy of the Oppressed. It wasn’t publish in Brazil until 1974, due to
the political feud between the successive authoritarian military dictatorship
and the Christian socialist Freire, when General Ernesto Geisel took control of
Brazil and began his process of cultural liberalization. In Pedagogy of the
Oppressed and subsequent essays, transformation includes the possibility of
subversion and revolution—i.e., a ‘radical’ political option and practice. With
Pedagogy of the Oppressed, the following three major themes are found at the
centre of Freire’s concerns: conscientization, revolution, and the dialogue and

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co-operation between vanguard and masses in order to maintain the spirit of

the revolution.
After a year in Cambridge, Freire moved to Geneva, Switzerland to
work as a special education adviser to the World Council of Churches. During
this time Freire acted as an advisor on education reform in former Portuguese
colonies in Africa, particularly Guinea Bissau and Mosambique. In 1979, he was
able to return to Brazil, and moved back in 1980. Freire joined the Workers’
Party PT in the city of Sao Paolo, and acted as a supervisor for its adult literacy
project from 1980 to 1986.When the PT prevailed in the municipal elections in
1988, Freire was appointed Secretary of Education for Sao Paolo.
In 1986, his wife Elza died and Freire married Maria Araujo Freire, who
continued with her own radical educational work. In 1991, the Paolo Freire
Institute was established in San Paolo to extend and elaborate his theories of
popular education. The institute maintains the Freire archives.
Freire has written profusely in Portuguese and Spanish. Many of his
books have been translated into world languages. His, most famous work.
Pedagogy of the Oppressed, written in 1970, has been translated into many Indian
languages as well. His other works include: Cultural Action of Freedom,
Education: The Practice of Freedom, Pedagogy of Liberation, Education for Critical
Consciousness and Critical Literacy.
Freire died of heart failure on May 2, 1997 at the age of 76.

Paulo Freire and Conscientization

Conscientisation is a new concept in the educational philosophy of

Paulo Friere.

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The term was used during a rouns table meeting of professors at Brazil
Institute of Higher Studies in 1964.The English term "conscientization" is a
translation of the Portuguese term conscientização, which is also translated as
"consciousness raising" and "critical consciousness". The term was popularized
by Brazilian educator, activist, and theorist Paulo Freire in his 1970 work
Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Freire was teaching the poor and illiterate members
of Brazilian society to read at a time when literacy was a requirement for
suffrage and dictators ruled many South American countries. It is believed that
term originally derives from Frantz Fanon's coinage of a French term,
conscienciser, in his 1952 book, Black Skins, White Masks.
Central to Freire's pedagogy is the practice of 'conscientization', the
coming to consciousness of oppression and the commitment to end that
oppression. Conscientization is based on the common experience of
oppression. It is through the reading of the world that the oppressed will come
to knowledge. Conscientization, to Freire, constitutes both growing critical
awareness of the learner of himself and his willingness to act on the reality to
change it. The learner who is a part of the 'culture of silence' gets into semi-
intransitive condition and then enters the stage of critical consciousness.
Critical consciousness is the stage where the learner and his social situation
undergo transformation. 'Conscientization' refers to a process of learning to
perceive social, political, and economic contradictions and take action against
the oppressive elements of reality. In this process, the role of the teacher is to
initiate dialogue between teacher and student based on their common ability to
know the world and to act as subjects in the world.
In other words, critical consciousness, conscientization, or conscientização
(Portuguese), is a popular education and social concept developed by

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renowned Brazilian pedagogue and educational theorist Paulo Freire,

grounded in critical theory. Critical consciousness focuses on achieving an in-
depth understanding of the world, allowing for the perception and exposure of
social and political contradictions. Critical consciousness also includes taking
action against the oppressive elements in one's life that are illuminated by that
understanding. Critical consciousness proceeds through the identification of
"generative themes", which Freire identifies as "iconic representations that have
a powerful emotional impact in the daily lives of learners." In this way,
individual consciousness helps end the "culture of silence" in which the socially
dispossessed internalize the negative images of themselves created and
propagated by the oppressor in situations of extreme poverty. Liberating
learners from this mimicry of the powerful, and the fratricidal violence that
results therefrom is a major goal of critical consciousness. Critical
consciousness is a fundamental aspect of Freire's concept of popular education.
In his books Pedagogy of the Oppressed and Education for Critical Consciousness,
Freire explains critical consciousness as a sociopolitical educative tool that
engages learners in questioning the nature of their historical and social
situation, which Freire addressed as "reading the world". The goal of critical
consciousness, according to Freire, should be acting as subjects in the creation
of democratic society. In education, Freire implies intergenerational equity
between students and teachers in which both learn, both question, both reflect
and both participate in meaning-making. Using this idea, and describing
current instructional methods as homogenization and lockstep standardization,
alternative approaches are proposed, such as the Sudbury model of democratic
education schools, an alternative approach in which children, by enjoying
personal freedom thus encouraged to exercise personal responsibility for their

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actions, learn at their own pace rather than following a previously imposed
chronologically-based curriculum. In a similar form students learn all the
subjects, techniques and skills in these schools. The staff are minor actors, the
"teacher" is an adviser and helps just when asked. Sudbury model of
democratic education schools maintain that values, social justice, critical
consciousness, intergenerational equity, and political consciousness included,
must be learned through experience as Aristotle said: "For the things we have
to learn before we can do them, we learn by doing them."
Briefly speaking, Freire's development of critical consciousness has been
expanded upon in several academic disciplines and common applications like
Public health community collaborations, focused on HIV prevention for
women, the role of critical consciousness in adult education, and the effect of
peer pressure on cigarette smokers. Freire's notion of critical consciousness is,
in part, a type of political consciousness.

Educational Thought of Paulo Freire

Freire viewed and understood an educational institution as necessarily

and essentially political in its nature and functions. Depending on the political
interest it serves, the pedagogy it practices and the intentionality it carries,
education could become either the 'domesticator or 'liberator'.
Freire's pedagogy developed in the particular historical and political
circumstances of neo-colonialism and imperialism. His methods developed
originally from his work with peasants in Brazil and later in Chile and Guinea-
Bissau. Thus, Freire's thought needs to be understood in the context of the
political and economic situation of the third world.

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Freire's perception of society and social relations is based on class

relations. He sees social dynamics through the oppressor-oppressed dialectic.
In Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Freire presents the epistemological basis for his
pedagogy and discusses the concepts of Oppression, Conscientization and
Dialogue that are at the heart of his pedagogical project. His pedagogical
critique of 'banking education' and his 'problem posing' pedagogical
propositions are rooted in his concept of man. His educational philosophy is
discussed as under:
1. Theory of Value: What knowledge and skills are worthwhile learning? What
are the goals of education?
Education should raise the awareness of the students so that they
become subjects, rather than objects, of the world. This is done by
teaching students to think democratically and to continually question
and make meaning from (critically view) everything they learn.
2. Theory of Knowledge: What is knowledge? How is it different from belief?
What is a lie?
Knowledge is a social construct …… Knowing is a social process, whose
individual dimension, however, cannot be forgotten or even devalued.
The process of knowing, which involves the whole conscious self,
feelings, emotions, memory, affects, an epistemologically curious mind,
focused on the object, equally involves other thinking subjects, that is,
others also capable of knowing and curious. This simply means that the
relationship called “thinking “ is not enclosed in a relationship “thinking
subject knowable object” because it extends to other thinking subjects.
(Pedagogy of the Oppressed).

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3. Theory of Human Nature: What is a human being? How does it differ from
other species? What are the limits of human potential?
The ability of humans to plan and shape the world for their future needs
is what separates man from animals. Growing to us is something more
than growing to the trees or the animals that, unlike us, cannot take their
own growth as a subject of their preoccupation. For us, growing is a
process in which we can intervene. The point of decision of human
growth is not found in the species. One of the challenges to progressive
educators, in keeping with their choice, is not to feel or to proceed as if
they were inferior to dominant class learners in the private schools who
arrogantly mistreat and belittle middleclass teachers. But on the other
hand, nor should they feel superior, in the public school system, to the
learners from the slums, to he lower class children, to the children with
no comforts, who do not eat well, who do not “dress nicely,” who do not
“speak correctly,” who speak their own syntax, semantics, and accent.
4. Theory of Learning: What is learning? How are skills and knowledge
acquired?
Freire talked about the fallacy of looking at the education system like a
bank, a large repository where students come to withdraw the
knowledge they need for life. Knowledge is not a set commodity that is
passed from the teachers to the students. Students must construct
knowledge they already posses. Teachers must learn how the students
understand the world so that the teacher understands how the student
can learn.
5. Theory of Transmission: Who is to teach? By what methods? What will the
curriculum be?

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Teaching is a political process. It must be democratic process to avoid

teaching authority dependence. The teacher must learn about (and from)
the student so that knowledge can be constructed in ways that are
meaningful to the student. The teachers must become learners and
learners must become teachers.
6. Theory of Society: What is society? What institutions are involved in the
educational process?
Freire challenges the conventional assumption that there is equal
opportunity in a democratic society. He asserts often, that education is a
political process. Schools become tools that are used by parents, to
impose their values and beliefs. While no intentional harm is intended,
this process often results in the oppression of less privileged persons.
7. Theory of Opportunity: Who is to be educated? Who is to be schooled?
Freire’s entire education career is based on his desire to provide greater
opportunity for the poor and oppressed people of the world,
particularly those in Brazil.
8. Theory of Consensus: Why do people disagree? How is consensus achieved?
Whose opinion takes precedence?
Disagreement is normal and something to expect. Disagreement can be
an impetus to reflection and a source of growth. The problem that Freire
wants to address is when opinions and disagreements are suppressed in
the name of control and authority
9. Banking and Problem Posing Concept of Education:

Banking Concept of Education

Paulo Freire was highly critical of prevailing educational practices

during his time. He called education as it was practiced as 'banking' concept of

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education. In the banking concept, education is treated and practiced as a

depositing activity. In this depositing act, students become depositories and
teacher the depositor. The scope of action allowed to the students, 'extends
only as far as receiving, filling, and storing the deposits.' By acting as a
depositor, the teacher 'domesticates' the child into oppressor consciousness.
The banking concept of education, says Freire, has done immense damage to
teacher-taught relationship and process of education.
Freire's description of banking education and his prescription of
problem-posing education are based on his understanding about man, his
consciousness and relation to the world. According to Freire, banking
education begins with a false understanding of men as objects. 'Implicit in
banking concept is the assumption of a dichotomy between man and the world;
man is merely in the world, not with the world or with others; man is spectator,
not re-creator. In this view, man is not a conscious being; he is rather a
possessor of consciousness; an empty 'mind' passively open to the reception of
deposits of reality from the world outside.'

Teacher-taught Relationship under Banking Education

Freire says that the banking concept of education has done harm to
teacher-taught relationship by depicting them as opposites. "The teacher
presents himself to his students as their necessary opposite; by considering
their ignorance absolute, he justifies his own existence". Critically looking at
education from the dialectic of teacher-student relationships, Freire observes
that education is suffering from 'narration sickness'; 'education, inside or out
side the school, .reveals its fundamentally narrative character.' In the school
that is suffering from 'narration sickness', the relationship involves a narrating
subject (teacher) and the patient, listening objects (students). Narration turns

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the students into 'containers' to be filled by the teacher. The banking approach
to adult education, for example, will never propose to students that they
consider reality critically. Classroom teaching is dominated by verbosity;
'words are emptied of their concreteness and become a hollow, alienated and
alienating verbosity.'
Banking education maintains and even stimulates teacher-student
relationships through fostering and practicing the following attitudes.
• The teacher teaches and the students are taught.
• The teacher knows everything and the students know nothing.
• The teacher thinks and the students are thought about.
• The teacher talks and the students listen-meekly.
• The teacher disciplines and the students are disciplined.
• The teacher chooses and enforces his choice, and the students comply.
• The teacher acts and the students have the illusion of acting through the
action of the teacher.
• The teacher chooses the programme content, and the students (who
were not consulted) adapt to it.
• The teacher confuses the authority of knowledge with his own
professional authority, which he sets in opposition to the freedom of the
students.
• The teacher is the subject of the learning process, while the pupils are
mere objects.

Problem-Posing Concept of Education

As against banking education which considers consciousness as 'an

empty vessel to be filled', problem-posing education considers man as a

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conscious being, 'as consciousness directed towards the world'. Problem-

posing education as practice of freedom (as opposed to education as practice of
domination) denies that man is abstract, isolated, independent, and unattached
to the world. It also denies that the world exists as a reality apart from man.
'Authentic reflection considers neither the abstract man nor the world without
men, but men in their relations with the world.' With this conceptual
understanding of man-world relation Freire critiques banking education and its
practices.
Problem-posing education first of all demands a resolution of the
teacher-student contradiction. Authentic education is not carried on by A for B
or by A about B, but rather by A with B, mediated by the world. Through
dialogue, 'teacher-of-the-student' and "student-of-the-teacher" cease to exist
and a new term emerges - teacher-student with student-teacher. They become
jointly responsible for a process in which all grow.
Problem-posing education, responding to the essence of consciousness—
intentionality—rejects communiqués and embodies authentic communication.
It epitomizes the special characteristic of consciousness: 'being conscious of.' It
does not dichotomize the activity of the teacher-student: he is not 'cognitive1 at
one point and 'narrative' at another; he is always 'cognitive'. Banking theory
and practice, as immobilizing and fixing forces, fail to acknowledge men as
historical beings; problem-posing theory and practice take man's historicity as
their starting point. Indeed, problem-posing education, breaking the vertical
patterns characteristic of banking education, can fulfill its function of being the
practice of freedom only if it can overcome the above contradiction,'
The purpose of education is to make the people aware of themselves as
reflective human persons who created both history and culture. The unfinished

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character of men and the transformational character of reality necessitate that

education be an on going activity. Freire explicitly turned his attention to
education as a necessary means for bringing about a revolution; problem-
posing education, he said, is "revolutionary futurity",

Banking and Problem-Posing Education - A Comparison

The fundamental difference between the banking and problem-posing

educational concepts and practices can be presented as follows:

Banking Education Problem-Posing Education

Dichotomizes man-world relations No dichotomous relations.
Man is not conscious; he is only Man is not mere possessor of
possessor of consciousness consciousness; he is a conscious being
Student in the world and here Student is not in the world but with
culture of salience. the world and here it is culture of
revolt.
Dichotomizes teacher – student Resolves the dichotomy.
relations
Teacher is essentially 'narrative' Teacher is 'cognitive'
Emphasis on memorization Emphasis on critical thinking
Monologue dominates the class Dialogical classroom.
Teacher issues communiqués Teacher believes in communication
Education for domestication Education for liberation
Here convergent thinking is Here divergent thinking is promoted
promoted.
Here student is passive and Here student is active and dynamic.
receptive.

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To be very brief, from his educational experiences of working with the

poor and reflections, Freire proposes a pedagogy for the liberation of the
oppressed. Liberation of the oppressed, for Freire, is liberation of men, not
things. His famous 'pedagogy of the oppressed', as a humanist and liberating
pedagogy, has two distinct stages. In the first, the oppressed unveil the world
of oppression and through praxis commit themselves to its transformation. In
the second stage, in which the reality of oppression has already been
transformed, the pedagogy ceases to belong to the oppressed and becomes the
pedagogy of all men in the process of permanent liberation. Freire writes, 'this
pedagogy makes oppression and its causes objects of reflection by the
oppressed, and from that reflection comes their necessary engagement in the
struggle for their liberation. And in the struggle the pedagogy will be made
and remade.' Therefore, the pedagogy is practiced with concrete purposes,
these being: to develop critical and reflective thinking; to conscientize humans;
to break the 'culture of silence'; and to achieve liberation so as to realize full
humanization.
Primarily, Freire devised and tested an education system, as well as a
philosophy of education, over several years of active involvement in Latin
America. His work was further developed in the United States of America, in
Switzerland, Guinea-Bissau, São Tomé, Nicaragua and other countries in the
Third and First Worlds. Freire’s educational thrust centres on the human
potential for creativity and freedom in the midst of politico-economic and
culturally oppressive structures. It aims at discovering and implementing
liberating alternatives through social interaction and transformation via the
‘conscientization’ process. ‘Conscientization’ was defined as the process by
which people achieve a deepened awareness, both of the socio-cultural reality

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that shapes their lives and of their capacity to transform that reality. It involves
praxis, understood as the dialectic relationship of action and reflection. Freire
proposes a praxis approach to education in the sense of critically reflective
action and critical reflection based on practice.
Freire’s system of education and philosophy of education have their
origins in a myriad of philosophical currents, such as phenomenology,
existentialism, Christian personalism, humanist marxism and hegelianism, a
detailed delineation of which would have exceeded the frame of this profile.
He participated in the import of European doctrines and ideas into Brazil,
assimilated them to the needs of a specific socio-economic situation, and thus
expanded and refocused them in a thought-provoking way, even for the
intellectuals and educational thinkers of Europe and North-America.

Let Us Sum Up

Paulo Freire is often described as a humanistic, militant educator who

believed that solutions in education are always found in concrete context.
Students should be asked what they want to learn. There must be a
collaboration, union and cultural synthesis. The educator should not
manipulate students but should also not leave them to their own fate. He
should direct tasks and study not order students. He believed that the
liberating educator invites students to think. This allows the student to make
and remake their worlds and become more human. Freire believed that
communication should be simple even if the information is complex.
Simplifying, allows for deeper accessibility by the students. According to him,
education is a liberating process. But it cannot liberate people from their misery
unless it arouses new awareness among them. This process of arousing new

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awareness is called conscientisation. Friere believes that conscientisation is not

a magical charm for the revolutionaries but a basic dimension of their reflective
action.

Check Your Progress

1. Describe the life sketch of Paulo Freire?

2. Explain the meaning of the term conscientisation?
3. Discuss in detail the educational thought of Paulo Freire?
4. Write a short note on:
• Problem Posing Concept of Education; and
• Banking Concept of Education.

Suggested Readings

1. Aggaewal J C and Gupta 2006 Great Philosophers and Thinkers on Education,

Shipra publications New Delhi.
2. Boston, Bruce O 1974 Conscientisation and Christian Education, Learning for
living. January 1974.
3. Freire, Paulo. [1967] 1976. Education, the Practice of Freedom. London:
Writers and Readers Publishing Cooperative. ISBN 090461316X
4. Freire, Paulo. [1970] 2000. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Continuum
International Publishing Group. ISBN 0826412769
5. Freire, Paulo. 1972. Cultural Action for Freedom. Harvard University Press.
ISBN 0916690113

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6. Freire, Paulo. 1973. Education for Critical Consciousness. Seabury Press.

ISBN 0816491135
7. Freire, Paulo. 1978. Pedagogy in Process: The Letters to Guinea-Bissau.
Continuum International. ISBN 0826401368
8. Freire, Paulo. 1980. A Day with Paulo Freire. Delhi: I.S.P.C.K. Freire, Paulo.
1984. The Politics of Education: Culture, Power, and Liberation. Bergin &
Garvey. ISBN 0897890434

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UNIT II

LESSON NO 06: IVAN ILLICH AND DESCHOOLING

SOCIETY

Lesson Structure
Introduction

Objectives

Life Sketch of Ivan Illich

Philosophy of Deschooling

Learning Webs

Let Us Sum Up

Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

Introduction

Ivan Illich (1926-2002), one of the greatest humanistic radical thinkers of

20th century, rose to fame in the 1970s with a series of brilliant, short, polemical,
books on major institutions of the industrialized world especially on education.
They explored the functioning and impact of educational system and
technological development. He was one of the greatest philosophers similar to
the western philosophers like Socrates, Plato, Kant, and John Locke. All these
philosophers have contributed towards philosophy and educational
philosophy. Ivan Illich also contributed to these areas as he expressed his

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educational ideas in his different works. Illich dreamt of a society having good
educational system, freedom, equality and fraternity. In the center’s role as a
think-tank a key preoccupation was education. Deschooling Society, Illich’s most
famous book, came out in 1971 and introduced his name to a wider global
audience, convinced that the west’s education system was collapsing through
bureaucracy, numbers and the cult of professionalism, he argues against
compulsory schooling, diplomas, certificates and the institutionalization of
learning. In this lesson, an attempt has been made to understand philosophy of
deschooling advocated by this great man.

Objectives

After going this lesson, you should be able to:

• Describe the Life Sketch of Ivan Illich
• Explain the philosophy of deschooling ; and
• Discuss the meaning of learning webs advocated by Ivan Illich.

Life Sketch of Ivan Illich

Ivan (E-ván) Illich was born on September 4, 1926 in Vienna, Austria.

His father Ivan Peter, a diplomat from an aristocratic family, was a Roman
Catholic Croatian and a civil engineer. His mother Ellen Regenstreif-Ortlieb
was from a family of converted Sephardic Jews who had settled in Germany
around Heidelberg. His mother delivered Ivan, at his father’s family home in
Vienna in the belief that the medical facilities would be better able to
accommodate any complications that might arise during the pregnancy period.
On December 01, 1926, Ivan was taken to Dalmatia where he was presented to
his grandfather and baptized on the day of great liberation

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Ivan grew up spending part of each year in Dalmatia, part with other
grandparent in Vienna, and part at his parent’s assigned diplomatic posts.
Ivan Illich has been brought up without much schooling. At the age of
six, when his normal languages were French and Italian, German, his mother
wanted to put him in a school in Vienna, a very famous school where
administration conducts tests to children before admitting them in their school.
They tested him and concluded that Ivan was a retarded child. This allowed
him, to his delight, to spend his time in his grandfather’s library until he was 08
years old. Ivan Illich was an honor student at the Piarsten Gymnasium in
Vienna from age 10 to 15. His oft-noted linguistic abilities had their roots in his
childhood, as he moved back and forth from Dalmatia to Vienna and traveled
in Europe with his parents. But the increasingly oppressive atmosphere created
by the Nazis could have only turned a life of privilege and economic security
into one that was increasingly precarious. By the time he was 12, Illich tells us,
while walking in a vineyard on the outskirts of Vienna on the eve of the Nazi takeover
of Austria, he had decided he would never marry because, “certain things will happen
which will make it impossible for me to give children to those towers down on the island
in Dalmatia where my grandfathers and great-grandfathers made children.” So while
we can begin to understand some of the cloud of rumors that surrounded him,
“he claims to know 14 languages and not to have a mother tongue.” This
facility was more than simply a matter of linguistic opportunity and talent. By
1938, Illich already knew in his bones that the world into which he had been
born was vanishing. Soon he would become a wanderer through the uncanny
landscapes generated by the loudspeaker’s many progeny. But he did not lose
his tap-root into the soil of old Europe or his family’s ancient affiliation with
the Roman Church. He took this fading world within himself where it would

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nourish a stance and radical ideology. Then, in 1941, in accordance with

imposed anti-Semitic laws, the Nazi occupiers expelled him because of his
mother’s Jewish heritage. With the ascendancy of the Nazis their position in
Vienna became more and more untenable as a result the family fled to Florence
in 1941, the same year that his maternal grandfather died, and his father died in
1942.
In Florence, Illich completed his secondary education at the Liceo
Scientifico Leonardo da Vinci, and went on to the University of Florence where
he studied chemistry, histology and worked on discerning blood groups by
crystallography. In psychology, he was most attracted to Rudolf Steiner and
Ludwig Klages. After completing his studies at University of Florence, Ivan
Illich decided to enter and prepare for the priesthood. In 1943, Ivan Illich went
to Rome to study theology and philosophy at the Gregorian University, the
Vatican’s institution of higher learning.
By the time Ivan Illich was twenty four, he received Ph.D in history at
the University of Salzburg, where he completed his thesis about the problem of
historical Knowledge in the works of Arnold Joseph Toynbee. He left for New
York in 1951 to work as priest.
Ivan Illich established the Center for Intercultural Formation, in 1961
later changed to Center for Intercultural Documentation (ClDOC), had the joint
support of Fordham University, Cardinal Spellman and the American Bishop’s
Committee in Latin America.Its opening coincided with the launching of the
Alliance for Progress. It also coincided with the Pope’s call to the North
American Church to send 10% of its personnel--or about 20,000 priests and
religious to Latin America in order to alleviate the critical shortage of clergy on
that continent. Illich saw an ominous conjunction between the two projects.

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Illich’s CIDOC part language school, part conference center, part free
university, part publishing house--was designed not so much to train
missionaries as to keep all but the most progressive of them away.
Ivan Illich’s writings have widely influenced the international audience
over last few decades. His prolific output is puzzling on a number of counts;
not least because it appears to have largely escaped detailed critical attention.
From his think-tank, Illich had a major impact on international readers,
especially on the youth, through his radical anti-technocratic, anti-institutional
arguments on health, education, transport and energy which were published in
the form of books, pamphlets and articles. His radical book, entitled Deschooling
Society (1971) is probably his most famous book in the field of education and is
primarily a call for disestablishment – not only of school, but of the institutions
which we believe do us good. This landmark work of Ivan Illich, argues that
schooling which is the age-specific, teacher-related process requiring full-time
attendance at an obligatory curriculum is turning people into passive
consumers, people who look to institutions to provide for their physical and
material needs rather than looking to their own abilities. In Deschooling Society,
Illich used school as a paradigm to document his charges against existing
institutions and to show how in a new society, technology could be used to
create equal educational opportunity without requiring compulsory and rigid
schools, curricula, or professional teacher “technocrats.” The book further
argues that it is all based on an illusion, that most learning is the result of
teaching. Most people acquire most of their knowledge outside of school. Most
learning happens casually and even most intentional learning is not the result
of programmed instruction. Most learning is, in fact, a by-product of some
other activity defined as work or leisure. Illich’s contribution to education can

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be seen in this class work Deschooling Society. The approach of Illich towards
death was entirely different as he never escaped from death. He was always
ready to drink the cup of death. Ivan Illich did not wake up after his siesta on
Monday, December 2, 2002 at his friend’s home in Bremen Germany. On
Thursday, December 5, he was buried in the cemetery of Oberneuland in
Bremen. Death of Ivan Illich was really a loss of an intellectual star in the galaxy of
intellectuals at global level.

Philosophy of Deschooling

Ivan Illich is very much famous for coining the term deschooling as
“deschooling” is a brilliant and intriguing idea that speaks to the most
awesome questions worried mankind knows how to ask. He expressed his
ideas on deschooling in his famous book Deschooling Society. This landmark
work of Ivan Illich, argues that schooling which is the age-specific, teacher-
related process requiring full-time attendance at an obligatory curriculum is
turning people into passive consumers, people who look to institutions to
provide for their physical and material needs rather than looking to their own
abilities.18 His philosophy of deschooling argues for disestablishment of
compulsory institutions as Illich uses school as a paradigm to document his
charges against existing institutions and to show how in a new society,
technology could be used to create equal educational opportunity without
requiring schools, curricula, or professional teacher “technocrats.” Schools
create jobs for schoolteachers, no matter what their pupils learn from them.
Illich’s interest in the school and the processes of schooling, then, stemmed
from his educational work in Puerto Rico, more specifically his work with
American educators concerned about the direction they saw the public schools

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of their country taking. Illich himself acknowledges in the introduction to

Deschooling Society, that it is to Everett Reimer that he owes his interest in
public education, adding that ‘until we first met in Puerto Rico in 1958 I had
never questioned the value of extending obligatory schooling to all people.
Together we have come to realize that for most men the right to learn is
curtailed by the obligation to attend schools. Illich contends that compulsory
public schooling is economically unsound and a useless waste of time. Illich’s
critique of schooling, like his critiques of other social institutions, is essentially
dialectical, first stressing the flaws and problems with the current situation,
and second, offering an alternative model of what might be. His insights visa-
via problems in contemporary schooling are both acute and profound, and his
model of the deschooled society is a creative and intriguing one. Ivan Illich
presents major indictments against school system in his book Deschooling
Society which is as:
Many students, especially those who are poor, intuitively know what the
schools do for them. They school them to confuse process and substance. Once these
become blurred, a new logic is assumed: the more treatment there is, the better are the
results; or, escalation leads to success. The pupil is thereby “schooled” to confuse
teaching with learning, grade advancement with education, a diploma with
competence, and fluency with the ability to say something new. All over the world the
school has an anti-educational effect on society: School is recognized as the institution
which specializes in education. The failures of school are taken by most people as a proof
that education is a very costly, very complex, always arcane, and frequently almost
impossible task. School appropriates the money, men, and good will available for
education and in addition discourages other institutions from assuming educational
tasks.

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He further argues that schooling creates a caste system that places the
schooled (no matter how “educated”) above, and the non-schooled below, or
the more schooled above, the less schooled below.
Obligatory schooling inevitably polarizes a society; it also grades the nations of
the world according to an international caste system. Countries are rated like castes
whose educational dignity is determined by the average years of schooling of its
citizens, a rating which is closely related to per capita gross national product, and
much more painful. School groups people according to age. This grouping rests on three
unquestioned premises. Children belong to school. Children learn in school. Children
can be taught only in school.
Schooling, for Illich, is “the age-specific, teacher-related process
requiring full-time attendance at an obligatory curriculum.”
Illich’s main attack is on the failure of schools to match his educational
ideals. He regards schools as repressive institutions which indoctrinate pupils,
smoother creativity and imagination, induce conformity and stultify students
into accepting the interests of the powerful. He further argues that most
learning occurs not in school, but casually while interacting and discussing
with each other. Illich states:
A second major illusion on which the school system rests is that most learning
is the result of teaching. Teaching, it is true, may contribute to certain kinds of learning
under certain circumstances. But most people acquire most of their knowledge outside
school, and in school only insofar as school, in a few rich countries, has become their
place of confinement during an increasing part of their lives. Most learning happens
casually, and even most intentional learning is not the result of programmed
instruction.

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Illich further argues that “if schools are the wrong places for learning a
skill, they are even worse places for getting an education,” because
“School is obligatory and becomes schooling for schooling’s sake: an enforced
stay in the company of teachers, which pays off in the doubtful privilege of more such
company. Just as skill instruction must be freed from curricular restraints, so must
liberal education be dissociated from obligatory attendance”.
He further argues that the first function of schooling is that of providing
custodial care:
As much as anything else, schooling implies custodial care for persons who are
declared undesirable elsewhere by the simple fact that a school has been built to serve
them. The school is supposed to take the excess population from the street, the family or
the labor force.
This custodial function of schooling, incidentally, is no less applicable to
senior citizens who are encouraged to return to the classroom than it is to ten-
year-old removed from the home, or sixteen-year-old from the work force.
Illich, who makes a distinction between schooling and education, believed that
education should be spread through out society rather than being conducted
only in special buildings provided for that purpose. Illich maintains that the
prestige of the school as a supplier of good quality educational services for the
population as a whole rests on a series of myths, which he describes as follows:

a) The Myth of Institutionalized Values: This myth, according to Illich, is

grounded in the belief that the process of schooling produces something
of value. That belief generates a demand. It is assumed that the school
produces learning. The existence of schools produces the demand for
schooling. Thus, the school suggests that valuable learning is the result
of attendance, that the value of learning increases with the amount of

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this attendance, and that this value can be measured and documented
by grades and certificates. Illich takes the opposite view: that learning is
the human activity that least needs manipulation by others, that most
learning is the result not of instruction but of participation by learners in
meaningful settings. School, however, makes them identify their
personal, cognitive growth with elaborate planning and manipulation.

b) The Myth of Measurement of Values: According to Illich, the

institutionalized values school instills are quantified ones. For him,
personal growth cannot be measured by the yardstick of schooling but,
once people have the idea schooled into them that values can be
produced and measured, they tend to accept all kinds of rankings.
People who submit to the standard of others for the measure of their own
personal growth soon apply the same standard to themselves. They no longer
have to be put in their place but put themselves into their assigned slots, squeeze
themselves into the niche which they have been taught to seek, and in the very
process, put their fellows into their places, too, until everybody and everything
fits.

c) The Myth of Packaging Values:- The school sells the curriculum, says
Illich, and the result of the curriculum production process looks like any
other modern staple product. The distributor/teacher delivers the
finished product to the consumer/pupil, whose reactions are carefully
studied and charted to provide research data for the preparation of the
next model, which may be upgraded, student-designed, visually-aided,
or issue-centered. In fact, according to Ivan Illich, our schools are
organized following the model of an industrial plant-information
presented in fragments of curriculum that have been designed by

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management. Schools have become factories which produce knowledge

and sell it at hand some cost.

d) The Myth of Self-Perpetuating Values:- Illich talks not only about

consumption but about production and growth. He links these with the
race for degrees, diplomas and certificates, since the greater one’s share
of educational qualifications the greater one’s chances of a good job. For
Illich the working of consumer societies is founded to a great extent on
this myth, and its perpetuation is an important part of the game of
permanent regimentation. To smash it, says Illich, ‘would endanger the
survival not only of the economic order built on the co-production of
goods and demands, but equally of the political order built on the
nation-state into which students are delivered by the school.
Consumers/pupils are taught to adjust their desires to marketable
values, even though this cycle of eternal progress can never lead to
maturity.
Ivan Illich further criticized schooling process by saying that
compulsory attendance is another demerit of schooling as it snatches the
freedom of children. He believed that classroom attendance removes children
from the everyday world of Western culture and plunges them into an
environment far more primitive, magical, and deadly serious. The attendance
rule makes it possible for the schoolroom to serve as a magic womb, from
which the child is delivered periodically at the school days and school year’s
completion until he is finally expelled into adult life.26 Illich points out that the
school is not the only modern institution whose main purpose is to shape
people’s view of reality. Other factors contribute to this, factors related to social
origins and family surroundings, the media and informal socialization

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networks. These, amongst others, are key elements in moulding behavior and
values. But he considers that it is the school that is most deeply and
systematically enslaving. It alone is entrusted with the task of forming critical
judgment, a task that, paradoxically, it tries to carry out by ensuring that
learning, whether about oneself, about others or about nature, follows a
predetermined pattern. Illich defends these opinions in his polemical and
provocative style, affirming that, in his judgment, ‘school impinges so
intimately upon us that no one can hope to be freed from it by any external
means’. And he adds:
“Schooling—the production of knowledge, the marketing of knowledge, which is
what the school amounts to—draws society into the trap of thinking that knowledge is
hygienic, pure, respectable, deodorized, produced by human heads and amassed in a
stock. I see no difference between rich and poor countries in the development of these
attitudes to knowledge. There is a difference of degree, of course; but I find it much
more interesting to analyze the hidden impact of the school structure on a society; and I
see that this impact is equal or, to be more precise, tends to be equal. It doesn’t matter
what the overt structure of the curriculum is, whether the school is public, whether it
exists in a State that has the monopoly of public schools, or in a State where private
schools are tolerated or even encouraged. It is the same in rich as in poor countries, and
might be described as follows: if this ritual that I consider schooling to be is defined by a
society as education [...] then the members of that society, by making schooling
compulsory, are schooled to believe that the self-taught individual is to be discriminated
against; that learning and the growth of cognitive capacity, require a process of
consumption of services presented in an industrial, a planned, a professional form...
that learning is a thing rather than an activity. A thing that can be amassed and
measured, the possession of which is a measure of the productivity of the individual
within the society. That is, of his social value.”

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Learning Webs

In Deschooling Society, Illich discussed four networks which he called as

learning webs and these learning webs can be used as alternatives in education.
These four networks are as under:

a) Reference Services to Educational Objects

The first one of these is a network providing access to educational
objects such as books, radios, microscopes, computers, and what you have.
Illich in his own words explained what is meant by reference services to
educational objects.
Objects-which facilitate access to things or processes used for formal learning.
Some of these things can be reserved for this purpose, stored in libraries, rental
agencies, laboratories, and showrooms like museums and theaters; others can be in daily
use in factories, airports, or on farms, but made available to students as apprentices or
on off hours.

Skill Exchanges
The other alternative net work proposed by Illich is skill exchanges. The
second network is a skill exchange wherein students who wished to master a
skill could contact a model who would demonstrate it for the learner.

Peer Matching
The third network is peer-matching. This is most like computer dating
services already in operation nowadays with the difference that the peers
determine the categories of interest rather than filling out a form
precategorized by someone else. Illich explained the peer matching as:

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“Peer-Matching — a communications network which permits persons to

describe the learning activity in which they wish to engage, in the hope of finding a
partner for the inquiry.”

Reference Services to Educators-at-Large

A system of independent educators comprises the fourth network. These
people are to be sharply distinguished from current institutionally defined
educators.
…who can be listed in a directory giving the addresses and self-descriptions of
professionals, paraprofessionals, and free-lancers, along with conditions of access to their
services. Such educators, as we will see, could be chosen by polling or consulting their
former clients.

Let Us Sum Up

Illich does not suggest the complete elimination of schooling as was

often the misinterpretation. Illich is not enemy of schools but of the rigid and
outdated school system. He aims his attack not at the school but at the school
system, that is based on compulsory schooling and faulty system. He wishes to
destroy not the school based on free association and motivation but the school
system based on dictated obligation and compulsion. Illich is not against the
schools but against the rigid school system.
“I have nothing against schools! I’m against compulsory schooling. Schools that
are freely accessible allow the organization of certain specific learning tasks which a
person might propose to himself. Schools, when they are compulsory - as we see at this
moment in the United States - create a dazed population, a “learned” population, a
mentally pretentious population, such as we have never seen before. The last fifty years

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of intensive improvement of schooling - here, or in Germany, or in France - have

created television consumers.”
Illich believed that schooling is an epoch- specific form of education.
Illich had originally used the metaphor of schooling as religion to indicate the
blind rituals that prevent us from thinking critically. He found schools to be a
relic of the industrial era that had actually become anti-educational and anti-
social. It is pertinent to mention here that Ivan Illich used school as a
paradigm. Otherwise he wishes that whole society should be deschooled or
reconstructed. He believed that it is not enough to deschool education, society
must be deschooled. Ivan Illich in his own words:
Not only education but social reality itself has become schooled. Everywhere
not only education but society as a whole needs “deschooling.”
Briefly speaking, Illich recommends deschooling as the key to human
liberation. This notion takes on a normative dimension that implies deep
changes in all aspects of contemporary society, economic and political as well
as educational:
“We can disestablish schools, or we can deschool culture. We can resolve
provisionally some of the administrative problems of the knowledge industry, or we can
spell out the goals of political revolution in terms of educational postulate”.
To conclude, Illich’s philosophy of deschooling calls for reformation or
reconstruction of school system and society. At the end of the lesson, we
described the four networks which Illich called as learning webs and these
learning webs can be used as alternatives in education.

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Check Your Progress

1. Discuss the life sketch of Ivan Illich?

2. Explain the philosophy and relevance of deschooling in contemporary
era?

Suggested Readings

1. Anthony, P. (1977) The Ideology of Work. London: Tavistock.

2. Aries, P. (1962) Centuries of Childhood: A Social History of Family life. New
York: Knopf.
3. Barrow, R. (1978) Radical Education: A Critique of Free schooling and
Deschooling. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.
4. Buckman, P. (1973) Education without Schools. London: Souvrnir Press.
5. Bergson, H. (1911) Creative Evolution. New York: Simon and Schuster.
6. Carr, D. (2004) Philosophical Foundations of Educational Theory, Policy and
Practice, London: Routledge.
7. Cayley, D. (1992) Ivan Illich in Conversation. Ontario, Canada: House of
Anansi Press.

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UNIT III

LESSON NO 7: HINDUISM

Lesson Structure
Introduction

Objectives

Introduction to Hinduism and Hindu Scriptures

Concept of God in Hinduism

Educational Philosophy of Hinduism

Salient Features of Vedic Education

Aims of Vedic Education

Process of Vedic Education

Merits of Vedic Education

Demerits of Vedic Education

Let Us Sum Up

Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

Introduction

The most popular among the Aryan religions is Hinduism. ‘Hindu’ is

actually a Persian word that stands for the inhabitants of the region beyond the

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Indus Valley. However, in common parlance, Hinduism is a blanket term for

an assortment of religious beliefs, most of which are based on the Vedas, the
Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita. In this lesson, we shall study the historical
background of Hindu philosophy and its educational implications.

Objectives

After reading this lesson, you should be able to:

• Trace out the historical background of Hinduism in India;
• Discuss the several sacred scriptures of Hinduism and
• Explain in detail the basic tenants of educational philosophy of
Hinduism.

Introduction to Hinduism and Hindu Scriptures

Early History of Hinduism:

Beliefs about the early development of Hinduism are currently in a state
of flux: There are two theories which describe the historical roots on Hinduism
on this earth.
• The classical theory of the origins of Hinduism traces the religion's
roots to the Indus valley civilization circa 4000 to 2200 BCE. The
development of Hinduism was influenced by many invasions over
thousands of years. The major influences occurred when light-skinned,
nomadic "Aryan" Indo-European tribes invaded Northern India (circa
1500 BCE) from the steppes of Russia and Central Asia. They brought
with them their religion of Vedism. These beliefs mingled with the more
advanced, indigenous Indian native beliefs, often called the "Indus valley
culture.". This theory was initially proposed by Christian scholars in the

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19th century. Their conclusions were biased by their pre-existing belief

in the Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament). The Book of Genesis, which
they interpreted literally, appears to place the creation of the earth at
circa 4,000 BCE, and the Noachian flood at circa 2,500 BCE. These dates
put severe constraints on the date of the "Aryan invasion," and the
development of the four Veda and Upanishad Hindu religious texts. A
second factor supporting this theory was their lack of appreciation of the
sophisticated nature of Vedic culture; they had discounted it as
primitive. 2 The classical theory is now being rejected by increasing
numbers of archaeologists and religious historians. The originators of
the theory were obviously biased by their prior beliefs about the age of
the earth and the biblical story of the flood of Noah.
• Emerging theory: The Aryan Invasion view of ancient Indian history
has been challenged in recent years by new conclusions based on more
recent findings in archaeology, cultural analysis, astronomical
references, and literary analysis. Archaeologists, including Jim Schaffer
and David Frawley, have established convincing arguments for this new
interpretation. 3 Archaeological digs have revealed that the Indus Valley
culture lasted from about 3500 to 1800 BCE. It was not "destroyed by
outside invasion, but...[by] internal causes and, most likely, floods." The "dark
age" that was believed to have followed the Aryan invasion may never
have happened. A series of cities in India have been studied by
archaeologists and shown to have a level of civilization between that of
the Indus culture and later more highly developed Indian culture, as
visited by the Greeks. Finally, Indus Valley excavations have uncovered
many remains of fire altars, animal bones, potsherds, shell jewelry and

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other evidences of Vedic rituals. "In other words there is no racial evidence
of any such Indo-Aryan invasion of India but only of a continuity of the same
group of people who traditionally considered themselves to be Aryans...The
Indo-Aryan invasion as an academic concept in 18th and 19th century Europe
reflected the cultural milieu of the period. Linguistic data were used to validate
the concept that in turn was used to interpret archeological and anthropological
data. "There was no invasion by anyone."

Major Hindu Scriptures

There are several sacred scriptures of the Hindus. Among these are the
Vedas, Upanishads and the Puranas.
1. Vedas: The word Veda is derived from the root word “vid” which
means to know, knowledge for excellence or sacred wisdom. There are
four principal divisions of the Vedas (although according to their
number, they amount to 1131 out of which about a dozen are available).
According to Maha Bhashya of Patanjali, there are 21 branches of Rig
Veda, 9 types of Atharvaveda, 101 branches of Yajurveda and 1000 of
Samveda). The Rig Veda, the Yajurveda and the Samveda are considered
to be more ancient books and are known as Trai Viddya or the ‘Triple
Sciences’. The Rig Veda is the oldest and has been compiled in three
long and different periods of time. The 4th Veda is the Atharvaveda,
which is of a later date. There is no unanimous opinion regarding the
date of compilation or revelation of the four Vedas. According to Swami
Dayanand, founder of the Arya Samaj, the Vedas were revealed 1310
million years ago. According to other scholars, they are not more than
4000 years old.

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2. Upanishads: The word 'Upanishad' is derived from “Upa” meaning

near, Ni which means down and Shad means to sit. Therefore
‘Upanishad’ means sitting down near. Groups of pupils sit near the
teacher to learn from him the secret doctrines. According to Samkara,
‘Upanishad’ is derived from the root word Sad which means ‘to loosen’,
‘to reach’ or ‘to destroy’, with Upa and ni as prefix; therefore
‘Upanishad’ means Brahma-Knowledge by which ignorance is loosened
or destroyed. The number of Upanishads exceeds 200 though the Indian
tradition puts it at 108. There are 10 principal Upanishads. However,
some consider them to be more than 10, while others 18. The Vedanta
meant originally the Upanishads, though the word is now used for the
system of philosophy based on the Upanishad. Literally, Vedanta means
the end of the Veda, Vedasua-antah, and the conclusion as well as the
goal of Vedas. The Upanishads are the concluding portion of the Vedas
and chronologically they come at the end of the Vedic period. Some
Pundits consider the Upanishads to be more superior to the Vedas.
3. Puranas: Next in order of authenticity are the Puranas which are the
most widely read scriptures. It is believed that the Puranas contain the
history of the creation of the universe, history of the early Aryan tribes,
life stories of the divines and deities of the Hindus. It is also believed
that the Puranas are revealed books similarly, there are differing
opinions regarding the places where these books were compiled and the
Rishis to whom these Scriptures were given. Inspite of these differences,
the Vedas are considered to be the most authentic of the Hindu
Scriptures and the real foundations of the Hindu Dharma. like the
Vedas, which were revealed simultaneously with the Vedas or sometime

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close to it. Maharishi Vyasa has divided the Puranas into 18 voluminous
parts. He also arranged the Vedas under various heads. Chief among the
Puranas is a book known as Bhavishya Purana. It is called so because it
is believed to give an account of future events. The Hindus consider it to
be the word of God. Maharishi yasa is considered to be just the compiler
of the book.
4. Itihaas: The two epics of Hinduism are the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata.
a) Ramayana: According to Ramanuja, the great scholar of Ramayana,
there are more than 300 different types of Ramayana: Tulsidas
Ramayana, Kumbha Ramayana. Though the outline of Ramayana is
same, the details and contents differ. Valmiki’s Ramayana: Unlike
the Mahabharata, the Ramayana appears to be the work of one
person – the sage Valmiki, who probably composed it in the 3rd
century BC. Its best-known recension (by Tulsi Das, 1532-1623)
consists of 24,000 rhymed couplets of 16-syllable lines organised into
7 books. The poem incorporates many ancient legends and draws on
the sacred books of the Vedas. It describes the efforts of Kosala’s heir,
Rama, to regain his throne and rescue his wife, Sita, from the demon
King of Lanka. Valmiki's Ramayana is a Hindu epic tradition whose
earliest literary version is a Sanskrit poem attributed to the sage
Valmiki. Its principal characters are said to present ideal models of
personal, familial, and social behavior and hence are considered to
exemplify Dharma, the principle of moral order.
b) Mahabharata: The nucleus of the Mahabharata is the war of eighteen
days fought between the Kauravas, the hundred sons of

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Dhritarashtra and Pandavas, the five sons of Pandu. The epic entails
all the circumstances leading upto the war. Involved in this
Kurukshetra battle were almost all the kings of India joining either of
the two parties. The result of this war was the total annihilation of
Kauravas and their party. Yudhishthira, the head of the Pandavas,
became the sovereign monarch of Hastinapura. His victory is
supposed to symbolise the victory of good over evil. But with the
progress of years, new matters and episodes relating to the various
aspects of human life, social, economic, political, moral and religious
as also fragments of other heroic legends came to be added to the
aforesaid nucleus and this phenomenon continued for centuries until
it acquired the present shape. The Mahabharata represents a whole
literature rather than one single and unified work, and contains
many multifarious things.
c) Bhagavad Gita: Bhagavad Gita is a part of Mahabharata. It is the
advice given by Krishna to Arjun on the battlefield of Kurukshetra. It
contains the essence of the Vedas and is the most popular of all the
Hindu Scriptures. It contains 18 chapters. The Bhagavad Gita is one
of the most widely read and revered of the works sacred to the
Hindus. It is their chief devotional book, and has been for centuries
the principal source of religious inspiration for many thousands of
Hindus. The Gita is a dramatic poem, which forms a small part of the
larger epic, the Mahabharata. It is included in the sixth book
(Bhismaparvan) of the Mahabaharata and documents one tiny event
in a huge epic tale. The Bhagavad Gita tells a story of a moral crisis
faced by Arjuna, which is solved through the interaction between

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Arjuna, a Pandava warrior hesitating before battle, and Krishna, his

charioteer and teacher. The Bhagavad Gita relates a brief incident in
the main story of a rivalry and eventually a war between two
branches of a royal family. In that brief incident - a pause on the
battlefield just as the battle is about to begin - Krishna, one chief on
one side (also believed to be the Lord incarnate), is presented as
responding to the doubts of Arjuna. The poem is the dialogue
through which Arjuna’s doubts were resolved by Krishna’s
teachings.

Concept of God in Hinduism

1. Common Concept of God in Hinduism: Hinduism is commonly

perceived as a polytheistic religion. Indeed, most Hindus would attest to
this, by professing belief in multiple Gods. While some Hindus believe
in the existence of three gods, some believe in thousands of gods, and
some others in thirty three crore i.e. 330 million Gods. However, learned
Hindus, who are well versed in their scriptures, insist that a Hindu
should believe in and worship only one God. The major difference
between the Hindu and the Muslim perception of God is the common
Hindus’ belief in the philosophy of Pantheism. Pantheism considers
everything, living and non-living, to be Divine and Sacred. The common
Hindu, therefore, considers everything as God. He considers the trees as
God, the sun as God, the moon as God, the monkey as God, the snake as
God and even human beings as manifestations of God. Islam, on the
contrary, exhorts man to consider himself and his surroundings as
examples of Divine Creation rather than as divinity itself. Muslims

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therefore believe that everything is God’s i.e. the word ‘God’ with an
apostrophe ‘s’. In other words the Muslims believe that everything
belongs to God. The trees belong to God, the sun belongs to God, the
moon belongs to God, the monkey belongs to God, the snake belongs to
God, the human beings belong to God and everything in this universe
belongs to God. Thus the major difference between the Hindu and the
Muslim beliefs is the difference of the apostrophe ‘s’. The Hindu says
everything is God. The Muslim says everything is God’s.

Educational Philosophy of Hinduism

Ancient education has been emerged from the Vedas and other Hindu
Scriptures. The educational philosophy of Hinduism can be understood by
elaborating the Vedic education as Vedic education is the output of Hindu
philosophy. The detailed discussion regarding Vedic Education is as under:

Salient Features of Vedic Education

Ancient education emerged from the Vedas. They are supposed to be the
source of Indian philosophy. Vedas means “to know”. They are four in number
namely Rig Veda, Saama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda. Among Vedas,
Rig Veda is treated to be the source. It interprets the knowledge aspect and
deals with the four stages of life viz., Celibacy, family life, forest life and
renunciation. The guiding principle of Vedic Education was “simple living and
high thinking”. The salient features of Vedic education can be discussed as
follows:
1. The Four Vedas: It is said that Vedas were not written in ancient times,
but were traditionally inherited by disciples and also by sons from their

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teachers (Gurus) and fathers. Thus, they were preserved orally.

According to Sayan, Veda is a symbol of that thing through which one
attains one’s objective and protects himself against bad traits,
undesirable things and behaviour. Vedas have their own characteristic
features. Through them we are able to know about the culture,
civilization, life and philosophy of people in ancient India. The
knowledge of the four Vedas helps an individual to broaden his
intellectual horizon.
2. Knowledge – The Third eye: In Vedic period the terms like knowledge
awakening, humility, mode etc., are often used as characteristics of
education. According to Vedas, education is knowledge. It opens the
man’s inner eye which is regarded as the third eye; flooding him with
spiritual and divine light which form the provisions for man’s journey
through life. Through education, the development of every aspect of
human life becomes possible.
3. Place of Yajna (sacred offering): It is said that Yajna occupied a very
important place in human life during Vedic period. Some Yajna was
performed in each and every sacred work. Through these Yajnas, the
learned saints, Rishies and Munis of the period used to realize the truth
of human life and with the help of this, man obtained the knowledge of
many practical spheres of life.
4. Objectives of education: It is reported that in Vedic period, education
had an idealistic form in which the teacher (referred as Acharya) laid
stress upon the worship of God, religiousness, spirituality, formation of
character, development of personality, creation of an aptitude for the

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development of culture, nation and society. These objectives led an

individual towards the path of spiritual development.
5. The Upnayana ritual: Upnayana was a ceremony performed before the
child was taken to his teacher at the age of 8, 11 and 12 for the Brahmins,
Kshytriyas and Vaishyas respectively. The word “Upnayana” means “to
take close to” or “to bring in touch with”. The ceremony determined the
child’s migration from infancy stage to childhood stage and his initiation
into educational life. Its main function was to develop a healthy teacher-
taught relationship. Later on, the ceremony was confined to Brahmin
class only.
6. Brahmacharya: During Vedic period, every student was required to
attain celibacy or remain Brahmacharya in his specific path of life. Only
the unmarried could become students in a Gurukul. On entering
student’s life, the student was made to wear a special girdde called a
“mekhla” – of moonj grass for Brahmins, taanta for Kshatriyas and wool
for Vaishyas. The clothes worn by them were also accordingly of silk,
wood etc.
7. Practicality: Vedic education encompassed the necessary activities of
life. Students were given education about animal husbandry,
agriculture, and other professions. The main purpose was to produce
specialists of the best kind in various spheres.
8. Equal rights to all: During vedic period, educational rights were given
to all without any distinction of class and colour. There was no caste
system at all. Each one was free to receive education according to one’s
capacity.

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9. Status of women: During Vedic period, women were given full status
with men. They were honoured and respected in society. Therefore,
women’s education was at its peak during this time. Girls were taught
like boys. Girls were skilled in domestic activities and were taught at
home.
10. Free education: The basic tenant of the ancient educational tradition was
the paying of the social debt. Teachers took this profession to pay their
debt to the society. So education given to the students was completely
free. Its expenses were borne by the society and the king. The student
was compelled to obey the ideals of Gurukul.
11. Gurukuls: In Vedic period, the wards were sent to “Gurukuls” or the
homes of the “Acharyas” for education, just after the ‘Upanayan ritual’.
Then they were called, “Antevasin” or “Gurukulwasee”. There they led
the life of chastity and purity; served the Acharya and gained
knowledge. Gurukuls were fully free from the Government control and
influence, therefore, they continued fulfilling their aims.
12. Ideal of Guru: Teachers of the Vedic period were men of highest caliber
in society from the point of knowledge and spiritual progress. They paid
great attention towards the proper and spiritual development of their
thoughts. They treated their students as their own sons and managed for
their boarding and lodging and helped them in need.
13. Duties of students (Shishyas): The students of the Gurukul had to
perform a number of duties. They had to do the service of the Guru and
necessary jobs of the “Gurukul”. They had to keep the Gurukul neat and
tidy. They were also supposed to prepare the necessities for rituals
(yajnas) and grazed the cows of the Gurus. The students were also

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supposed to lead a very simple life. Their main duty was to study and
they were gently leant and attended to the instructions of the Guru.

Aims of Vedic Education

In Vedic period, education had an idealistic form. According to Dr. A. S.

Altekar, “the objectives of education in ancient India were worship of God, a
feeling for religion, formation of character, fulfillment of public and civic
duties, an increase in social efficiency or skill and the protection and
propagation of national culture”. These objectives and ideals took an
individual to the path of spiritual development. Vedic education also aimed at
producing piety and sense of reverence, to train the intellect and memory, to
make one fit to have healthy progeny, to enable one to gather riches and to
make one long lived. The main aims of education during Vedic period were as
follows:
1. Inculcation of a spirit of piety and righteousness: In olden times, the
life of man was simple and pious. He performed his duties with great
attention and devotion. He had a moral standard before him. His prime
duty was to follow religion. He was religious because of his close contact
with yogis and saints. He always strived for an ideal behaviour.
Religious topics were generally discussed in meetings and seminars.
2. Preservation and spread of ancient culture: Preservation and
transmission of ancient Indian culture was one of the chief aims of Vedic
education. Renowned teachers performed this task. Their contribution in
the field was notable and praiseworthy. They were continuously
involved in their work. Students practised education independently and
this helped them in the upliftment of their future life.

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3. Development of personality: In the ancient system, greater emphasis

were laid on all round development of personality. The aim of Gurukul
system of education was also the same and the teachers constantly
worked for this. They had their own methods of work in order to
achieve it. Students were acquainted with the principle i.e., to know
thyself, self-realisation, self-confidence and self-respect. Debates,
discussions, talks, seminars, and symposia were organized from time to
time. Students actively participated in these programmes and proved
their worth.
4. Formation of character: Formation of character had been one of the chief
aims of ancient system of education in India (Vedic education).
Gurukuls were established with this aim in view. They were situated in
the lap of nature at far off places in the open and free atmosphere of the
forest. In these institutions students led the life of celibates. It lacked
pleasures, comforts and luxuries. Simple food, good behaviour and high
ideas were constantly stressed.
5. Inculcation of civic and social duties: In the Vedic period, due
attention was laid on the development of healthy civic and aesthetic
sense. This was necessary for a happy future life. After celibacy, there
was a provision for family life. During this period, students joined
society and enjoyed a happy civic life. Their main duty was to observe
the norms set by the society. They were required to perform their duties
towards family which they did to the best of their abilities. Performing
of social, national, parental and animal services were their daily routine.
They were the integral part of the society and constantly strived for the
improvement of their life styles.

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6. Promotion of vocational efficiency: In Vedic period, the aim of

education was very comprehensive and wide. Imparting of some basic
knowledge was not the only work of the teacher. He prepared the
students for future life. Inculcation of healthy and positive attitudes and
values helped them in the development of vocational efficiency.
Students were trained to earn their living according to their abilities and
power. Different castes adopted different professions and occupations.
Some persons were assigned the work of social service and society in
return provided them articles of daily life.
7. Sublimation of instincts: In Vedic period, the objective of education
was to sublimate instinctive tendencies, to turn the mind away from
material knowledge and to center it on the spiritual world, thus vedic
process tried to establish control over materialistic tendencies.
In nutshell, vedic education aimed at producing piety and sense of
reverence, to train the intellect and memory, to make one fit to have healthy
progeny, to enable one to gather riches, to make one long lived and to bring
immortality within reach.

Process of Vedic Education

Vedic system of education was psychological. In this period, the

educational process was centered around the teacher. Verbal education was
imparted in such a way that it could be preserved for thousands of years.
Studying was similar to the recitation of folk songs. The hymns were learnt by
remembering and they were realized through meditation (Tapasya). The
“Acharya’ used to produce the hymns correctly and the students repeated
them. Their mistakes were corrected. The sound (Dhvani), words (Shabda) and

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verses (Chhanda) were pronounced in their original form. Practice made them
perfectly efficient not only in learning the hymns but also in the systematic line
of learning. In lectures, various facts were corroborated through stories, life
sketches and other suitable examples. Conferences were convened for
deliberations on intellectual problems. Education was both practical and
theoretical in nature.
In the process of vedic education, three methods of study were
prevailing:
1. Sravana (listening) check spelling of sarvana
2. Manana (Deliberation); and
3. Nidhidhyasana (Meditation).

1. Sarvana Method: Sarvana is the system of oral tradition by which

Brahmashidesa was able to build of her culture. Sravana is also called
Maukhik. Students listen to the words or texts as they come from the
mouth of the teacher and memorize them. This system is popularly
known as Guruparampara or Sampradhya. By this method of
education, knowledge was conserved and transmitted to the oncoming
generation. In this oral tradition special emphasis was given on the
various lines of the Mantras (vedic hymns) and Richayas (verses of
Rigveda), their pronunciations and meanings. Thus, the Vedas are
known as Sruti (what is heard). Knowledge in vedic period was not
preserved either in a book or in a library. It was preserved in an
individual just like his blood. Teacher was a living and walking library
and the sound that comes out of his mouth habits potency and value.
Students captured the vibrations of the sound. The sound was known

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as Sabdabrahma (Sabda is Brahma) or the “word is God”. Lessons in

grammar and pronunciation were compulsory for the students.

2. Manana: Manana method was used to encourage the gifted children. It

was the higher method of teaching in which deliberation, reflection on
the topic taught by the teacher by the method of Srabana was
emphasized. Intellectual appreciation of truth was the significant
feature of this method.

3. Nididhyasana: In this method, only intellectual appreciation of truth

was important. But in Nididyasana or mediation realization of truth
was to be attained. Thus, realization of truth is described as Darshana
or perception of truth. The individual was helped by this method to
see the self. We believe the reality of matter because we see the
material object of the world. When we see the Atman by the method
meditation, we can easily realize what is truth and what is untruth?
Nididyysana is the highest stage of meditation, which enables the
students to become conscious of only one objective. The Brahma
undisturbed by the slightest consciousness of the material world.

Curriculum of Vedic Education

During the Vedic period all education became centered around religion
which is essentially an effort to establish harmony between man’s total
personality and the totality of the universe. Hence, the curriculum was
dominated by the study of the Vedas and Vedic literature, spiritual and moral
lessons. Generally, after learning the alphabets at home, the children were
introduced at the Gurukula to shabda vidya (learning of words) which literally
means phonology and implies mainly Grammar. The object was to impress, at

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the outset, upon the children’s mind. “the idea of a scientific method, order,
principles, and system of rule”, through the study of grammar. Besides, the
study of language, literature and grammar students had to study the
Hetuvidya or logic, which develops the reasoning faculty. Slipa vidya or
science of arts and crafts helped in the development of aesthetic sense and
practical skill in construction regarding symmetry, proportion and beauty.
Physical education was also included in the curriculum. Students had to
learn riding, archery, wrestling, running, fist fighting, hurling of javelins,
swimming, running, jumping, digging, dancing etc., Rigveda mentions how
the Sage Agastaya developed his strength by digging with a hue (vide Rigveda
1-179-6). In Atharva veda (Book XX-Hymn XCVIII, p. 413) there was examples
of popularity of horse racing and existence of regular race courses.
For developing physical and mental strength, early marriage was not in
practice in the Vedic age. They strictly observed celibacy upto a particular age
to avoid premature old age and death.
Some professional and technical subjects like Ayurveda or Cikista Vidya
(Medicine and Surgery), astronomy, astrology, mathematics, arthasastra, etc.
were given due importance in the curriculum. The famous book “Vedic
Mathematics” written by Jagadguru Shankaracharya Sri Bharati Krishna Tritha
Maharaja, is a wonderful research achievement, which proves the brilliant
mathematical knowledge contained in the Vedas and imparted in the centers
of learning in the vedic period.
Vidyas or branches of knowledge included in the curriculum were
fourteen in number viz., the four Vedas, Anger (Siksa, Kalpa, Nirukta,
Chandra, Jyotisa and Grammar) Dharma (rules of conduct), Nimasa (theology),
Tarka or Nyaya (logic) and Puranas (history and mythology).

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Curriculum in the vedic age laid more stress on other worldliness.

Although provision was made for all round development of the students, yet
he was prepared not for this world, but for the eternal happiness in the other
world. The highest wisdom was to seek release from worldly chains and the
highest knowledge was to become acquainted with the method by which self
realization could be obtained.

Merits of Vedic Education

The foregoing description of Vedic education leads us to certain

generalizations and conclusions in the shape of merits and demerits. They can
be enumerated as:
1. The aim of education in Vedic period was the development of religious,
intellectual and moral aspects. It was related to both the worldly and
other worldly life.
2. The attitude of people towards education was broad and comprehensive
and attainment of salvation was the sole aim.
3. Education was imparted in the serene and calm atmosphere of teacher’s
homes and student life was an ideal one. Through simple living and
high thinking emphasis was laid on the formation of student’s character
and education was free.
4. Teacher was held in high esteem. Students treated them honourably and
respectfully. Teacher-taught relationship was cordial.
5. The knowledge of the four Vedas provided an individual with new
knowledge which broadened his intellectual horizon.
6. Women were assigned a high position in society and proper facilities
were available for their education.

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Demerits of Vedic Education

Inspite of a large number of merits, the system suffered from certain

deficiencies and drawbacks also. Some of them are as follows:-
1. Too much reliance on scriptures failed to develop among student’s habit
of independent thinking, reasoning and imagination and as the time
passed education became very narrow and conservative in outlook with
the result that originality had a great set-back.
2. Due to caste discrimination, the lower castes were very much looked
down upon and hated, with the result, the general public remained
illiterate and backward.
3. Dominance of religion in all matters resulted in the neglect of material
prosperity and industrialization.
4. Though education was based on democracy, in its grab arbitrariness
developed and hence the spirit of democracy was mis-used. The result
was, that control became loose and corruption and luxuries ultimately
led society towards decay.
5. Priority given to peace and non-violence had its own results in the shape
of weak military force and lack of armaments. Its ultimate effect was
that the nation became weak and thus failed to met the challenge of the
enemy.

Let Us Sum Up

Briefly Speaking , Hinduism has commonly been viewed in the west as

a polytheistic religion - one which worships multiple deities: gods and
goddesses. Although a widespread belief, this is not particularly accurate.

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Some have viewed it as a monotheistic religion, because it recognizes only one

supreme God: the panentheistic principle of Brahman, that all reality is a unity.
The entire universe is seen as one divine entity who is simultaneously at one
with the universe and who transcends it as well. Some view Hinduism as
Trinitarian because Brahman is simultaneously visualized as a triad -- one God
with three persons:
• Brahma the Creator who is continuing to create new realities
• Vishnu, (Krishna) the Preserver, who preserves these new creations.
Whenever dharma (eternal order, righteousness, religion, law and
duty) is threatened, Vishnu travels from heaven to earth in one of ten
incarnations.
• Shiva, the Destroyer, is at times compassionate, erotic and destructive.
Strictly speaking, most forms of Hinduism are henotheistic; they
recognize a single deity, and recognizes other gods and goddesses as facets,
forms, manifestations, or aspects of that supreme God. Vedic education has
been emerged from the Vedas which are the holy scriptures of Hindu religion.
In other words, Vedic education is the implication of Hinduism.

Check Your Progress

1. Discuss the major Hindu scriptures?

2. Explain the educational philosophy of Vedic education?
3. Explain the concept of God In Hinduism?

Suggested Readings

1. Agarwal, A. K. (2005). Development of Education System in India. Anmol

Publication Pvt. Ltd.

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2. Altekar, A.S. (1943). Education in Ancient India, New Delhi, Motilal

Banarsidass.
3. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Ten Principal Upanishads, Vol. I. 1987, New
Delhi.
4. Kireet Joshi (1992). The Veda and Indian Culture, New Delhi, Rashtriya
Veda Vidya Pratishthan, New Delhi.
5. Mukherji, R.K. (1989). Ancient Indian Education, New Delhi, Motilal
Banarsidass. (Reprint).

Web References:

1. "Origin of 'Hindu'," at: http://www.hindunet.org/

2. David Frawley, "The myth of the Aryan invasion of India," at:
http://www.hindunet.org/ (1991"Sacred Texts: Hinduism," at:
http://www.sacred-texts.com/
3. "Sacred Scripts" has a search engine at: http://www.sacredscripts.org
4. "Ramayana," Manas: India and its neighbors, at:
http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/
5. "Date of the Rigveda," Saksi, at: http://www.vedah.com/org/
6. "Vedic Astronomical Lore," Hindu Books Universe, at:
http://www.hindubooks.org/

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UNIT III

LESSON NO 8: BUDDHISM

Lesson Structure
Introduction

Objectives

Emergence of Buddhist Philosophy

Concept of God Highlighted in the Buddhist Philosophy

Buddhist Education

Salient Features of Buddhist Education

Aims of Education

Process of Buddhist Education

Curriculum in Buddhist Education

Centers of Education

Methods of Teaching

Merits of Buddhist Education

Demerits of Buddhist Education

Let Us Sum Up

Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

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Introduction

In this lesson, an attempt has been made to enable the students to

understand the concept and nature of Buddhist education. It would further
elaborate the sailent features, objectives, curriculum, methods of teaching and
process of Buddhist system of education. Dear students, remember that the
education imparted during the Buddhist period was, in reality, a reaction to the
education of the preceding post-Vedic period and the Brahman period. During
the period, educational institutions for general education were established.
They made provisions for imparting primary as well as higher education. An
important contribution of this period was the imparting of education in various
practical subjects, a tradition which has come down to the present day. It was
in this period that the method of collective teaching and the presence of many
teachers in a single institution was evolved. Educational institutions were
formally organised and established in this period. The organisation of the
Nalanda and the Ballabhi universities was so advanced that it continues to
influence the organization and structuring of universities till the present day.
The system of determining a minimum age for higher education, providing a
set of rules and taking a test for admission is even today guiding the
educational structure.

Objectives

After reading this lesson you should be able to:-

• Explain the background of the emergence of Buddhist education;
• Highlight the nature of Buddhist education;

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• Describe the basic teaching of Buddhist education;

• Explain the sailent features and aims of Buddhist education; and
• Throw light on the relevance of Buddhist education in present era.

Emergence of Buddhist Philosophy

The sixth century B.C. has left a permanent impress on Indian history
mainly because it witnessed an intense preoccupation with philosophical
speculation. Among the various thinkers contributing to this unique phase
were the Mahavira and Buddha, who more than any other historical
personages born in India have compelled the attention of the world as the most
humane thinkers, the Indian tradition has produced. Buddhism represents the
most serious and most comprehensive attempt to analyse the rapidly changing
society in which it originated and to provide an enduring social philosophy for
mankind. Buddhism created the vision of an alternative society, the possibility
of organising society on different principles from the hierarchical and in
egalitarian ideology and practices that had begun to gain ground.
The roots of Buddha's social philosophy can be clearly traced back to the
society of the sixth century B.C. Politically it was situated in the context of state
formation and the emergence of certain institutions.
Like most philosophies, Buddhism attempts to frame the complexities of
human existence in a way that reassures us that there is, in fact, some
underlying order to the Universe. In the Four Noble Truths, the Buddha crisply
summarizes our predicament: there is suffering, it has a cause, it has an end,
and there is a way to reach the end. The teachings on kamma provide a
thorough and logically self-consistent description of the nature of cause-and-
effect. And even the Buddhist view of cosmology, which some may at first find

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farfetched, is a logical extension of the law of kamma. According to the

Dhamma, a deep and unshakable logic pervades the world.
Unlike most philosophical systems, which rely on speculation and the
power of reason to arrive at logical truths, Buddhism relies on the direct
observation of one's personal experience and on honing certain skills in order
to gain true understanding and wisdom. Idle speculation has no place in
Buddhist practice. Although studying in the classroom, reading books, and
engaging in spirited debate can play a vital part in developing a cognitive
understanding of basic Buddhist concepts, the heart of Buddhism can never be
realized this way. The Dhamma is not an abstract system of thought designed
to delight the intellect; it is a roadmap to be used, one whose essential purpose
is to lead the practitioner to the ultimate goal, nibbana.
At the heart of each of the world's great religions lies a transcendent
ideal around which its doctrinal principles orbit. In Buddhism this truth is
nibbana, the hallmark of the cessation of suffering and stress, a truth of utter
transcendence that stands in singular distinction from anything we might
encounter in our ordinary sensory experience. Nibbana is the sine qua non of
Buddhism, the guiding star and ultimate goal towards which all the Buddha's
teachings point. Because it aims at such a lofty transcendent ideal, we might
fairly call Buddhism a religion.
Despite its non-theistic nature, however, Buddhist practice does call for
a certain kind of faith. It is not blind faith, an uncritical acceptance of the
Buddha's word as transmitted through scripture. Instead it is saddha, a
confidence born of taking refuge in the Triple Gem; it is a willingness to trust
that the Dhamma, when practiced diligently, will lead to the rewards promised
by the Buddha. Saddha is a provisional acceptance of the teachings, that is ever

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subject to critical evaluation during the course of one's practice, and which
must be balanced by one's growing powers of discernment. For many
Buddhists, this faith is expressed and reinforced through traditional devotional
practices, such as bowing before a Buddha statue and reciting passages from
the early Pali texts. Despite a superficial resemblance to the rites of many
theistic religions, however, these activities are neither prayers nor pleas for
salvation directed towards a transcendent Other. They are instead useful and
inspiring gestures of humility and respect for the profound nobility and worth
of the Triple Gem.

Concept of God Highlighted in the Buddhist Philosophy

Buddha was silent about the existence or non-existence of God. It may

be that since India was drowned in idol worship and anthropomorphism that a
sudden step to monotheism would have been drastic and hence Buddha may
have chosen to remain silent on the issue of God. He did not deny the existence
of God. Buddha was once asked by a disciple whether God exists? He refused
to reply. When pressed, he said that if you are suffering from a stomach ache
would you concentrate on relieving the pain or studying the prescription of the
physician. "It is not my business or yours to find out whether there is God – our
business is to remove the sufferings of the world”.
Buddhism provided Dhamma or the ‘impersonal law’ in place of God.
However this could not satisfy the craving of human beings and the religion of
self-help had to be converted into a religion of promise and hope. The
Hinayana sect could not hold out any promise of external help to the people.
The Mahayana sect taught that Buddha’s watchful and compassionate eyes are

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on all miserable beings, thus making a God out of Buddha. Many scholars
consider the evolution of God within Buddhism as an effect of Hinduism.
Many Buddhists adopted the local god and thus the religion of ‘No-God’
was transformed into the religion of ‘Many-Gods’ – big and small, strong and
weak and male and female. The ‘Man-God’ appears on earth in human form
and incarnates from time to time. Buddha was against the caste-system
prevalent in the Hindu society.

Buddhist Education

Brahmanical education was one of the integral parts of national life.

Students would spend more than twelve years in Gurukul under the
preceptor’s guidance by chanting mantras through rote method. Penances
(punishment) and tortures in the name of education were also given. Common
people no longer tolerated humiliation from such educational institutions. It
was a sort of bloodshed to please the supreme, performing Yagnas, cruelty to
the core. Subjects of teaching were not so easy to understand to the common
people. They were required to concentrate on religion, but avoid putting
themselves in a vicious circle of various philosophical ideals and teachings.
They wanted a simple and practical religion to follow, which came into
existence as a reaction against Brahmanical education. So, the Buddhist
education came into existence.
Buddhism is not a separate religion but the essence of Hinduism. It was
to meet the needs of the common people, a religion easy to practice due to its
simplicity. It was started to eradicate impurities and bloodshed of rigid
principles of religions. Buddha considered sacrifices as useless and cruel. So, he
brought such religious principles which would solve the problems of the life of

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common people. The motive of Buddhism was to embrace all types of people.
Buddhism condemned Brahmacharya concept and its aim to remove the
hurdles of life was Salvation. Buddhism has a history since 600 BC and to attain
salvation, the doctrines of Buddhism must be followed, they were Atman,
Sorrow emancipation and Karma Metempsy - chosis. In Buddhism there was
no rigidity of caste. Therefore, Buddhist Education was based on the above
cited principles in order to disseminate the saying of Lord Buddha. During
Buddhist education Pali was the medium of instruction.

Salient Features of Buddhist Education

Some of the features of Buddhist education are as follows:-

1. Prominent centers of education: During Buddhist period, education
was imparted in monasteries. A monastery was the educational
institution, where the Shramana lived after the pabbajja and
Upasampada, the first and final ordination. There were many
universities in India during the Buddhist period. Wherever Budhist
monasteries or Viharas were established, educational centers too
emerged. Among the most notable universities of this period were the
Universities of Taxila, Nalanda, Ballabhi, Vikramshila, Udantpuri,
Nadia, Jagdalla.
2. Going out of home for education: In Buddhist system of education, the
student had to leave his home and reside with the teacher. This was
known as pabbajja according to the Buddhist tradition. The student in
ancient Indian was known as antevasin one who lives out of his home.
One who look the path of pabbajja was known as Pabbajji or one had
become a homeless for the cause of education.

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3. Minimum age for initiation: Buddhist system of education admitted the

age of eight years as the minimum age for initiation in education. They
considered the period of twelve years as the minimum period for
studentship. The word Brahmachari correspond to the Buddhist epithet
samanera which meant the student who has been initiated.
4. Duration of education: The total period of education was 22 years,
composed of 12 years of Pabbajja and 10 years as Upasampada.
Education was given in the monastery where the student was ordined to
obey ten rules which included – abstaining from theft, killing of any
living being, impure conduct, partaking of food at prohibited times, use
of intoxicating things, use of cosmetics, taking things without being
offered, accepting objects of gold and silver in alms, watching dances or
listening to music etc. After attaining the age of 22, the student had to
adopt ‘Upsampada’. After that he was called “Bhiskhu” or “Bhiksus”.
After receiving education the student never came back to his parental
place. He remained a monk for ever.
5. Rules of Admission into Sangh: Admission into Sangh was mostly
based more or less on the rules and regulations observed by Gurukuls in
Vedic period. Like the students of Vedic period, here also the students
had to present themselves before the teacher to ask for the admission.
The first step in the Buddhist initation is called Pabbaja, meaning "going
forth". The admission to the order was thrown open for all castes. But
after the admission into the Buddhist order, one must relinquish all the
past affiliations. The disciple should leave his parents and live with the
preceptor in the monastry. At the time of entering into the Sangh' the
disciple must have attained the age of eight years and during this period

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the new monk made his preparation for the sangh life. Afterwards at the
age of 20 years, he accepted, 'Upsampada' and became full-fledged
member of the 'Sangh'. The Buddhist system of education enjoins
upon the disciples the duty of serving their preceptors as a pan of
education. All kinds of mannual work, such as cleaning the Viharas,
were required to be done by them.
6. The System of Pabbaja: At eight years of age, one could go to any
'Vihara' or 'Sangh' according to his own will. With head shaved and a
yellow cloth in hand he went to the principal monk and requested him
for admission in 'Sangh'. He thus surrendered himself fully. The monk
caused him to put the yellow clothes on and utter the three words of
shelter in a loud voice:
➢ I go into the shelter of Buddha.
➢ I seek the shelter of Dharma.
➢ I enter the shelter of Sangh.
After taking the above three vows, one became entitled to
admission. No one could get admision into the 'Sangh' without the
consent of his parents. Patients of infectious diseases like Leprosy, T.B.,
Eczema, etc. and government servants, slaves and soldiers were not
allowed to be admitted into 'Sanghs'. However there was no
discrimination of any kind on the basis of caste or creed.
7. Rules for the Students: The admitted student was called ‘Samner’. He
had to follow the following rules:
❖ Not to kill any living being.
❖ Not to accept anything given to him.
❖ Live free from the impurity of character.

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❖ Not to tell a lie.

❖ Not to use any intoxicating thing.
❖ Not to take food at improper time.
❖ Not to speak ill of anybody.
❖ Not to take any interest in music, dance, play show, etc.
❖ Not to use luxurious and scented things.
❖ Not to accept the gifts of gold or silver, etc.
The ten rules were essentially observed by the new monk. The
'Upajasaya1 i.e., the teacher took all his responsibilities up to the age of
20 years when he became mature and capable for accepting
'Upasampada', For the teacher, he was 'Sadvi Biharak'. Lord Buddha
himself taught that teacher should recognise his taught (Sadvi Biharak)
as his son and the taught (Sadvi Biharak) should recognise teacher
(Upajasaya) as his own father.
8. General educational plan: The general plan of the Buddhist education
was similar to that of Brahmanic education. Buddhism trained the
monks first and it was later that the education of the masses was
undertaken. Any one who was learned could become a teacher. The
monopoly of the Brahmans was shattered. All enjoyed the same status.
This thing had a great appeal to the masses especially to the people of
lower classes. The education, therefore, flourished.
9. Initiation ceremony: Education was imparted in monasteries in
Buddhist period and not in the home of the Guru or the Gurukula. An
entrant had to perform the Pabbajja (going forth) ceremony, which
marked the beginning of the initiation period. It was similar to the
“Upnayna” ceremony of the Brahmanic order. The child had to get his

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hair cut and wear clothes of yellow colour. He was to take an oath as
well. The oath was “I take my refuge in the Budha; I take my refuge in
Dharma; I take my refuge in the Sangha order”.
10. The service of student: In Buddhist period of education, the
studentship period was harder. The student had to beg his daily food
and had to do all manual and mental work connected with monastic life.
The rules were to be followed strictly. The child was immediately
expelled from the order in case of a serious breach of discipline.
11. Provision for higher education: In Buddhist period, there was provision
for higher education. In this type of education students would be taught
literary, scientific and vocational education. In literary education,
religious teachings were given due attention. Higher education was
given after the Pabbajja stage known Upsampada. Here students were
selected on the basis of their ability and aptitude for higher education.
The student had to choose his guru with whom he wished to study. This
period would last for 10 years and then he would become Acharya who
could himself receive students for education.
12. Service of the teacher: Buddhist system insisted upon the duty of the
student to serve his teacher by all means. The teacher admitted only as
many students as he could cope with. The teacher enjoyed a very high
status in society and was respected by all. He was fully devoted to teach
and worked with the spirit of devotion and dedication. He was feared,
loved and respected by his students. The teacher was a friend, a guide
and a philosopher. He was a person of scholarly attainments. Hence, he
was held in high esteem.

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13. Education of Women: In Buddhist period, women were allowed to join

Sangha. This resulted in the emancipation of women. Buddhist
education produced numerous remarkable women within its own fold,
who played a prominent part as leaders of thought in the religious
reformation. The order of Nuns was the training ground of these
women. Some of the Nuns qualified themselves in the knowledge of the
sacred texts so far as to be accepted as the teachers of other junior Nuns,
is evident from a passage in the Chullavagga which mentions that a
Bhikkuni was the pupil of the Bhikkhuni Upparavanna. Regarding their
studies, the same passage informs us that the Bhikkuni “followed the
Blessed one for seven years, learning the Vinaya, but she, being forgetful
lost it as fast as she received it.” This was then ordained that Bhikkhus
should teach the Vinaya to Bhikhunis.
14. Education of the General Public: Only those people were admitted in
Buddhist sanghs who had renounced the worldly attractions and
accepted the life of a monk. They were educated in Buddhism. They
were permanent members of the sangh and spent a collective life. There
was no provision for the education of common man in the Buddhist
sanghs. But since they were dependent on the endowment by the public
and the rulers, it was necessary for them to teach Buddhism to public,
during their tours. They used to allay the doubts of the public and create
confidence in them. Religious education in the public was arranged
under the patronage of the rulers. The following facts may be mentioned
in this connection :

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a) Buddhist education was not limited to monasteries and Viharas. It

was provided by monks in their ashrams and cottages like
Brahmanic education.
b) Brahamanic and Buddhist education were not contradictory to each
other but complementary.
c) The system was taught to the public also.
d) The system of presenting fees to the teacher before starting
education was common in those days.
15. Vocational Education: The aim of Buddhist education was to educate
the monks and also those who believed in it, yet at the same time we
find that it had not ignored occupational and technical aspects of
education. Spinning, weaving and sewing were taught. Moreover
Ayurveda and Surgery made good progress in this age. Charka, rightly
known as the father of Ayurveda, was a product of this age. Arts and
architecture were taught as crafts.

Aims of Buddhist Education

Buddhist education had its own aims and Buddha himself understood
the life which was fraught with sorrow and pain, with a view to remove the
affliction of life. The various aims of Buddhist education may be discussed as
follows:
1. Attainment of Salvation: The important aim of Buddhist education was
the attainment of Nirvana or Salvation or by renouncing the world and
worldly pleasures. Knowledge acquired from education and the life of
simplicity could enable one to attain Nirvana, having faith in oneself,
shradha and the spirit of renunciation. Their soul should inculcate a

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spirit of self surrender, sacrifice and renunciation of worldly pleasures

for inner enlightenment and the good of others. Education was given to
students to realize Brahma and become one with this ultimate truth
through real knowledge obtained by their preceptors in the monasteries.
Buddhist education upheld that education should create such a
condition and provide an environment which is conducive to the
development of spiritual entity among the Shramans. A holy life, full of
piety and good ideals which lead automatically towards spiritual
attainment and self realization. Hence, the very aim of Budhistic
education was to prepare Shramans for a holy life or Moksha.
2. Propagation of Buddhism: Buddhist education was basically religious
in character and to educate the monks belonging to the order and also to
those persons who should have sympathy towards other religions. Its
innate aim was to propagate and spread good social values. At the initial
stage, the purpose of Buddhism was ignored, but later on, its simple,
practicable principles, ideals, non-violence, no caste difference had the
proper place in education and attracted common people. Its aim was to
check the inordinate immolation (sacrifice) of animals which was
rampant in the name of the performance of yagna and other lower
stratification of people were kept away from the Gurukulas, they were
downtrodden. To put an end to these cruel deeds, Buddhism came into
existence with the attire of Hindu principles. By its simple principles,
Buddhism wanted to spread its easily practicable principles and
attracted all types of people and castes under its shelter.
3. Development of purity of character: The third aim of Buddhist
education was to develop purity of character. Character development is

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a very important aim of education. So it was emphasized in the practice

of Brahmacharya through simple living and high thinking, wearing
simple dress. Music, dance, use of scents were prohibited. When the
education was restricted for the pleasures of life, they could develop
purity of heart, there was no place for hatredness, greediness, jealousy
etc. In order to attain purity of character, one must possess proper
vision, decision, speech and action. In the educational field, during
Buddhist period, character development was an important aim, which
fostered the development of mental, moral and spiritual powers leading
to the purity of thoughts, words and deeds.
4. Development of the quality of self sacrifice: This was one of the aims
of Buddhist education by training of the senses to check the mind from
the stimulation and attraction in the external world i.e. the world of
pleasures. By acquiring spiritual knowledge, one could discard means of
materialistic happiness and get eternal bliss. Accepting required
quantity of alms and staying away from homely atmosphere by
following celibacy as the mode of their studentship in the monasteries.
They accepted the truth that ideas are more important than objects.
Ideas are the ultimate reality, whereas objects are temporary in essence.
By keeping these ideals, Buddhist education tried to impose the quality
of sacrifice and imbibed spiritual ideals among Shramanas.

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Process of Buddhist Education

The process of education during Buddhist period involved the following

methods:-
1. Verbal education: Though the art of writing had been well developed
up to the Buddhist period, yet due to shortage and non-availability of
writing materials, verbal education was prevalent as it was in Vedic age.
Writing was not common in those days. Men invited monks to hear
Sutants from them and learn it by heart. The teachers used to give
lessons to the novices who leant them by heart. The teacher used to put
questions on learning the lesson by heart.
2. Discussions: In order to win discussion or shastrartha and impress the
general public, it was necessary to improve the power of discussion.
This was also needed to satisfy the critics and opposing groups and
establish one’s own cult. Thus, rules were framed for discussion.
According to Yogachary’s Dasha Bhoomi Shastra written in 400 AD,
stress was laid down on discussion of useful subjects with scholars,
royal places, minister’s office and assembly.

3. Evidences: To establish the disputed point the following evidences of

eight kinds were required i.e., Theory (Siddhanta), Cause (Reason),
Example (Udaharan), Parallelism (Sadharmya), Contradiction
(Vaidharlmya), Evidence (Pratyaksh), Argument (Anuman), Induction
(Agamana).
It was laid down that the debaters must be well versed in their
subjects and fluent in speech so that they could influence the audience
well.

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4. Prominence of logic: The importance of discussion encouraged the logic

in the Buddhist period. The controversial matters could not be decided
without logical arguments. Logic was also useful in the development of
the mental power and knowledge. Thus, in later period logic began to be
used for the sake of logic and lost its proper utility.
5. Tours: The main aim of Buddhist monks was to propagate Buddhism.
Hence, some Acharyas like Sariputta, Mahayuggalva, Aniruddha,
Rahula etc. gave importance to tours to educate people. After the
completion of education, the students were encouraged to undertake
long trips to gain the practical and real form of the theoritical knowledge
gained by them.
6. Conferences: Conferences were arranged on every full moon and first
day of the month (Purnima and Pratipada) in the Buddhist Sanghs. The
monks of different sanghs assembled and put forward their doubts
freely. The attendance of every monk was compulsory in such
conferences. If any one happened to be ill he had to inform the Sangh or
he had to present himself in the same condition. If the monk happened
to be an accused person then he had to prove himself innocent.
Generally, the conferences decided the personal guilts. Common guilts
were put before the scholars of other places. An annual conference was
arranged in which a well renowned monk would challenge the whole
sangh to disprove his purity. Thus, Buddhist education laid great
emphasis on the morality of the monks.
7. Meditation in Solitude: Some Buddhist monks were more interested in
isolated spiritual meditation in lonely forests and caves. Only those
monks were considered fit for lonely meditation who had fully

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renounced the worldly attraction and had spent enough time in the
sanghs and had gained the efficiency for solitary meditations. Some old
monks resigned from their responsibilities as sanghs and went to lonely
forest to spend peaceful life. Their isolation was unlike the isolation of
Vedic saints as they lived near the janpadas or populated places, so that
they might get the Bhiksha and also might get the chance to serve the
monks who happened to get there.
In the process of Buddhist education, the medium of instruction was the
common language of the people. Lord Buddha himself gave his teachings in
local languages. These replaced Sanskrit in Buddhist education. Jantra, Mantra,
Tantra etc., were prohibited in Buddhist Education.

Curriculum of Buddhist Education

Attainment of Nirvana or Salvation was the main aim of Buddhist

education and it had the religious essence. So propagation of religion was its
main function. Curriculum was religious oriented . Most of curriculum based
books carried out the teachings of Buddha and they studied and synthesized
spiritual ideals mainly Suttanta, the Vinaya, Dhamma etc.
At the initial stage of the Buddhist education, spiritual ideals were
initially taught to lead to emancipation of one’s soul. So Suttanta, Vinaya and
Dhamma were studied. The main subjects of Buddhist education were
spinning, weaving, painting, tailoring, arithmetic, writing, printing,
accountancy, sketching, ayurveda, surgery and coinage. In addition to this the
students read subjects like literature, arts, agriculture, commerce, philosophy
and methods of warfare.
Buddhist education was classified into two stages:–

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1. Primary Education: After Pabbaja, the first ordination and having

attained the age of eight years, the subjects of their study at the initial
stage were Reading, Writing and Arithmetic.
2. Higher Education: The aim of education was to attain salvation, the
subjects of study for higher education were based on philosophy of life,
religious outlook and Vinaya. The subjects of study were religion,
philosophy, ayurveda, military training etc.
During the Buddhist period, students would study Vedas also as a
comparative study. They could study Suttanta, Vinaya and Dhamma among
the four Vedas, the last Atharveda was left and other three, the Rigveda,
Samaveda, and Yajurveda were studied in the Buddhist educational centres
along with other subjects like History, Puranas, Poetry, Etymology, Grammar,
Medical Science, Yoga, Prognostication Tantra, Vedanga, Dhvani etc., to
acquire direct experiences. Travelling was also considered seriously. The
courses of study were so wide that there were various disciplines like the study
of elephants, horses, chariots, archery, using words, hunting, snake charming
etc. Comprehending the sound of all the animals, students could specialize in
any one of these arts. The practical training of surgery and nature study were
added to their curriculum. The place and center of study was Taxila, the
embodiment of Buddhist education.
Subjects of Arts and Crafts were also included in the curriculum but the
Atharveda was not included. Atharveda refers to the birth, marriage, death etc
and also herbs, magic spells, the knowledge of worldly success and prosperity.
It was secular in character which was being neglected at the beginning but later
on some of the subjects were included in the course of study.

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Centres of Education

During Buddhist period, some prominent centres of education sprang

up. Their characteristics were their collective nature and their association with
Buddhist Viharas or monastries. There was no discrimination between students
on any basis. Some of these centres possessed an international reputation,
proved by the fact that Chinese, Japanese, Tibetan and other students came
there to receive education.
As already pointed out, there were many universities in India during the
Buddhist period. It was a time when democratic feelings were evolving, and
hence many famous educational centres came into existence. Wherever
Buddhist monastries or Viharas were established, educational centres too
emerged. Among the most notable universities to develop during this period
were the universities at Taxila, Nalanda, Ballabhi, Vikramshila, Odantpuri,
Mithila, Nadia and Jagdalla.

Methods of Teaching

The main aim of education in Buddhist period was the purity of

character. There are various examples when Buddhist monks tried to gain
highest knowledge through austerities like Hindu Sanyasies. Although art of
writing had been well developed up to Buddhist period, yet, due to shortage
and non-availability of writing materials, verbal education was prevalent as it
was in Vedic age.
As the teachers and novices were living together in Vihars, the teachers
used to give lessons to the novices and they prepared them and learnt them by
heart and also different forms of roots and words. The teachers proceeded on

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with the next lesson only when the students had prepared the previous lessons.
For the trial of the mental aptitudes of the students, some time the teacher used
to put questions on the previous lessons and .so the students took keen interest
in learning the lessons by heart. The medium of instruction was Prakrit
language.
There was inductive method of teaching. Spiritual knowledge was
practiced to train the intellectual ability of the Siddhiviharikas. Monasteries
were centre places for education, where discussions, debates, question-
answers, lectures were held to provide a banquet of spiritual knowledge to
Siddhiviharikas.
Discussions and healthy argumentations were conducted usually on
philosophical and religious subjects. There were hair splitting discussions
among the learned monks. Pupils were trained in the art of discussion" and
debate from the early course of study. Often authorities and well known
persons on Dharma and philosophers were enticed to deliver talks on vivid
topics for the wide intellectual outcome of the Siddhiviharikas, as this would
enhance their mental horizon and love of practical life.
Another method of imparting knowledge was through tours. Since the
main aim of Buddhist Monk was to propagate Buddhism, so many Acharyas
gave importance to tours for educating people. After the completion of
education, the students were encouraged to gain practical and real form of the
theoretical knowledge gained by undertaking long trips. Thus, their knowledge
became solid and evident,
The conference of the learned men were arranged on every full moon
and 1st day of the month (purnima and pratipada) in the Budha sanghs, where

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the monks of different sanghs assembled and put forward their doubts freely.
Attendance of every monk was compulsory in such conferences.
Some Buddhist monks or Bhikshus were more interested in isolated-
spiritual meditation in lonely forests and caves than in the common and
crowded life of the Sangh. Thus meditation in solitude was also an important
method of teaching in Buddhist system of education.

Merits of Buddhist Education

Buddhist education had the following merits:

1. Well Organized Centers: Buddhist education was imparted in well
organized centers, monasteries and Viharas were good places for the
purpose.
2. Cosmopolitan: Buddhist education was free from communal
narrowness.
3. Simple and Austere: Bhikshus led a life of austerity and simplicity.
4. Total Development: Buddhist education laid much emphasis on the
physical, mental and spiritual developments of the novices.
5. Disciplined Life: Both the teachers and the taught led disciplined life.
Contact with women was strictly prohibited.
6. No Politics: Politics were not allowed in Monasteries and Viharas. These
were fully controlled only by Upadhyayas and Gurus.
7. Ideal –Teacher - Taught Relationship: The relationship between the
teacher and the taught was ideal. The teacher considered the novice as
his son and the novice considered him as his father.

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8. No Corporal Punishment: Corporal punishment was absolutely

forbidden through the medium of Sanskrit, whereas general subjects
were taught in local languages.
9. Both Sanskrit and the Local Language: Higher education was given
through the medium of Sanskrit, whereas general subjects were taught
in local languages.
10. International Impact: Buddhist education helped India to gain
international importance. It also developed cultural exchange between
India and other countries of the world.

Demerits of Buddhist Education

The various demerits of Buddhist education are discussed as follows:

1. One sided: Being mainly religious, Buddhist system could not give
proper attention to the occupational, industrial and technical education
so it may be called one sided.
2. Blow to family: It gave severe blow to the social development because it
divided family ties. Leaving their family life Buddhist Bhikshus devoted
their whole lives to Sangh and Buddhis.
3. Neglect of military training: Non-violent Buddhist education neglected
the military training and use of weapons. Acharyas did not give any
attention towards the essential type of education.
4. Loose atmosphere: The control and discipline of the monasteries began
to vanish in the name of democracy. As a result the places of religion
turned into the centers of recreation for the Bhikshus and Bhikshunis.
5. Escapism: Buddhist education neglected the physical development.
Struggle for life was substituted by spiritual meditation and so its all

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round progress was barred. People began to escape from worldly

duties.
6. Degeneration: Useless people violating social orders and even culprits
were given shelter in Buddhist sanghs and so it was natural for
monasteries to degenerate into the places of wickedness.

Let Us Sum Up

Looking at Buddhist system of education from various points of view, it

may be concluded that the system began to face downfall due to its own
shortcomings and demerits, which developed in the Monasteries and Viharas.
In the later period, however, Buddhist system of education had more qualities
than its demerits. It laid the foundation of a high culture and inspired people to
lead pure, simple and ideal life.

Check Your Progress

1. Explain the salient features and aims of Buddhist Education?

2. Compare and contrast the Buddhist system of Education with that of
vedic system of education?
3. Briefly explain the curriculum and methods of teaching during Buddhist
system of Education?
4. Discuss the merits and demerits of Buddhist system of Education?

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Suggested Readings

1. Agarwal, A. K. (2005). Development of Education System in India.

Anmol Publication Pvt. Ltd.
2. Altekar, A.S. (1943). Education in Ancient India, New Delhi, Motilal
Banarsidass.
3. Besant, A. 1985. Seven Great Religions. The Theosophical Publishing
House: Madras.
4. Chopra, P.N. (ed) 180. Buddhism in India and Abroad, Min. of Education
and Culture. Govt. of India: New Delhi.
5. Jayapalan, (2000). History of Education in India, Atlantic Publishers.
6. Sukumar Dutt, (1962). Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India, London.

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UNIT III

LESSON NO 9: ISLAMIC TRADITIONS

Lesson Structure
Introduction

Objectives

Concept of God as Highlighted by Islamic philosophy

Attributes of God According to Muslim Philosophy

Concept of Tawheed According to Muslim Philosophy

Salient Features of Islamic Education

Aims of Islamic Education

Curriculum of Islamic Education

Merits of Islamic Education

Let Us Sum Up

Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

Introduction

Oh: Lord Advance me in the knowledge (Al Quran)

In this lesson, an attempt has been made to enable the students to
understand the concept and nature of education within the umbrella of Islamic
traditions. The above verse which is self explanatory highlight the importance

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of knowledge in Islam. It would further elaborate the salient features,

objectives, curriculum, methods of teaching and process of Islamic system of
education. Dear students, remember that the Islam is a Semitic religion, which
has over one billion adherents all over the world. Islam literally means
“submission to the will of God”. Muslims accept the Qur’an, as the word of
God revealed to His last and final prophet, Mohammed (peace be upon him).
Islam states that Allah sent messengers and prophets throughout the ages with
the message of Unity of God, and accountability in the Hereafter. Islam thus
makes it an article of faith to believe in all the earlier prophets, starting with
Adam, and continuing with Noah, Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Moses,
David, John and Jesus amongst many others (may peace be on them all).

Objectives

Dear students, this unit deals with the emergence, religious belief
systems and philosophies of education of Islamic traditions. After reading this
unit you should be able to:
• Explain the background of the concept of God according to Muslim
Philosophy;
• Nature of Muslim Education;
• Describe the basic teaching of Muslim Education; and
• Explain the sailent features and aims of Muslim education.

Concept of God as Highlighted by Islamic Philosophy

Regarding the most concise definition of God, it has been mentioned in

the Holy Quran – (the most reliable, most revered and the most noble book of
Muslims) of Sura Ikhlas, Section 112, Verse number 1-4 that “Say: He is Allah,

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The One and Only. Allah, the Eternal, Absolute. He begets not, nor is He
begotten. And there is none like unto Him.” The Muslims prefer calling the
Supreme Creator, Allah, instead of by the English word ‘God’. The Arabic
word, ‘Allah’, is pure and unique, unlike the English word ‘God’, which can be
played around with. If you add ‘s’ to the word God, it becomes ‘Gods’, that is
the plural of God. Allah is one and singular, there is no plural of Allah. If you
add ‘dess’ to the word God, it becomes ‘Goddess’ that is a female God. There is
nothing like male Allah or female Allah. Allah has no gender. Therefore, the
Muslims prefer using the Arabic word ‘Allah’ for the Almighty. The Islamic
concept of God is that God has power over all things. The Qur’an says in
several places (Al -Qur’an 2:106; 2:109; 2:284; 3:29; 16:77; and 35:1): "For verily
Allah has power over all things" Further, the Glorious Qur’an says: "Allah is
the doer of all that He intends." [Al-Qura'n 85:16] We must keep in mind that
Allah intends only Godly acts and not ungodly acts.

Attributes of God According to Islam

The Qur’an gives no less than ninety-nine different attributes to

Almighty Allah. The Qur’an refers to Allah as Ar-Rahman (Most Gracious), Ar-
Raheem (Most Merciful) and Al-Hakeem (All Wise) among many other names.
You can call Allah by any name but that name should be beautiful and should
not conjure up a mental picture. Each attribute of God is unique and possessed
by Him alone. Not only does God possess unique attributes, but also each
attribute of Almighty God is sufficient to identify Him. Following are some of
the many unique attributes possessed by none other than the Creator of the
universe, Almighty Allah:

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“Ar-Raheem”, the Most Merciful

“Ar-Rahman”, the Most Gracious
"Al-Hakeem", the Most Wise
So when one asks, "Who is ‘Ar-Raheem’, (the Most Merciful)?", there can
only be one answer: "Almighty Allah".
One attribute of God should not contradict with other attributes:
Besides the attribute being unique, it should not contradict other attributes.
Briefly speaking Holy Quran and other authentic sources of Islam reveals that
there are ninety nine names attributes to Almighty Allah

Concept of Tawheed According to Islamic Philosophy

Islam believes in ‘Tawheed’ which is not merely monotheism i.e. belief

in one God, but much more. Tawheed literally means ‘unification’ i.e. ‘asserting
oneness’ and is derived from the Arabic verb ‘Wahhada’ which means to unite,
unify or consolidate. Tawheed can be divided into three categories.
1. Tawheed-ar-Ruboobeeyah (maintaining the unity of Lordship):
The first category is ‘Tawheed ar-Ruboobeeyah’. ‘Ruboobeeyah’ is
derived from the root verb “Rabb” meaning Lord, Sustainer and
Cherisher. Therefore ‘Tawheed-ar-Ruboobeeyah’ means maintaining the
unity of Lordship. This category is based on the fundamental concept
that Allah (swt) alone caused all things to exist when there was nothing.
He created or originated all that exists out of nothing. He alone is the
sole Creator, Cherisher, and Sustainer of the complete universe and all
between it, without any need from it or for it.

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2. Tawheed al-Asmaa was-Sifaat (Maintaining the Unity of Allah’s

Name and Attributes): The second category is ‘Tawheed al Asmaa was
Sifaat’ which means maintaining the unity of Allah’s name and
attributes. This category is divided into five aspects:
• Allah should be referred to as described by Him and His Prophet
Allah must be referred to according to the manner in which He and
His prophet have described Him without explaining His names and
attributes by giving them meanings other than their obvious
meanings.
• Allah must be referred to as He has referred to Himself
Allah must be referred to without giving Him any new names or
attributes. For example Allah may not be given the name Al-Ghaadib
(the Angry One), despite the fact that He has said that He gets angry,
because neither Allah nor His messenger have used this name.
• Allah is referred to without giving Him the attributes of His creation.
In a reference to God, we should strictly abstain from giving Him the
attributes of those whom He has created. For instance in the Bible,
God is portrayed as repenting for His bad thoughts in the same way
as humans do when they realise their errors. This is completely
against the principle of Tawheed. God does not commit any mistakes
or errors and therefore never needs to repent.
• God’s creation should not be given any of His attributes
To refer to a human with the attribute of God is also against the
principle of Tawheed. For example, referring to a person as one who
has no beginning or end (eternal).

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3. Tawheed al-Ibaadah (Maintaining the Unity of Worship): Tawheed al-

Ibaadah means maintaining the unity of worship or ‘Ibaadah’. Ibaadah
is derived from Arabic word ‘Abd’ meaning slave or servant. Thus
Ibaadah means servitude and worship. Thus ‘Tawheed al-Ibaadah’ i.e.
maintaining the unity of worship is the most important aspect of
Tawheed. Allah (swt) alone deserves worship and He alone can grant
benefit to man for his worship.

Salient Features of Islamic Education

The salient features of Islamic education are discussed as follows:

1. Encouragement to Education: Islamic rulers established a number of
primary and higher educational institutions, along with mosques,
because each mosque had its own Maktab and Madaras which had
library facility, wherein scholars were patronized by the state. Medals
were given to brilliant students, the state would grant scholarship
generously to the bright pupils. They were provided high posts in the
state after the completion of their education. In this way, education
received state patronage and developed enormously.
2. Universality of Education: Like other educational systems, Islamic
education also had religious essence. In the Maktabs and Madrasas,
religious education was imparted. The languages of preaching were
Arabic and Persian, so the Hindus were deprived of educational
privileges of Islamic education. There was also predominant role of
social stratification. The pupils of higher and middle classes could get
education but pupils of lower classes were deprived by the educational

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facilities. So there was no Universality of educational opportunities for

all the strata of society.
3. Emphasis on 3R’s: Islamic education laid great emphasis on 3R’s viz.,
reading, writing and arithmetic. The verses from Quran were crammed
by the children without understanding them. Thus, much emphasis was
laid on oral learning. The subjects of study at the higher stage were
philosophy, history, sufi religion, grammar, law and great works of
Islam.
4. Emphasis on Oral Work: Education in the Maktab was mostly oral.
Children leant everything by rote memory. Writing and mathematics
were taught at the later stage. The monitor held the charge of the class in
the absence of the teacher. Only one teacher taught all the classes. At the
higher stage of education teaching was done through lecture followed
by discussion.
5. Discipline: The concept of discipline in the medieval times was different
from what it is today. It was very rigorous and strict. Corporal
punishment was prevalent. Students had to become a cock for the
lapses. In rare cases they were canned. But generally the students were
self-disciplined and teacher –taught relationship was cordial and
intimate.
6. Examination System: For evaluating the knowledge of the students,
tests were held periodically. Examinations were both oral and written.
Meritorious students were awarded scholarships. Knowledge of the
students was also adjudged in mushairas and other intellectual
gatherings organized from time to time.

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7. Education of Girls: Education of girls was restricted to higher families

only. Muslim women observed the “Pardah” system. Usually they were
not allowed to get education. The primary education was given to the
local women but not at Madrasas. They would learn only reading and
writing. Maktabs were attached to the Mosques, so women used to
attend the classes conducted in Maktabs. There was no separate
provision made for their education. There was no uniformity and so
they remained backward in society.
8. Degrees: In Islamic education, there is also the system of awarding
degrees after the completion of education. The students, who acquired
special knowledge in religion, are given the degree of “Alim”. The
students completing the education of logic are conferred the degree of
“Fazil” and other degrees.

9. Quran Centered Curriculum: The Curriculum of Islamic education is

religious centered especially the teaching of Holy Quran and Hadith are
basics in the curriculum.

Aims of Education

The prominent factor of imparting education in medieval period was its

Islamic spirit in various parts of India. The following were the aims of Islamic
education:-
1. Propagation of Islam: The aim of Islamic education or Muslim
education was the propagation and spread of Islam in India. So the
Maktabs and Madrasas were established in different parts of the
country. Every Mosque had a Maktab where Muslim children were

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taught to recite the Quran. Madrasas were the centers of higher

education, where Islamic history, rituals together with higher
knowledge of the religion was taught. Education was based on religion.
It wanted to make the people religious oriented and the construction of
Maktabs and Madrasas was the holy task of every Muslim ruler.
2. Spread of Islamic Knowledge Among Muslims: Muslim theologists
believed that the inculcation of Islamic ideals and values was the real
education. So they emphasized upon education by religious Mullahs
and Moulvies. According to Islam, education gives knowledge that
knowledge is nectar. Salvation is not possible without knowledge. Prophet
Mohammad (SAW) himself taught the people the right ways of life, the
right and wrong thoughts and deeds. Knowledge is necessary for all
men and women according to Islamic religion and the same rays
reflected during medieval education. That is why the very aim of Islamic
education was to spread the light of knowledge among the ardent
followers of Islamic religion.
3. Development of Morality: The third aim of Islamic education was the
development of Islamic social morals which were based on Islamic
doctrines, social traditions and political principles. To achieve this aim,
Islamic students were taught religious books. At the same time, Maulvies
taught Muslim children the ideals of morality to lead a pious life. To
develop moral quality among the pupils they were made to follow the
principles of truth, ethical behaviour, respect for elders and reverence
for the teacher.
4. Propagation of Shariyat: Propagation of Shariyat was another important
aim of Islamic education. Shariyat means a code of Islamic laws and

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rules of conduct to be followed by those who had belief and faith on

Islamic religion and its principles. In the Maktabs and Madrasas, these
rules and laws were taught to the educands by the Maulvis. These
Maulvis tried to prepare them to shoulder the responsibilities of the
Government and the mode of living in the society. Education was an
instrument to teach those laws and principles to pupils and also making
known to the kings, officers and common people about the essence of
Shariyat.
5. Character Building: According to Prophet Mohammad (SAW), only a
man of character could achieve progress and develop his “self”. To
supplement good character among the pupils of “Muslims”, Islamic
education would give importance to their character building.
6. Achievement of Material Well Being: Islamic education honoured
people, pupils and scholars by providing them all sorts of privileges,
high posts, medals for the meritorious students, honourable rank and
grants to educational institutions to retain interest among students. In
the executive departments, some of the students were appointed as
commanders of the army, judges in civil administration and ministers.
This was the process of encouraging students. Education was highly
respected and adored. The aim of Islamic education was to achieve
material prosperity.
7. Support to Administration: The Muslim rulers had a great hand in the
management of education. The aim was to strengthen and develop a
good administration. Education helped them to a great extent in this
respect. This led to the expansion of their empire and stabilized the

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prevailing administrative system. The rules and regulations, framed

were in tune with the political and social development.
8. Preservation and Spread of Islamic Culture: Muslim educational
system worked for the preservation and transmission of culture. Study
of authentic works was compulsory. Rules and regulations pertaining to
their culture were strictly followed. The medium of instruction were
Persian and Arabic language. Emphasis was laid on the study of original
works. The help and cooperation of kings and priests was readily
available in this matter.

Curriculum in the Light of Islamic Traditions

Curriculum in Islamic education can be discussed under the following

headings:
1. Curriculum of Maktabs (Elementary curriculum)
2. Curriculum of Madrasas (Higher curriculum)
1. Curriculum of Maktabs (Elementary Curriculum): When the pupil was
too young and tender, the aim of primary education was to teach
alphabets. Besides, this stage was confined to reading, writing and
elementary Arithmetic. In Maktabs, the students were taught to become
rational minded and also appreciated equality. They would become
skilled craftsmen in warfare – such a kind of education was given in
Maktabs. Later on, Islamic principles were taught. They used to train
pupil’s eyes and ears through recitation of the holy scriptures. Great
emphasis was laid on pronunciation. The children were expected to recite
verses from the Quran with comprehension. “Pandnamah’ of Sadi was
taught to the children. They used to learn Persian grammar by heart. They

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were also taught Gulistan and Bostan of Sadi. Good handwriting was
considered as a part of education and for good handwriting students were
made to have a practice for 4-5 hours. Along with these, letter writing,
conversation, elementary arithmetic, drawing petitions in simple ways
were the subjects of study in Maktabs.
2. Curriculum of Madrasas: There were two categories of learning in
Madrasas, namely:-
a) Religious learning; and
b) Secular learning
a) Religious learning: Religious learning included the study of Quran,
Prophet Mohammad (SAW) and its conventions, Islamic history and
laws, traditions and conventions of Islamic religion. These subjects
would improve and initiate philosophical serenity of minds of the pupils
of the Madrasas. Subjects of both the categories were imparted through
the medium of Arabic. Mother tongue of the educands was also used to
recite Islamic hymns. They taught mother tongue which helped the
pupils to increase memory power and retention power.
Subjects like philosophy, literature and other Indian subjects were
taught to Hindu students in the same institution along with Muslim
students. Later on, other subjects like geometry, menstruation,
physiognomy, rules and laws of Government and also home science was
included. For Hindu students, Vedanta, Grammar, Law, Yoga were
compulsory. Music was also taught but it was not included in the
curriculum. The practical utility of the subjects was taken into
consideration.

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b) Secular learning: Secular learning included the study of subjects like

Arabic grammar, Prose, Philosophy, Literature, Logic, Law, Astrology,
History, Geography, Medicine, Agriculture, Arithmetics, Composition,
Economics and Greek language. These subjects helped the students to
attain material prosperity.

Merits of Islamic Education

Islamic education possessed the following merits:

1. Compulsory: Education was compulsory especially for boys.
2. Co-ordination: There was proper coordination between religious values
and material or worldly needs and well being.
3. Character: Great stress is laid on character building.
4. Personal touch: In Muslim education there is a personal touch between
the teacher and the taught.
5. Curriculum: Curriculum included arrangement for the teaching of
various subjects.
6. Practical: Islamic education is pragmatic in nature.
7. Incentives: There was arrangement for rewards and scholarships for
meritorious and intelligent students. This provided an incentive to
learning and education.
8. Literature: Under Muslim rulers, (through educational system), a good
deal of development of literature took place.
9. Free education: The education during the Islamic rule was mostly free in
India.

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10. Institutions: During this period, great attention was paid towards
establishment of educational institutions. Prosperous people were
encouraged to establish institutions.

Let Us Sum Up

Giving a detailed picture of Islamic education in India has been the

espoused task of this lesson. From the aforementioned discussion, we came to
know about the aims and sailent features of education during Muslim period.
Propagation of Islamic knowledge and religion, religious laws, worldly
progress and strengthening of administration were the main aims of education
during Muslim period. Oral education and memorization of the assigned work
were the chief methods of teaching during this period. The pupil teacher
relationship was very cordal. The pupil believed that no knowledge is possible
with out a teacher, hence the pupil used to respect and serve the teacher with
all devotion.

Check Your Progress

1. Discuss the nature of Islamic education in India?

2. Explain the sailent features of Islamic education in India?
3. Discuss the aims and objectives of education as highlighted by Islamic
Philosophy in India?
4. Write a short note on the curriculum of Islamic Education?
5. Discuss briefly the process of Muslim education in India?

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Suggested Readings

1. Aggarwal, A. K. (2005). Development of Education System in India.

Anmol Publication Pvt. Ltd.
2. Altekar, A.S. (1943). Education in Ancient India, New Delhi, Motilal
Banarsidass.
3. Asghar Ali. (2001). Rational Approach to Islam. Delhi: Gyan Publishing
House,
4. Baig, M. R. A. The Muslim Dilemma in India. Delhi: Vikas Publishing
House, 1974.
5. Besant, A. 1985. Seven Great Religions. The Theosophical Publishing
House: Madras.
6. Khalidi, O. (1995), Indian Muslims since Independence. Delhi: Vikas
Publishing.
7. Yusuf Abbasi, Muslim Politics and Leadership in the South Asian Sub-
Continent (Islamabad: Institute of Islamic History, Culture and
Civilization, Islamic University, 1981).

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UNIT IV

LESSON NO 10: SWAMI VIVEKANANDA

Lesson Structure
Introduction

Objectives

Brief Life Sketch of Swami Vivekananda

Swami Vivekananda’s Philosophy of Life

Educational Philosophy of Swami Vivekananda

Basic Principles of Vivekananda’s Philosophy of Education

Concept of Education

Aims of Education

Curriculum

Methods of Teaching

Role of Teacher

Place of Child

Education for Women

Education of the Masses

Man Making Education

Universal Education

Concept of Discipline

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Vivekananda’s Contribution to World Culture

Vivekananda’s Contribution to Indian Society

Let Us Sum Up

Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

Introduction

Swami Vivekananda, known in his pre-monastic life as Narendra Nath

Datta, was born in an affluent family in Kolkata on 12 January 1863. His father,
Vishwanath Datta, was a successful attorney with interests in a wide range of
subjects, and his mother, Bhuvaneshwari Devi, was endowed with deep
devotion, strong character and other qualities. A precocious boy, Narendra
excelled in music, gymnastics and studies. By the time he graduated from
Calcutta University, he had acquired a vast knowledge of different subjects,
especially Western philosophy and history. Born with a yogic temperament, he
used to practise meditation even from his boyhood, and was associated with
Brahmo Movement for some time. In this lesson, we shall discuss educational
philosophy of Swami Vivekananda and contribution.

Objectives

After reading this lesson, you should be able to:

• Discuss the contribution of Swami Vivekananda towards the modern
education thought and practice;

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• Explain the salient features of Vivekananda’s philosophy of education

and
• Describe the educational philosophy of Swami Vivekananda

Life Sketch

Swami Vivekananda, the great soul loved and revered in East and West
alike as the rejuvenator of Hinduism in India and the preacher of its eternal
truths abroad, was born a few minutes before sunrise, on Monday, January 12,
1863. It was the day of the great Hindu festival Makarasamkranti, when special
worship is offered to the Ganga by millions of devotees. Thus the future
Vivekananda first drew breath when the air above the sacred river not far from
the house was reverberating with the prayers, worship, and religious music of
thousands of Hindu men and women. Before Vivekananda was born, his
mother, like many other pious Hindu mothers, had observed religious vows,
fasted, and prayed so that she might be blessed with a son who would do
honour to the family. She requested a relative who was living in Varanasi to
offer special worship to the Vireswara Siva of that holy place and seek His
blessings; for Siva, the great god of renunciation, dominated her thought. One
night she dreamt that this supreme Deity aroused Himself from His meditation
and agreed to be born as her son. When she woke she was filled with joy. The
mother, Bhuvaneswari Devi, accepted the child as a boon from Vireswara Siva
and named him Vireswara. The family, however, gave him the name of
Narendranath Datta, calling him, for short, Narendra, or more endearingly,
Naren. In 1871, at the age of eight, Narendra entered high school. His
exceptional intelligence was soon recognized by his teachers and classmates.

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During his school days, his headmaster W.W Haesty gave his impression about
him in following words:
“I have traveled far and wide, but I have not met such an intelligent and
scholarly student even in German Universities”
While he was a student in college at seventeen years of age, he came
under the influence of Sri Ramakrishna Parmhansa. Narendra Nath was an
earnest student of philosophy and poetry. He studied all the systems of
Western philosophy.
Swami Vivekananda did for the gospel of Sri Ramakrishna what St. Paul
did for the gospel of Christ. He broadcasted the truths of Vedanta in India,
Europe and America, as realized in the experience of Sri Ramakrishna. He
demonstrated to the world that the great Indian spiritual-tradition was still
alive and vigorous. He showed both by precept and example that, if the ancient
Vedanta were reinterpreted in the light of Sr. Ramakrishna's spiritual
experiences as applied to modern life, India would be able to solve many of her
problems and would rise once again to deliver a message to humanity. He
taught theoretical Vedanta in the West and practical Vedanta in India. He
urged for the uplift of the masses and wanted to make them strong and self-
reliant. As he had sympathy for the poor and downtrodden in India, he was a
fore-runner of Mahatma Gandhi. He pleaded for social reform in India and for
religious freedom in the West. He recommended Vedanta for all without any
distination of the caste, colour, creed or sex. Till his death in 1902, he
repeatedly asserted that Indians had become weak and poor because they did
not apply their Vedanta to life. He asserted that India needs strength-giving
religion and a man-making education. It may not be out of place to mention

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that in a speech made in 1993, Federico Mayor, Director-General of UNESCO,

stated:
I am indeed struck by the similarity of the constitution of the Ramakrishna
Mission which Vivekananda established as early as 1897 with that of UNESCO
drawn up in 1945. Both place the human being at the centre of their efforts
aimed at development. Both place tolerance at the top of the agenda for building
peace and democracy. Both recognize the variety of human cultures and
societies as an essential aspect of the common heritage.

Swami Vivekananda’s Philosophy of Life

The philosophy of life of Swami Vivekananda can be discussed under

the following sub headings:
1. Swami Vivekananda as Vedantist: Swami Vivekananda was a true
Vedantist. He regards the Vedanta as perfectly impersonal. The Vedanta
is eternal. It is not originated by any person or prophet. So, it is not built
around any particular individual as the centre. The Dvaita, the Visista-
dvaita and the Advaita are the different expressions of the Vedanta
according to Swami Vivekananda. So to him, they are not opposed to
each other. They are not absolute systems. They are merely the stages for
helping the individual to proceed progressively towards the realization
of higher and higher ideals till everything is merged in the wonderful
unity with Creator.
2. Concept of God: As a staunch Vedantist, Swami Vivekananda gives
three attributes to God: i). Infinite Existence, ii). Infinite Knowledge and
iii). Infinite Bliss. God according to Vivekananda is Omnipresent and
Impersonal. He is manifested in all the creatures on earth. Man is an

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incarnation of God. Worship of man is the true worship of God. To

quote the Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, vol. II “Existence
without knowledge and love cannot be; knowledge without love, and
love without knowledge cannot be. What we want is the harmony of
Existence, knowledge and Bliss Infinite. For that is our goal. We want
harmony, not one sided development. And it is possible to have the
intellect of a Sankara with the heart of a Buddha. I hope we shall all
struggle to attain that blessed combination.” Thus Vivekananda places
very high ideal before man.
3. Faith in Man: Swami Vivekananda has intense faith in man and realizes
the dignity and diversity of human beings. In fact, he finds the
manifestation of God in Man. According to him, “The only God to
worship is the human soul, in the human body. Of course, all animals
are temples too, but man is the highest, the Taj Mahal of temples. If I
cannot worship in that, no other temple will be of any advantage. The
moment I have realized God sitting in the temple of every human body,
the moment I stand in reverence before every human being and see God
in him—that moment I am free from bondage, everything that binds
vanishes, and I am free.” To him, the ideal of Vedanta is to know man as
he really is. This is the message of the Vedanta. He asks, “If you cannot
worship your brother man, the manifestation of God, how can you
worship a God who is un-manifested? If you cannot see God in the
human face, how can you see in the clouds, or in the images made of
dull, dead matter or in mere fictitious stories of your brain? I shall call
you religious from the day you begin to see God in men and women.”
Thus Vivekananda teaches eternal communion of man with the God.

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4. Concept of Religion: According to Vivekananda, no religion is inferior

to any other. All religions lead to the same goal. So one must remain in
one's own religion. He had a very liberal concept of religion. He
advocated a religion of universal oneness and cosmopolitanism. He
urged people to believe in universal religion. Religions are not
contradictory. To him, “Religions are different forces in the economy of
God, working for the good of mankind.” He observes that every religion
is progressive. He is of the view that universal religion exists in the same
way as the universal oneness between man and man already exists.
Realization of Divinity or the knowledge of Brahman is the ultimate goal
for man.
5. Faith in Universalism and Spiritual Brotherhood: Swami Vivekananda
emphasized universalism and spiritual brotherhood. The saint after
having realized the self sees the self in all creatures. Therefore he
devotes himself entirely to the service of all beings.
6. Perfection as one's Heritage: According to Vivekananda, “Perfection is
not to be attained, it is already within us. Immortality and bliss are not
to be acquired, we possess them already, and they have been ours all the
time.” Thus perfection is one's heritage.

Educational Philosophy of Swami Vivekananda

Vivekananda's educational philosophy is based on Vedanta and

Upanishads. He believes that soul exists in every individual. The very
recognition of this soul is religion. Education is the process of self-
development. The child educates himself. True improvement is self-inspired.
Vivekananda was severely critical of existing pattern of education and asserted

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that mere bookish knowledge is useless. According to him, “We want that
education by which character is formed, strength of mind is increased, the
intellect is expanded and by which one can stand on one's own feet.” To him
education plays a vital role in curing the evils in society, and it is critical in
shaping the future of humanity. Although Vivekananda did not write a book
on education, he contributed valuable thoughts on the subject that are relevant
and viable today. Swami Ji was a great advocate of a national system of
education. He was in favour of education of the masses in general and women
in particular. The various Principles of his educational thought are as under:

Basic Principles of Vivekananda’s Philosophy of Education

1. Knowledge Resides within the Individual: Most of Western

educationists believe that knowledge is born in man because of
interaction with his environment, while Vivekananda holds that
knowledge is inherent in man, something inside him and not born out of
the external environment. True knowledge does not come to the
individual from outside. It is instead discovered within the individual
because man's soul within him is the source of all true knowledge.
Vivekananda observes, "All knowledge that the world has ever received
comes from the mind; infinite library of the universe is in your mind.
The external world is only the suggestion, the occasion which sets you to
study your mind.” Education, thus, according to Swami Vivekananda,
has the function of discovering or uncovering knowledge that lies
hidden in your mind. A person's level of education is judged not by the
number of books he has read but by the thickness of the coat of
ignorance lying on his mind. The thicker the coat in the front of the eyes,

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the greater is the ignorance of the individual. As the light of knowledge

increases, the coat of ignorance gradually recedes into the background.
2. Self-Education: Swami Vivekananda believes that the child learns
through self-education. The child teaches himself. Each one must teach.
Things will be made clearer to the child by his own power of perception
and thought. Like Froebel, Swami Vivekananda thinks that the child
develops his own nature as the plant does his own. The teacher is to
arrange the necessary environment for him so that he may do his
growing. Man has all the knowledge. He requires only an awakening.
Nothing should be forced on children. They should be left free to crave
out their own path. They should not be scolded every now and then.
Kindness and encouragement will help their growth. Positive ideas
should be given to them.
3. Education According To Needs of Children: Vivekananda advises us to
regard every soul as the soul of God, and every child as God. So the
teacher has only to serve children. Hence the teaching should be
adjusted according to the needs of children. “These needs should be
determined in terms of the tendencies inherent in children and not
according to what the parents or teachers think.” It is foolish for the
parent or teacher to think that they can determine the path which the
child should follow.
4. Concentration of Mind as the Essence of Education: Vivekananda
considers concentration of mind as the essence of education. Everyone
wants this power of concentration for success in his life. A man is called
superior to other if he has greater power of concentration. "The treasure-
house of knowledge can be opened only through the key of

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concentration." Education itself consists in achieving a greater degree of

concentration of mind.
5. Brahmacharya for Concentration: Brahmacharya or continence is
essential for developing the power of concentration. Brahmacharya
gives mental and spiritual power of the highest kind. Vivekananda
demonstrated how Brahmacharya helps to improve various
psychological activities such as learning, remembering, thinking, etc,
and thus facilitated the process of education. Brahmacharya transforms
the sex drive into a spiritual force. Chastity in thought, world and deed
is Brahmacharya. Everybody should be trained to practice this chastity
or Brahmacharya in order to develop his power of concentration which
is the basis of all education.
6. Education for All: Swami Vivekananda is an ardent advocate of
universal education. He holds that education is the birth right of every
human being. It is a biological, social and spiritual necessity.
Vivekananda states, "No amount of politics would be of any avail until
the masses in India are once more well educated, well fed and well
cared for." He believes that the root cause of all evils in India is the
poverty of the people. He considers education as the soul remedy for
improving the condition of poor in the country. He is an ardent advocate
of mass emancipation. He believes that a nation is advanced as
education and intelligence spread among the masses. The gems of
spirituality scored in our sacred books should be brought to the
common man by spreading education in the masses through the
medium of mother-tongue.

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7. National System of Education: Vivekananda was staunch advocate of

national system of education. He wanted to reorganize education on
national basis. He desired that education in the country should be
wholly national in spirit. He believed that the national system of
education should begin by acquainting the child with the home where
he resides, the community in which he moves, the country to which he
belongs, ultimately his understanding and sympathy for the humanity
at large. He wanted to train the child in India into the various aspect of
Indian customs, manners, culture and philosophy and then acquire the
knowledge of various civilizations of the world.
8. Women Education: Vivekananda was an ardent advocate of women
education. He believed that the uplift of the women must come first and
then only can any real good come about for the country, for India. While
emphasizing women education he said, "Educate your women first, then
they will tell you what reforms are necessary for them. In matters
concerning them, who are you?" He himself says, "Where women are
respected, there the goods delight; and where they are not, there all
works and efforts come to naught." He further says, "There is no hope of
rise for that family or country where there is no estimation of women,
where they live in sadness. For this reason they have to be raised first."
So he recommends that daughters should be brought up and educated
just as sons. He emphasized ideal of chastity for women. It helps them in
attaining perfect womanhood. He places the ideal of Sita for Indian
woman. There can be no hope of well being of the country unless the
condition of women is improved. He wanted to give a type of
education that may make women selfless, fearless and brave like Ahalya

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Bai and Mira Bai. He wanted to give women an education which may
form character and may increase the strength of mind and may enable
them to stand on their own feet. He held that along with other things,
women should acquire the valour and heroism of Rani Jhansi. Such
mothers will produce ideal citizens. Swami Vivekananda had all
admiration for those who did even a bit for the spread of female
education in India. Female education, according to Vivekananda, is to
spread with religion as its centre. Swami Vivekananda wanted to teach
some women the ideals of renunciation, so that they may take up the
vow of life-long dedication to God.
Swami Vivekananda wanted to train up some Brahmacharnis who will
take up the education of women. According to him centres have to be
started for teaching women. Women should be taught history and the
Puranas (mythologies), house keeping and the arts, the duties of home
life and principles which develop an ideal character. These subjects
should be taught with the help of modern science. He wanted that girls
are trained up in ethical and spiritual life.
9. Religious Education: Vivekananda himself was a saint and a
philosopher who won unparalleled fame in India and abroad. In his
words "Religion is the innermost core of education — Mind, I do not
mean my own or any one else's opinion about religion." All religions
must be accepted, and only their essential spirits should constitute
religious education to be given to children. Vivekananda left that
education is incomplete without religious training. Children should be
taught lives of great saints of all lands. He believes that temples and
churches, books and forms are simply the kindergarten of religion. They

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are mere preliminaries. In fact, "One must enter into the heart of
religion, that is, one must realize it in his own life." Thus according to
Vivekananda, "Religion must be a living experience with oneself," True
religious education should be imparted to children.

Concept of Education

According to Swami Vivekananda, “Education is the manifestation of

the perfection already in man .Knowledge is inherent in man, no knowledge
comes from out side”. According to Vivekananda, Education is not mere book
learning and also it is not providing diverse knowledge, but it is training by
which the current expression of will is brought under control and makes life
fruitful. To him, the very essence of education is concentration of mind not the
collecting of facts. Vivekananda’s definition of education is one of remarkable
insight. First of all, the word ‘manifestation’ implies that something already
exists and is waiting to be expressed. The main focus in learning is to make the
hidden ability of a learner manifest. As Vivekananda said, ‘what a man
“learns” is really what he “discovers”, by taking the cover off his own soul,
which is a mine of infinite knowledge’. According to the Vedanta philosophy,
knowledge is inherent in a human being, like a spark in a piece of flint, and all
that is needed is the strike of suggestion to bring it out. ‘Manifestation’
indicates spontaneous growth, provided that the impediments, if any, are
removed. Next in importance in the Swami’s definition of education is the
expression ‘already in man’. This refers to a human being’s potential, which is
the range of the abilities and talents, known or unknown that he was born
with. ‘Potential’ speaks of the possibility of awakening something that is lying
dormant.

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Vivekananda's point of view on education was that the education which

does not help the common masses to equip themselves for the struggle of life,
which does not' bring out strength of character, a spirit of philanthropy and the
courage of a lion lacks essence. Real education is that which enables one to
stand-up on his own legs.
Education is not the amount of information that is put into the young
brains and runs riot or which is undigested by the young. Education must
make the whole man, "Knowledge is inherent in man, no knowledge comes
from outside; it is all inside." So, education should enlighten the inherent
knowledge of the child. His option was to provide education to all the people
of India. He advocated, "education, education, education alone! traveling
through many cities of Europe and observing in them the comforts and
education of even the poor people, here was brought to my mind the state of
our own poor people and I used to shed tears. What made this difference?
Education was the answer I got." Through education, Vivekananda wanted to
establish the brotherhood of man and reconciliation of human contrast. He
said, education has to train in the assimilation of great values in this country
and help in the assimilation of great vales of humanity. In short, he wanted to
bring universal religion for the good of the nation through education.

Aims of Education

Vivekananda has summed up his ideas about aims of education in one

sentence, “The end of all education and training should be man making.” Education
should aim at developing faith in one’s own self. His educational ideas can be
summarized as:

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1. Physical Development: Physical development of the individual is an

important aim of education. Vivekananda felt that both self-realization
and character building are impossible in the absence of physical
development and education. In a conversation Vivekananda said that
people must know the secrets of making the body strong, and they
should also convey this knowledge to others. He felt that it is necessary
to develop both the mind and the body, and cited his own example. He
himself took physical exercise as part of his daily routine, Vivekananda
glorified power and was opposed to weakness in any form. He said that
power is life and weakness is a death. Power, in his opinion is
happiness, a long and perfect life while weakness is a never ending
burden which culminates in death. For this reason, he said that it is more
important for the youngman to play football than to study the Gita.
2. Mental Development: Mental development of the individual is an other
important aim of education according to Vivekananda. He believed that
knowledge is inherent in man. It resides within individual. Perfection is
inherent in man and education is the manifestation of the same. Thus the
aim of education is to discover or uncover the knowledge that lies
hidden in our mind.
3. Moral, Spiritual and Character Development: Vivekananda asserted
that education should aim at development of character, morality and
spirituality. He stated that we must have life-building, man-making and
character-making education. In his opinion the chief aim of education is
to create a human being, and the true mark of a human being is
character. Thus the main aim of education is to build character and

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develop spirituality. The glory and beauty of life lies in character-

making and spirituality.
4. Vocational Education: Vivekananda gave important place to the
vocational aim of education for harmonious development of personality.
Education which does not enable the individual to stand on one's own
feet is useless. But it does not mean that one should be striving to amass
wealth. All that it means is that everyone should be properly fed. But
one must not think of exploiting others. One must not suck the blood of
fellow-beings in order to make one's belly bigger. For achieving
vocational efficiency aim, Vivekananda recommended training in
agriculture and industry. He wanted to establish workshops for solving
the immediate problems of hunger and starvation in the country.
5. Reaching Perfection: According to Vivekananda one of the important
aims of education is the manifestation of the perfection. Every child has
certain hidden powers. Education helps in the manifestation and
development of these powers.
6. Promoting Universal Brotherhood: For Vivekananda education is a
means for establishing brotherhood in all mankind. Education must
promote the spirit of universal brotherhood. Education must teach man
that Atman (soul) is the same in all. Only that education is worth the
name which imparts this spirit to man. Swami Vivekananda asserts that
"from the highest good to the meanest grass the same power is present
in all—whether manifested or not." Education has to call for this power
in every man.
7. Developing Faith in one's own Self: Vivekananda laid emphasis on the
fact that faith in one's own self must be created through education.

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Education must teach that a man can do everything if he has courage.

Education must give one the faith, "Arise, awake and stop not till the
goal is achieved." This has been the core of all that Swami Vivekananda
has taught throughout his life, and he wants to make this as the guiding
stone of education. Education must aim at the creation of self-confidence
and self- reliance. It is Shradha or faith which moves the world. The man
who is devoid of Shradha runs to ruin.
8. Developing the Spirit of Renunciation: Education must create the spirit
of renunciation in man. Today our country needs the spirit of
renunciation. Without renunciation none can work for others. Education
must inculcate the feeling in man that "we are all debtors to the world
and the world does not owe us anything. It is a great privilege for one to
be able to do something to the world."
9. Searching unity in Diversity: Vivekananda believes that the aim of
education is searching unity in diversity. He told that spiritual and
material world is one; Brahma is also one. Vivekananda synthesized
spiritual and material values. Education should enable man to find out
unity in diversity.
Briefly speaking, Vivekananda's aims of education reflect his practical
Vedanta. Practical Vedanta neither negates nor neglects the immediate material
and social dimension of life. The ultimate aim of education, according to
Vivekananda, is spiritual self-realization and salvation - moksha. But he did
not lose sight of immediate material, social and political self. He said that the
end of all education should be 'man-making'. In short, education must aim at
the development of infinite energy, infinite zeal, infinite courage, and infinite
patience in man. Vivekananda himself stated, “We want that education by which

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character is formed strength of mind is increased, intellect is expanded and by which

one can stand on one's own feet.”

Curriculum

1. Harmony of Science and Vedanta: Vivekananda feels that curriculum

must be able to achieve the development of every aspect of child's
personality. On the one hand he stressed the study of Vedanta,
Upanishads, Puranas, Religion and Philosophy for spiritual
development while on the other hand he stated the importance of
scientific education. He believes that what is really needed in India is a
harmony between Western science and Indian Vedanta. Only a
synthesis between Vedanta and science can inspire man to use the
resources of science for peaceful purposes and the progress of mankind.
2. Art Education: Vivekananda observes that art is an indispensable part of
life and hence education in science must be supplemented by the
teaching of arts. Art is a part of religion. Vivekananda was in favour of
replacing the ideal of utility by an ideal of beauty.
3. Common Language: Vivekananda stressed the need for a common
language. Such a language is necessary for unity in the country.
4. Regional Language: In addition to common language, Vivekananda felt
that it was necessary to encourage every regional language. In fact, all
education must be given in regional language because it is the mother-
tongue of child.
5. Sanskrit: Vivekananda believed that Sanskrit is the source of all Indian
languages. He said that mere sound of this language granted power,
ability and prestige to the race. He further added that our awareness of

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our cultural heritage and past greatness depended upon our knowledge
of Sanskrit. He felt that in the absence of this language it would be
impossible to protect Indian culture. It is Sanskrit which gives stability
and permanence to the progress of our country.
6. History, Geography, Economics, Home Science, Psychology etc.:
Vivekananda also recommended the study of subjects like history,
geography, economics, mathematics, home science, psychology and
agriculture.
7. Physical and Vocational Education: Vivekananda recognised the
importance of physical as well as vocational education. He felt that both
self-realization and character building are impossible in the absence of
physical development. He also believed that vocational education
should be imparted. He remarked, "Make your nerves strong. What we
want is muscles of iron and nerves of steel. We have wept long enough.
No more weeping but stand on your feet and be men. It is man-making
religion that we want. It is man-making education all round that we
want."

Methods of Teaching

Vivekananda did not conclude his educational philosophy only by

talking the aims of education. He has also expressed his views on the methods
of education. Vivekananda was very much influenced by the past
methods of teaching in ancient Ashrams and Gurukuls. The education was
required to concentrate his mind and control of emotions or feelings through
Yoga. The teacher was required to follow the lecture method or discussion
method. Pupils were expected to imitate the gestures and actions of their

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teachers and develop good qualities and form a sound character. He was to
give proper guidance and counselling to the students.
Besides Vivekananda did not conclude his educational philosophy only
by talking the aims of education. He has also expressed his views on the
methods of education.
1. Method of Concentration: Vivekananda laid emphasis on concentration
as a method of attaining knowledge. Concentration is the sole key to the
treasure of knowledge. Vivekananda considers the concentration of
mind as the essence of education. The literary figure and the scientist
has to concentrate his attention on his subject for a long time, and only
then he can hope to discover something new in the field. Greater
attention always helps in working more.
2. Brahmacharya for Concentration: Vivekananda believes that
Brahmacharya is necessary for developing the power of concentration.
By observing strict Brahmacharya all learning can be mastered within a
very short time. Brahmacharya improves the power of mind and helps
in power of retention. Without Brahmacharya one cannot possibly have
any spiritual power. Brahmacharya gives mental and spiritual power of
the highest kind.
3. Discussion and Contemplation: In addition to concentration,
Vivekananda laid emphasis on the importance of discussion and
contemplation as methods of education. The pupil can remove the
difficulties in his path by discussing them with his teacher (educand) in
an informal atmosphere.
4. Faith and Reverence: The educand must have reverence for his
educator. The progress of any kind is impossible in the absence of

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reverence. Faith in one's own self is the first step towards advancement.
One finds that people even commit suicide when they have no faith. All
the achievements of modern science are the result of faith and devotion
of the highest order. The foundation of this faith and devotion is man's
own soul, but the educator inspires this devotion.
5. Method of Individual Guidance and Counselling: pupils can be kept
on the right path through the method of individual guidance and
counselling.
6. Freedom in Education: Vivekananda was a strong supporter of freedom
in education because he believed that it was the first pre-requisite of
development. Hence no teacher should exert any kind of pressure on his
pupils.
Briefly speaking, Listening to lectures or reading books may help; but
growth comes only when the students put their mind into exercise. He said: 'to
me the very essence of education is concentration of mind, not the collection of
facts. If I had to do my education once again, I would not study facts at all. I
would develop the power of concentration and detachment, and then with a
perfect instrument, collect facts at will'.

Role of Teacher

Regarding the role of teacher, Vivekananda himself says, "The only true
teacher is he who can immediately come down to the level of the student, and
transfer his soul to the student's soul and see through the student's eyes and
hear through his ears and understand through his mind. Such a teacher can
really teach and none else.”

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Concomitant with his epistemological position, Vivekananda had the

most modern ideas about functions of the teacher. The teacher, he said, should
not think that he is making the child grow. 'You cannot teach a child to grow...
a child teaches itself... you can take away the obstacles. but knowledge comes
out of its own nature'. Drawing on the analogy of a growing plant, he went on
to say that 'loosen the soil a little so that it may come out more easily… you
cannot do anything else. The rest is the manifestation from within its own
nature. So with the education of a child, a child educates itself. The teacher can
help, but the student has to draw on himself. The external teacher offers only
the suggestion, which rouses the internal teacher to work to understand things.
Vivekananda's position on the role of teacher in child's education is very close
to naturalism of Rousseau. He spoke of four essential characteristics in a
teacher –purity, knowledge of religious scriptures, spiritual force and finally a
guide.
Briefly speaking the place of teacher as envisaged by Vivekananda can
be discussed under the headings that follow:
1. Provider of Suitable Environment: According to Vivekananda
education is the process of self- development because child educates
himself. The real task of the educator is to see that there are no obstacles
in the child's path of self-development. Just as the gardener prepares the
ground for his plants, protects them from destructive hands and
animals, and nourishes them with manure and water from time to time,
in the same manner the educator takes care of the child and provides for
him environment in which he can develop without any hindrance. The
child himself is the source of knowledge but it is for the educator to

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wake it from its dormant condition. Hence the educator should try to
encourage the children to use their body, sense organs and brains.
2. Attitude of Worshipper: No teacher should exert any kind of pressure
on his pupils, as Vivekananda was a strong supporter of freedom in
education, Vivekananda stressed upon educators that their attitude of
teaching should be that of a worshipper.
3. Teacher as Guide: In the words of Vivekananda, "Teacher is a
philosopher, friend and guide helping the educand to go forward in his
own way."
4. Qualities for the Teacher: Swami Vivekananda attaches great
importance to the personal life and character of the teacher. He thinks
that only a Tyagi (the one who has renounced his personal gains and the
one who has dedicated his life to the services of others) can be a good
teacher. The teacher should be of a very high character. He must be pure
in mind and heart. He must have love for his pupils. Love is the best
medium to transmit the spiritual force. The teacher must have full
sympathy for the pupils. He can never teach without sympathy.
Vivekananda believes that it is only through sympathy that he can bring
down himself to the level of his pupils.

Place of Child

Like Froebel Vivekananda regarded child as the pivotal point of

education. He is the store-house of knowledge. Knowledge resides within him.
Vivekananda laid emphasis on the discovery of inner knowledge and said, “Go
into your own and get the Upanishads out of your own self. You are the

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greatest book that ever was or will be. Until the inner teacher opens, all outside
teaching is in vain.”

Education for Women

Vivekananda was a strict advocate of women's education. He believed

that the uplift of the women must come first and then only can any real good
come about for the country. While emphasizing women's education he said,
"Educate your women first, then they will tell you what reforms are necessary
for them. In matters concerning them, who are you"? He himself says, "where
women are respected, there the goods delight and where they are not, there
all works and efforts come to naught. He further asserted, "there is no hope
of rise for that family or country where there is no estimation of women, where
they live in sadness. For this reason they have to be raised first." So he
recommends that daughters should be brought up and educated just as sons.
He emphasized ideal of chastity for women. It helps them in attaining perfect
womanhood. He places the ideal of Sita for Indian women. There can be no
hope of well being of the country unless the condition of women is improved.
He wanted to give a type of education that may make women selfless,
fearless, brave, courageous and confident. He wanted to give women an
education which may form character and may increase the strength of mind
and may enable them to stand on their own feet. He stressed that along with
other things, women should acquire the valour and heroism like of Rani Jhansi,
Mother Terasa. Such mothers will produce ideal citizens. Swami had all
admiration for those who did even a bit for the spread of female education in
India. Female education, according to him, is to spread with religion as its

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center. Swami wanted, to teach some women the ideals of renunciation,

so that they may take up the vow of life long dedication to God.
Swami wanted to train up some Brahmacharnis who will take up the
education of women. According to him, "centers have to be started for teaching
women". Women should be taught history and the puranas (mythologies),
house keeping and the arts, the duties of home life and principles which
develop an ideal character. These subjects should be taught with the help of
modern science. He wanted that girls are trained up in ethical and spiritual life.

Education for the Masses

Vivekananda believed in the utility of the education of the masses.

Indifference to the education of the masses has emerged as a national problem
that is the real cause of our national downfall. For national development,
education should reach the masses. He said, "No amount of politics would be
of any avail until the masses in India are once more well educated, well fed and
well cared for". If we want to regenerate India, we must work for them". Proper
attention for mass education is needed for the progress of nation. He asked
young men to change the situation. He pleaded for universal, compulsory and
free education. He asked the educator to reach every village and every hutment
so that the country may awake from ignorance.
According to Swami Vivekananda a nation's progress is depending on
the spread of education among the masses. The bane of India's progress is that
the whole education and intelligence of the land became the monopoly of a
handful of men. Unless and until we care for the spread of education among
the masses no progress will be achieved in this country. Priest power and
foreign rule have exploited the poor people to such an extent that they don't

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even think they are human beings. In a sad situation like this we have to open
their eyes and make them see what is happening in the world around. "Our
duty is to put the ideas into their heads, they will do the rest." He contended.
Swami blamed 'the cruel society which is interested to shower blows
upon the poor man instead of coming to his help in this terrible situation. Next
he takes to task the educated of our country. "So long as the millions live in
hunger and ignorance “I hold every man a traitor who, having been educated
at their expense, pays not the least heed to them”, said Vivekananda. He
regarded the neglect of the masses as a great national sin.
Vivekananda was fully convinced that only through education the lot of
the poor can be improved here. Through education we should develop in them
their lost individuality, Once they become conscious of their human dignity,
they would naturally try to rise up from their miserable state* But he was very
much disappointed to see that nothing substantial has been done for educating
the people* The germs of spirituality stored in our sacred books has to be
brought to the common man. This can be done by spreading education among
the masses through the medium of mother—tongue. Ideas can easily be
understood and assimilated even by the common-eat man if they are taught
through their own mother-tongue. Our duty is to give those ideas and culture.
"Without giving them culture, there can be no permanence in the raised
condition of the masses", Vivekananda warned. Besides, they must be
instructed in simple words about the necessities of -life and in trade,
commerce, agriculture etc.
Once the poor man is made conscious of his strength, that he is the
'Omnipotent' and the 'Omniscient', the rest of the work becomes easy. The
moment a fisherman thinks that is spirit, he will be a better fisherman.

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Likewise a student becomes a better student, too. But so long as the poverty of
the people is not banished, the hope of mass education remains a pious wish.
For even if free schools are opened in villages, the children would rather so to
help their parents in their work or try to make a living than going to the school
if the poor bony cannot come to school for education, education must go to
him.

Man Making Education

Vivekananda says, "Education is not the amount of information that is

put into the brain and runs riot there undigested all your life. We must have
life building, man making, character making, assimilation of ideas". Education
should unveil the divinity in man and this divinity should be seen in treating
lunatics, in punishing criminals and in everything that is connected with
human life.
Vivekananda suggests that education should lay proper emphasis on
creativity, originality, and excellence. To him, good education is only that
which unfolds all the hidden powers in man. Real education requires the
cultivation of a sense of humility. This sense of humility is the basis of a man's
character, the true mark of a balanced personality. The character of any man is
really the aggregate of his innate tendencies, the sum total of the bent of mind.
Both pleasure and pain, misery and happiness are equal factors in the
formation of his character. In studying the characters of general men the world
has produced, it would be found that it was misery that taught more than
happiness.

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Universal Education

Vivekananda advocated universal education. Its theoretical base,

however, was his belief in the equality of all human beings at the spiritual level
and service to the poor as service to God; He wanted young Sanyasis to take
knowledge to the doors of the illiterates. He says, 'if poor cannot come to
school for education, education should go to them. He was very keen to see
that women got opportunities to get educated. He wanted women's education
to be developed and spread with religion as its center. However, he outlined a
separate curriculum for women, which included, besides religious instruction,
home science, photography and arts.

Concept of Discipline

Discipline is an important aspect of a person’s character. He believed

that teaching discipline to a child or disciplining him from out side is only a
myth. Instead of trying to discipline the child, the teacher can set an example of
his won life. So that children can cultivate good discipline among themselves.
Therefore discipline is to be caught rather than taught.

Swamiji’s Contribution to World Culture

Making an objective assessment of Swami Vivekananda’s contributions

to world culture, the eminent British historian A L Basham stated that “in
centuries to come, he will be remembered as one of the main moulders of the
modern world…” Some of the main contributions that Swamiji made to the
modern world are mentioned below:

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1. New Understanding of Religion: One of the most significant

contributions of Swami Vivekananda to the modern world is his
interpretation of religion as a universal experience of transcendent
Reality, common to all humanity. Swamiji met the challenge of modern
science by showing that religion is as scientific as science itself; religion
is the ‘science of consciousness’. As such, religion and science are not
contradictory to each other but are complementary. This universal
conception frees religion from the hold of superstitions, dogmatism,
priestcraft and intolerance, and makes religion the highest and noblest
pursuit – the pursuit of supreme Freedom, supreme Knowledge,
supreme Happiness.
2. New View of Man: Vivekananda’s concept of ‘potential divinity of the
soul’ gives a new, ennobling concept of man. The present age is the age
of humanism which holds that man should be the chief concern and
centre of all activities and thinking. Through science and technology
man has attained great prosperity and power, and modern methods of
communication and travel have converted human society into a ‘global
village’. But the degradation of man has also been going on apace, as
witnessed by the enormous increase in broken homes, immorality,
violence, crime, etc. in modern society. Vivekananda’s concept of
potential divinity of the soul prevents this degradation, divinizes human
relationships, and makes life meaningful and worth living. Swamiji has
laid the foundation for ‘spiritual humanism’, which is manifesting itself
through several neo-humanistic movements and the current interest in
meditation, Zen etc all over the world.

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3. New Principle of Morality and Ethics: The prevalent morality, in both

individual life and social life, is mostly based on fear – fear of the police,
fear of public ridicule, fear of God’s punishment, fear of Karma, and so
on. The current theories of ethics also do not explain why a person
should be moral and be good to others. Vivekananda has given a new
theory of ethics and new principle of morality based on the intrinsic
purity and oneness of the Atman. We should be pure because purity is
our real nature, our true divine Self or Atman. Similarly, we should love
and serve our neighbours because we are all one in the Supreme Spirit
known as Paramatman or Brahman.
4. Bridge between the East and the West: Another great contribution of
Swami Vivekananda was to build a bridge between Indian culture and
Western culture. He did it by interpreting Hindu scriptures and
philosophy and the Hindu way of life and institutions to the Western
people in an idiom which they could understand. He made the Western
people realize that they had to learn much from Indian spirituality for
their own well-being. He showed that, in spite of her poverty and
backwardness, India had a great contribution to make to world culture.
In this way he was instrumental in ending India’s cultural isolation from
the rest of the world. He was India’s first great cultural ambassador to
the West. On the other hand, Swamiji’s interpretation of ancient Hindu
scriptures, philosophy, institutions, etc prepared the mind of Indians to
accept and apply in practical life two best elements of Western culture,
namely science and technology and humanism. Swamiji has taught
Indians how to master Western science and technology and at the same
time develop spiritually. Swamiji has also taught Indians how to adapt

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Western humanism (especially the ideas of individual freedom, social

equality and justice and respect for women) to Indian ethos.

Swamiji’s Contribution to India

In spite of her innumerable linguistic, ethnic, historical and regional

diversities, India has had from time immemorial a strong sense of cultural
unity. It was, however, Swami Vivekananda who revealed the true
foundations of this culture and thus clearly defined and strengthened the sense
of unity as a nation. Swamiji gave Indians proper understanding of their
country’s great spiritual heritage and thus gave them pride in their past.
Furthermore, he pointed out to Indians the drawbacks of Western culture and
the need for India’s contribution to overcome these drawbacks. In this way
Swamiji made India a nation with a global mission. Sense of unity, pride in the
past, sense of mission – these were the factors which gave real strength and
purpose to India’s nationalist movement. Several eminent leaders of India’s
freedom movement have acknowledged their indebtedness to Swamiji. Free
India’s first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru wrote: “Rooted in the past, full of
pride in India’s prestige, Vivekananda was yet modern in his approach to life’s
problems, and was a kind of bridge between the past of India and her present
… he came as a tonic to the depressed and demoralized Hindu mind and gave
it self-reliance and some roots in the past.” Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose
wrote: “Swamiji harmonized the East and the West, religion and science, past
and present. And that is why he is great. Our countrymen have gained
unprecedented self-respect, self-reliance and self-assertion from his teachings.”
Swamiji’s most unique contribution to the creation of new India was to
open the minds of Indians to their duty to the downtrodden masses. Long

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before the ideas of Karl Marx were known in India, Swamiji spoke about the
role of the labouring classes in the production of the country’s wealth. Swamiji
was the first religious leader in India to speak for the masses, formulate a
definite philosophy of service, and organize large-scale social service.

Let Us Sum Up

A regal, majestic figure of commanding presence, vast learning and

deep insight, Swami Vivekananda was barely 30 years old when he created a
stir at the World’s Parliament of Religions in Chicago in 1893. Three and a half
years later, when he returned to India, his homeland, it was as a colossus of
strength, courage, confidence, love and manliness – the embodiment of the
ideal of the ‘man-making and character-building’ education he propagated.
Swami Vivekananda was a social reformer, a world teacher, a great
educationist and a practical saint of modern India who wanted to revive
ancient wisdom. He had deep faith in Vedanta and laid emphasis on self-
knowledge, self-reliance, courage, concentration, Brahmacharya, women
education and education for the masses. Throughout his life, he preached and
practised brotherhood of man, realization of God, renunciation and
righteousness. He synthesized, spiritual and material values and advocated a
national system of education. He established Rama Krishna Mission Ashrams
and tried to spread gospels of Vedas through these Ashrams. In the words of
Jawahar Lal Nehru, "Rooted in the past and full of pride India's prestige
Vivekananda was yet modern in his approach of life's problems and was a kind
of bridge between the past of India and her present. His mission was the
service of mankind through social service, mass education, religious revival
and social awakening through education.

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Check Your Progress

• Discuss in detail the educational philosophy of Swami Vivekananda?

• Explain the principles of education as advocated by Swami
Vivekananda?
• Explain in brief the viewpoint of Vivekananda towards the following:
➢ Women Education
➢ Education of Masses
➢ Universal Education
➢ Man Making Education
➢ Concept of Discipline
➢ Methods of Teaching
➢ Role of Teacher
• Discuss the contribution of Vivekananda towards the modern education
thought and practice?

Suggested Readings

1. Ahluwalia, B. 1983. Vivekananda and the Indian Renaissance. New Delhi:

Associated Publishing Co.
2. Avinashalingam, T.S. 1974. Educational philosophy of Swami Vivekananda.
3rd ed. Coimbatore: Sri Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya.
3. Burke, M.L. 1984. Swami Vivekananda in the West: new discoveries, 6 vols.
Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama.
4. Dhar, S. 1975. A comprehensive biography of Swami Vivekananda. 2 vols.
Madras: Vivekananda Prakashan Kendra.

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5. Gnatuk-Danil’chuk, A.P. 1986. Tolstoy and Vivekananda. Calcutta: The

Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.
6. His Eastern and Western Admirers. 1983. Reminiscences of Swami
Vivekananda. 3rd ed. Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama.
7. His Eastern and Western Disciples. 1989. The life of Swami Vivekananda. 2
vols. 6th ed. Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama.
8. Hossain, M. 1980. Swami Vivekananda’s philosophy of education. Calcutta:
Ratna Prakashan.
9. Nivedita, Sister. 1999. The Master as I saw him. 9th ed., 12th printing.
Calcutta: Udbodhan Office.
10. Raychaudhuri, T. 1988. Europe reconsidered: perceptions of the West in
nineteenth century Bengal. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
11. Sengupta, S.C. 1984. Swami Vivekananda and Indian nationalism. Calcutta:
Shishu Sahitya Samsad.

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UNIT IV

LESSON NO 11: RABINDRANATH TAGORE

Lesson Structure
Introduction

Objectives

Educational Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore

Principles of Self-Education

Aims of Education

Curriculum

Methods of Teaching

Tagore’s views about Teacher

Tagore and his Concept of Ideal School

Main Characteristics of the School

Description of Shantiniketan Ashram

Views of Tagore on Shantiniketan Ashram

Main Features of Vishwa-Bharti

Let Us Sum Up

Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

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Introduction

Rabindranath Tagore is considered to be one of the greatest

educationists of modern India, who was born on 7th May, 1861 at Calcutta. His
father, Maharshi Debendranath Tagore was a great leader of the Brahmo
Samaj. Tagore had most of his education at home by tutors. From his early
days, Tagore developed a hatred for school as he did not like the method of
imparting education. His family was rich and famous for its cultural views. At
an early age, he studied Upanishada, Astronomy and Sanskrit from his father
who was a great learned man. Tagore, by nature, was a lover of nature and
beauty. Tagore after some time, was sent to St. Xaviers School, Calcutta.
When Tagore was sixteen, he was sent to England, to study law. But he
did not want to study law, so he returned home without completing the course
of study. He visited England which made him acquire mastery over English
language and literature. He joined the London University for a short period of
three months. He started writing for journals and periodicals of Bengali
magazines.
Tagore loved poetry and he started composing poetry when he was
eight years old. One of the important influences on the life of the great
educationist and poet was Vaishnava Lyrical poetry, which is remarkable for
its intensity of feeling, daring imaginary and freedom of material movement.
His days of boyhood were unhappy. His mother was more or less an invalid
and he was looked after chiefly by the servants, who did not allow him to go
outside the house. This made him to yearn for the outer world of nature and
man lying beyond him. The poet’s literary career began with the publication of

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“Sandhya Sangil” in 1882. In 1913, Tagore won the famous Noble prize for
literature for writing Gitanjali.
Tagore was a patriot. He loved his country very much. He was a sworn
enemy of imperialism and the western notion of nationalism which he
described as aggressive. He condemned the Indian caste system. Tagore is
regarded as one of the greatest educationists the world has ever produced.
Tagore’s own experience of school was unhappy and when he had to face the
problem of his son’s education, the inadequacy of the system in ordinary
schools made him to think a novel method of giving instruction to children. In
1901, he established the “Shanti Niketan’ School at Bolapur. Here the classes
are held in the open air and singing, acting and drawing are made a part of the
school curriculum.
Rabindranath Tagore was a poet, dramatist, actor, musician, composer,
painter, educationist, teacher, poet and a novelist. He was the man of wisdom.
He could not find solace in the political field because Gandhi and Tagore very
often quarrelled. This made him to lead a life with solitude as love. Tagore died
on 7th August, 1941. His death was mourned universally.
He as a great humanist always preached harmony in human
relationships. He emphasized the amalgamation of the east and the west. He
had the feeling of fraternity. In this lesson, an attempt has been made to
understand the educational philosophy of Tagore and his contribution towards
Indian Education system..

Objectives

After going through this lesson, you should be able to:

➢ Describe the educational philosophy of R.N. Tagore;

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➢ Explain the historical background of Shantiniketan Ashram;

➢ Discuss the nature and main feature of Tagore’s Vishwa Bharti; and
➢ Give a detailed account of the various institutions of Vishwa Bharti.

Educational Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore

Rabindrnath Tagore was a man of action. His educational thoughts were

considered ahead of the ages. Even today, his educational ideas are ever-green
in the field of education. His educational center is based upon the concept of
freedom of mind.
According to Tagore, education is both idealistic as well as naturalistic.
It is said that, “his idealism is a true child of India’s own part and his philosophy is
thoroughly Indian both in origin and development.” The great teacher of mankind,
Saravapalli Radhakrishnan delineated his views that “the soul of ancient India
is reflected in Tagore’s writings. Tagore’s writing cover all the ancient ideas of
religion, philosophy and art”. He had a great love for nature. This greatly
influenced his educational idea and also his own experiences at school. He had
firm belief in the fundamental unity and inter dependence of man and nature.
His ardent desire was that the child’s education should take place in womb of
nature or natural surroundings. The child has a high level of curiosity for
investigating and dissecting natural objects. The child perpetually wants to be a
good friend to the nature. He prefers freedom to work, play, and his freedom
should not be curbed. If the child is controlled from wondering and playing in
nature his independent thinking and intimacy with nature will get
extinguished. Tagore has himself expressed, “children with the freshness of their
senses come directly to the intimacy of the world that is the first gift they have”.

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Rabindranath Tagore’s educational thought is in harmony with all

things. This harmony can be said in relation to the three media – with nature,
man’s immediate surroundings and international relationship. According to
Tagore, “education is one which makes one’s life in harmony with all existence”.
Bring the child into the perfect tune should be the fundamental object of an
educational institution. Education should have relationship between the life
and the world forming a balance between the life and the world. He expressed
that, “the highest education is that which does not merely give us information
but makes “our life come in harmony with all existence”. He believed that
“education is a permanent part of the adventure of life, it is not like a painful, hospital
treatment for curing them of the congenial malady of their ignorance, but is a function
of the health, the natural expression of their mind’s vitality.” So he did not
emphasize for more classes for children to study, their un-interesting lessons.
Children love freedom; they like to play in the open fields with their
playmates. So Tagore advocated the “love and action” principle. Through love
and action only, perfect knowledge can be inculcated and incorporated.
Education should be correlated with life” To Tagore, “The chief problem of
education is correlation with human life. The education which ignores the ideals of
human welfare is not at all education. It should help the child to develop his personality
and social well being”.
Tagore’s educational thought was coloured by his deep religious faith.
Tagore was influenced by his father; who had a vision of reality wherein the
supreme values are truth, beauty and goodness. His educational programmes
stress on complete harmony between nature and man.

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Principles of Self-Education

Self-education is based on self-realization and the process of self-realization

is as permanent as that of education. What is most important in this is that the
students must have faith in himself and in the universal self-underlying his own
individual soul. All those actions, which provide a natural sense of satisfaction
and contentment, will promote the educative process. This contentment is the
reaction of the soul, and hence not the same as mere satisfaction and pleasure. In
following Rabindranath concept of self education, the students had to follow the
following three principles:
1. Independence: Rabindranath believed in complete freedom of every kind
for the students, the freedom of intellect, decision, heart knowledge, action
and worship. But in order to attain this freedom, the edcuand had to
practice equanimity, harmony and balance. Rabindranath interprets
independence as normalcy or the fact of being natural. In other works, when
intelligence, feeling and determination are naturally distributed, it can be
said to be a state of freedom. This independence is not to be confused with
the absence of control, because it is self-control, it implies acting according
to one’s own rational impulse. Once this level of freedom has been achieved,
there is no danger of the individual straying from his path, because his
senses, intelligence, emotional feelings and all other powers are directed by
his ego.
2. Perfection: The second active principle underlying self-education is that of
perfection. Perfection here implies that the students must try to develop
every aspect of his personality and all the abilities and power with which he
has been endowed by nature. Hence, the aim of education is not merely

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passing examinations, acquiring degrees and certificates of merit and

ultimately achieving economic self-sufficiency through pursuing some
profession. The sole aim of education is development of the child’s
personality, which is possible only when every aspect of the personality is
given equal importance, when no part of the personality is neglected and no
part is stressed undesirably.
3. Universality: Development of the individual remains imperfect and
incomplete until he acquires as abiding faith in the universal soul, a part of
which exists inside himself. And for this, it is necessary to identify one’s
own soul with the universal soul. Thus, education exists not in simple
development but it inheres in literally a rebirth in which the individual rises
above the limitations of his individual personality and loses this
individuality in the inherits of the universal soul. One can search for this
universal soul not only within oneself, but also in every element of nature
and of one’s environment. It is evident from the foregoing account that the
aim of Rabindranath’s pattern of education is independence, perfection and
universality. In the process of education, the educator creates an
environment in which the child’s personality undergoes a free, perfect and
unrestricted development.

Aims of Education

According to Tagore, “The highest education is that which does not

merely give us information but makes us to live in the harmony with all
existence”. Education must aim at all round development of the child. Tagore
listed out some of the aims for the qualitative development of the child:-

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1. Integral Development: Tagore says, "The fundamental purpose of education is

not merely to enrich ourselves through the fullness of knowledge, but also to
establish the bond of love and friendship between man and man". This is the
humanistic aim of education in Tagore's philosophy. His approach to
ultimate reality is integral. He believes in an inner harmony between man
and Nature and God. In man, again, the physical, the mental and the
spiritual aspects are equally important and internally related. Therefore, like
Sri Aurobindo, Rabindra Nath believes in a multisided education with
physical, intellectual, moral and religious aims.
2. Physical Development: Like Vivekananda, Tagore condemned the
prevalent system of education which partially exercised the intellect only to
the entire neglect of the body. According to Rabindra Nath, "Education of the
body in the real sense, does not exist in play and exercise but in applying the body
systematically to some useful work". Thus, one of the aims of education
according to Rabindra Nath, is physical development. Pointing out the
value of physical activities in the child's education he says, "Even if they
learnt nothing, they would have had ample time for play, climbing trees, diving into
ponds, plucking and tearing flowers, perpetrating thousand and one mischiefs on
Mother Nature, they would have obtained the nourishment of the body, happiness of
mind and the satisfaction of the natural impulses of childhood". Thus physical
fitness is the first cardinal principle in the child's development. This is
realized through his intimate contact with Nature. As a poet Tagore very
well realizes the life giving values of Nature's contact with man. About the
child's contact with the Nature he says, "I speak in very moderate terms: Seven
years-till then let child has nothing to do with others and shame. Till then let Nature

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alone conduct the indispensable education of the savage". This is particularly

important for the educational institutions in our society.
3. Mental Development: Tagore equally lays emphasis upon the mental aim
of education. Like Vivekananda, he is critical of the prevalent system of
education which laid sole emphasis upon bookish learning. Presenting this
attitude he says, "We touch the world not with our mind, but with our books. This
is deplorable. Intellectualism takes us away from Nature and creates a gulf between
man and man." To quote Rabindra Nath, "We know the people of books, not those
of the world, the former are interesting to us, but the latter tiresome". In fact, the
intellectual aim of education, according to Rabindra Nath, is the
development of the intellectual faculties which should be developed
through education. These are: the power of thinking and the power of
imagination. Both these are necessary for real manhood. Rabindra Nath
criticizes the prevalent system of education which puts too much stress on
memory and two little on imagination and thinking. He suggests, "Ever
since childhood, instead of putting all the burden on the memory, the power
of thinking and the power of imagination should also be given
opportunities for free exercise".
4. Harmony with Environment: In the end, the aim of education according
to Rabindra Nath, is the harmony of the educand with the environment.
The educand should know his environment and create harmony with it.
To quote Rabindra Nath, ‘”rue education consists in knowing the use of any
useful material that has been collected, to know its real nature and to build along
with life a real shelter for life.” This is particularly true about the rural
education. Education should facilitate the educand's assimilation of his
national culture. Through education, the educand should imbibe his

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cultural heritage and should be able to use it in his inter-action with the
environment. Explaining this aim of education, Rabindra Nath says, "if
we believe that the chief aim of education in India is to be initiated into this
unique pursuit of India, then we must constantly remember that neither the
education of the senses, nor the education of the intellect, but the education of the
feeling receive the place of honour in our schools…... Our true education is
possible only in the forest, through intimate contact with Nature and purifying
austere pursuits".
5. Earning Livelihood. Thus, about the aim of education, Tagore's approach is
realistic. He, however, does not favour the utilitarian aim of education. This
is his objection against the imposition of British system of education upon
India. He says, "Knowledge has two departments: one pure knowledge, the other
utilitarian knowledge. Whatever is worth knowing is knowledge. It should be known
equally by men and women, not for practical utility, but for the sake of knowing ....
The desire to know is the law of human nature". But Tagore does not ignore the
earning of livelihood aim of education. He appreciates the practical bias in
Western system of education. Though he does not want to make education
an instrument for earning bread alone but he admits that bread earning is a
necessary part of any sound goal of education. Therefore, he says, "From the
very beginning, such education should be imparted to them (village folks)
that they may know well what mass welfare means and may become
practically efficient in all respects for earning their livelihood". While he is
critical of the British system of education which wanted to create clerks out
of the Indian educated people, he emphasized that the real aim of education
is to develop men and women who may be able to fulfil the needs of the

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country. In his own words, "One of the main aims of education is to prepare
the individual for the service of the country".
6. . Multisided Aims: The above discussion concerning the means of
education according to Tagore, make it clear that his is a multisided
attack on this problem. He is against any one sided aim of education. He
is humanist. A humanistic aim of education requires a multisided approach.

Curriculum

Tagore advocated for a curriculum for the education of the complete

man satisfying the spiritual, creative, aesthetic and vocational aims of
education. He emphasized cultural subjects in the construction of the
curriculum. He pursued culture in the widest sense through art, dance, drama,
music, crafts and practical skills of daily life. Nonetheless, he placed emphasis
on the fine arts and literature. In The Place of Music in Education, he asked
educators to make it natural for people to revere art. He urged his teachers to
discover how education could be made musical in one way or another. With an
activity-centered curriculum in mind, Tagore considered drama and the
expressiveness of histrionics as compulsory activities. Co-curricular activities
like self-government, social service were also provided for training in
citizenship. Nature study was taught right in the midst of nature. For
harmonious development of the child the poet put great emphasis on the
spiritual side along' with the intellectual and physical side.
Briefly speaking, according to him, curriculum should be broad based
and it should touch all aspects of the life of the growing child-physical,
intellectual, social, economical, moral, aesthetic and spiritual. For this purpose
he recommended the subjects like languages, literature, natural sciences, social

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sciences, agriculture, technical subjects, arts, music, dance, music, philosophy,

religion, and other modern subjects.

Methods of Teaching

Tagore discarded all the conventional methods of teaching. According to

Tagore, “to see a student in the classroom, his thin legs dangling from his seat
is to see the most unfortunate child in the world. The methods of teaching
advocated by Tagore are as:
1. Teaching while walking.
2. Discussion and question answer method.
3. Activity method.
1. Teaching while walking is an innovative method. In the womb of
nature, the child is being guided when he is engaged in certain activities.
Teaching while walking enables the child to give more concentration.
The child also finds it interesting. Here the child is treated as an
individual, instead of treating him as the novice, he will be treated as the
young walking partner of the teacher. He believed that history,
geography and many subjects of social nature can be best taught
through frequent excursions and tours.
2. Debates and Discussion Method: Tagore advocated that it is through
discussion and debates that intellectual exchange take place and many
doubts are cleared. A child learns quickly through discussion as it
creates interest in him to learn more and more. Through discussion
the child will also be inspired. He suggested that children should be
encouraged to take active part in debates and discussions. It will
develop their power of thinking logically.

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3. Activity Method: The central point in educational activity, according to

Tagore, is joy. Joy should pervade all types of activities. "Work should
be wedded to joy.' Tagore believed that activity is essential for education
of body and mind. He appears admitting the activities like jumping,
climbing on trees, plucking of fruit and documentation as important
methods of teaching.
4. Question-Answer Method: In this method, the child is expected to ask
some questions of doubt on the subjects of study. The teacher is
expected to answer these questions. Questions may not be from the text
alone. Later, the teacher asks the question to test their comprehension.
Some one has rightly said,
“Mind are locked treasures, open them with the key of questions.”

Tagore’s View about Teacher

According to Tagore, a teacher should be a living model to the child.

There should be love and reverence between the teacher and the child. He
wrote, “I have found that little children learn more quickly the attitude of the
teacher than the knowledge imparted by him.” Tagore felt unhappy that most
teachers "always try to burden the children with their grown up manners and
their learned manners, and that hurts the mind of the students unnecessarily.
In order to be the true guide of children, he must never be conscious of
age or superiority, or anything of that kind. He must be their elder brother
ready to travel with them in the same path of higher wisdom and aspiration.
The teacher should act like a child among children, only then he can
teach the child. The international University, Shantiniketan, is an abode of
peace where the teachers and the students live together and share the joys and

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sorrows of life in a spirit of perfect comradeship. This enables a reciprocal

relationship between the teacher and the taught. To be brief, Tagore assigns an
important place to the teacher. Teacher is considered as Guru. He is to guide
and stimulate students. He wanted teachers to stimulate constructive doubt,
the love of mental adventure, the courage and longing to conquer the world by
enterprise and boldness in thought and in action. Tagore’s beautifully has
outlined the quality of a good teacher as:
“A teacher can never truly teach unless he is still learning himself. A lamp can
never light another lamp unless it continues to bum its own flame”

Tagore and His Concept of Ideal School

According to Tagore, “It must be an Ashram where men have gathered

for the highest end of life, in the peace of nature, where life is not merely
meditative but fully awake in its activities.” Tagore was convinced that “true
education is possible only in the ‘Tapovan’ (Forest) through intimate contact
with nature and purifying austere pursuits.” For Tagore, the school must
enlarge the ‘feeling’ aspect. He himself wrote, that “we must remember that
neither the education of the senses, nor the education of the intellect, but the
education of the feelings should receive the place of honour in our schools.”
Tagore pointed out the great significance of the school atmosphere in the
life of children whose mind; like the tree has the power to gather food and
nourishment from its surroundings. The cultural atmosphere keeps the mind
sensitive to rich racial inheritance, glorious traditions and concentrated
wisdom of ages. The school atmosphere must also develop sensitiveness of
soul and allow freedom to the mind from bondage of ignorance and apathy.

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Main Characteristics of the School

An ideal school according to Tagore should have the following

characteristics and that is why he attempted to introduce these elements in his
school at Bolpur, located at a distance of about one hundred miles from
Calcutta. Later on, this school became Shantiniketan and grew into
‘Visvabharti’- the world famous international university.
1. It should give spiritual training to the students.
2. It should help the children for the cultivation of love of nature and
sympathy with all living creatures.
3. It should impart knowledge to children through mother tongue.
4. It should educate children by providing an atmosphere of freedom.
5. It should educate children by making them alive to their natural
surroundings.
6. It should educate children by providing an environment of living
aspiration, based upon living contact between the teacher and the
taught.
7. It should provide an environment after the fashion of ancient
‘Tapovanas’-forest schools about which he had read so much in the
Upanishads.
8. It should be a community school where there is no distinction of caste
and creed.
9. It should teach crafts like sewing, book-binding, weaving, carpentry etc.
10. It should include drawing, art and music as an integral part of the
curriculum.

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11. It should provide students adequate opportunities for choosing their

hobbies and occupations.
12. It should be a self governing institution-has a diary farm, post office,
hospital and workshop.
13. It should provide for close personal contact with the teacher. The
number of students in classes should be very small.
14. There should be a well equipped library.
15. The school should provide for manual labour
16. The school should be situated in natural surroundings. There should
prevail the Atmosphere of nature’s own beauty with her varied gifts of
colour and dance, flowers and fruits, with the joy of her mornings and
the peace of her starry nights.
There is a spiritual bondage between man and man, with ennobling
effect of nature on the inmates. Music, songs, dancing, dramatics and other
artistic activities are a daily routine. Tagore explains it in his own words,
“Training in the use of limbs, development of the spirit of questioning, thinking
and observation; cultivation of interest and enjoyment in trees, birds, the beasts
and the varied phenomena of nature; experience in the making of articles of
daily use, habit of keeping ones living room and surroundings clean, healthy
and beautiful practice of cleanliness extending to the body, dress and personal
behaviour through adequate observance of both, wholesome discipline in
eating, physical exercise and rest and careful maintenance of bodily and mental
strength-these are essential to the life of this Ashrama.”

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Description of Shantiniketan Ashram

Founded by Rabindranath Tagore in 1901 and located about a hundred

and fifty eight kilometers northwest of Kolkata in Bengal’s rural hinterland,
Santiniketan represents the distillation of Rabindranath Tagore’s life,
philosophy and greatest works through his lifetime and the continuing legacy
of his unique model of education and internationalism through a living
institution and architectural ensemble. And while many of Tagore’s greatest art
and literary works bear a unique association with Santiniketan, it can be
argued that his model of an Indian education through the revival of the
tapovan tradition and humanist ideology finds its greatest reflection in
Santiniketan, thus making it Tagore’s greatest work. In 1940 a year before he
died, he put his last letter to Mahatma Gandhi, Tagore wrote 'Visva Bharati is
like a vessel carrying the cargo of my life's best treasure and I hope it may
claim special care from my countrymen for its preservation'. The poet selected
for its motto an ancient Sanskrit verse, Yatra visvam bhavatieka nidam, which
means, “Where the whole world meets in a single nest.” “Visva-Bharati”, he
declared, “represents India where she has her wealth of mind which is for all. Visva-
Bharati acknowledges India's obligation to offer to others the hospitality of her best
culture and India's right to accept from others their best.”

Views of Tagore on Shantiniketan Ashram

Tagore himself gives the clear picture of his Ashram in the following
words:
➢ Vishwa-Bharati represents India where she has her wealth of mind which
is for all. Visva-Bharati acknowledges India's obligation to offer to others

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the hospitality of her best culture and India's right to accept from others
their best

(Founder of Visva-Bharati)
➢ I am trying hard to start a school in Shantiniketan. I want it to be like the
ancient hermitages we know about. There will be no luxuries, the rich
and poor alike will live like ascetics. But I cannot find the right teachers.
It is proving impossible to combine today’s practices with yesterday’s
ideals. Simplicity and hard work are not tempting enough…We are
becoming spoilt by wasteful pleasure and the lack of self-control. Not
being able to accept poverty is at the root of our defeat.
Rabindranath Tagore, 1901.
➢ Our regular type of school follows an imaginary straight line of the
average in digging its channel of education. But life's line is fond of
playing the seesaw with the line of the average.
Rabindranath Tagore, 1917.
➢ There are men who think that by the simplicity of living introduced in
my school I preach the idealization of poverty which prevailed in the
medieval age. The full discussion of this subject is outside the scope of
this paper, but seen from the point of view of education, should we not
admit that poverty is the school in which man had his first lessons and
his best training?...Poverty brings us into complete touch with life and
the world, for living richly is living mostly by proxy, thus living in a
lesser world of reality. This may be good for one’s pleasure and pride,
but not for one’s education. Wealth is a cage in which the children of the
rich are bred into artificial deadening of their powers. Therefore, in my

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school, much to the disgust of the people of expensive habits, I had to

provide for this great teacher – this bareness of furniture and materials –
not because it is poverty, but because it leads to personal experience of
the world.
Rabindranath Tagore, 1922.
From the above discussion, it can be said that the school at Santiniketan
was a sapling which grew into the widely branching tree that was Visva
Bharati. Today, Santiniketan and Vishwa Bharati exemplify the continuation of
Tagore's works, both as a living educational and cultural centre as well as
through the generations of outstanding alumni who excelled in the worlds of
painting, literature, music, sculpture, cinema, economics and politics. The
architectural and landscape setting of Santiniketan embody Tagore's vision of
an eclectic architectural expression that was a blending of diverse cultural
traditions in a landscape setting that formed the backdrop for a literal
translation of 'Santiniketan' as an abode of peace.
The word Vishwa-Bharti is composed of two words i.e., ‘Vishwa and
‘Bharti’. In Sanskrit, the word Vishwa means ‘world’ and Bharti means
‘culture.’ Thus, Vishwa-Bharti would mean ‘world culture’. The motto of this
University s ‘Yatra Visvam Bhavati Ekamidum’, i.e., where the world meets in
one place.
The Vishwa Bharti was formally founded on 22nd December 1921. But it
was not a new institution. It had grown gradually out of the Shantiniketan
Ashrama. Today this Vishwa-Bharti is known not only all over the India, but
also attract scholars from different parts of the world. Tagore has observed, “I
have formed the nucleus of an International University, as one of the best
means of promoting mutual understanding between the East and the west.” It

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was intended to be, “Treasure of Light” not only for India but also for the
world. Tagore wanted to extend by degrees the scope of this university on
simple lines, until it comprehended the whole range of eastern culture-the
Aryans, Semitic, Mongolian etc. Its object was to reveal the eastern mind to the
world.
In 1922, Visva Bharati was inaugurated as a Centre for Culture with
exploration into the arts, language, humanities, music and these are reflected in
diverse institutes that continue in their educational programmes, which are
based on the founding principles of excellence in culture and culture studies.
As originally intended, these serve as institutes for Hindi studies, Hindi
Bhavan, Sino Asian studies, Cheena Bhavan, centre for humanities, Vidya
Bhavan, institute of fine arts Kala Bhavan, and music, Sangit Bhavan. The
structures in these institutes constitute a myriad of architectural expressions
which are as diverse as the Kalo Bari, a mud structure with coal tar finish and
sculpture panels, Mastermoshai studio, a single storied structure built for the
first principal of Kala Bhavan, Nandalal Bose, murals and paintings on Cheena
and Hindi Bhavan, created by the illustrious artists like Benodebehari
Mukhopadhyay, Nandalal Bose, Surendranath Kar, Somnath Hore with active
involvement of students.

Main Feature of Vishwa-Bharti

Main Features of Vishwa-Bharti are as:

1. The institution that bore the name of Vishwa-Bharti was founded with the
call that man had to be set free not only in the field of nature but also
among mankind.

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2. The greatest distinction of this school is the direct and immediate

emotional contact of pupils with their teachers and with external nature.
3. A speciality of this institution is that it wants to bring up the pupils in
inseparable association with nature.
4. It wants to hold before the world the ideal of the universality of man.
5. It is intended not only to be the intellectual centre of the intellectual life of
India but also the centre of her economic life.
6. It is envisaged to be the nucleus of an international university and as one of
the means of promoting mutual understanding between the East and the
West.

Let Us Sum Up

Rabindranath Tagore was a practical idealist. His educational ideals

stressed upon freedom of expression along with spiritual necessity. He was
also a naturalist to the core. Education should prepare such a man who can
adjust himself to his environment. His educational thoughts can be linked with
complete human life. He was also a realist who never had a dream of the type
of education but whatever he had in his mind as the thoughts of education, he
brought them in practical life. “Through him India has given her message to
mankind and his unique achievements in the fields of literature, philosophy,
art and education have won imperishable fame for himself and have raised the
status of India in the estimation of the world”. These remarkable words were
expressed during 1941 at the time of his death by Syndicate of the Calcutta
University.
Rabindranath Tagore believed that the aim of education is self-
realization. He himself was a poet and a saint, who had, through his

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imagination and insight, realized the universal soul in himself and in nature.
He believed that this realization was the goal of education. Because the
universal soul is the root of our own soul, man’s aim in life is to reach that
universal soul of which all human beings are parts. The evolution of nature is
consciously or unconsciously driving us towards this universal soul, a process
that can be assisted by education. Even if it is not assisted, the progress
towards the universal soul will continue, but then individuals will be deprived
of self-realization. It is thus evident that Rabindranath educational philosophy
is an adjunct of his general philosophy of life. He believed that every human
being is one who has potentialities of progressing towards the Super human
being, the universal soul. His conception of the universal soul bore clear
imprint of the Gita and Upanishadic philosophies.

Check Your Progress

1. Discuss the ideas of education as reflect from R.N. Tagore’s ‘My School’.
2. Explain Tagore’s philosophy of education on Indian education.
3. What are the principles of self education according to R.N. Tagore?
4. Describe the aims of education as proposed by R.N. Tagore.
5. Discuss the educational philosophy of R.N. Tagore?
6. Discuss the nature and characteristics of Vishwa Bharti?
7. Explain the brief description of different institutions of Vishwa Bharti?

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Suggested Readings

1. Aggarwal, A. K. (2005). Development of Education System in India. Anmol

Publication Pvt. Ltd.
2. Altekar, A.S. (1943). Education in Ancient India, New Delhi, Motilal
Banarsidass.
3. Saini, S .K. (1993). Development of Education System in India. Cosmo
publishers New Delhi
4. Walia, J.S. (2003). Development of Education System in India. Paul publishers
5. Dupuis, A. M. (1972). Philosophy of Education in historical perspective. New
Delhi: Thomson Press (India) Ltd.

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UNIT IV

LESSON NO 12: MAULANA ABUL KALAM AZAD

Lesson Structure
Introduction

Objectives

Life Sketch of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad

Maulana Azad as an Education Minister

Maulana Azad as an As an Author

Maulana Azad as an Orator

Educational Philosophy of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad

Salient Features of Educational Philosophy of Maulana Abul Kalam

Azad

Let Us Sum Up

Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

Introduction

“Educationists should build the capacities of the spirit of inquiry,

creativity, entrepreneurial and moral leadership among students and
become their role model.”
- Maulana Abul Kalam Azad

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Maulana Abul Kalam Azad is one of those rare personalities through

whom the distinctions of the 20th century can be recognized and possibilities of
the 21st century determined. He stood for a learning society through liberal,
modern and universal education combining the humanism of Indian arts and
the rationalism of western sciences, a society where the strong are just and the
weak secure, where the youth is disciplined and the women lead a life of
dignity – a non-violent, non-exploiting social and economic order. He was free
India’s first Education Minister and guided the destinies of the Nation for
eleven years. He was the first to raise the issue of the National System of
Education which is today the bed-rock of the National Policy on Education
(1986) updated in 1992. The concept implies that, up to a given level, all
students, irrespective of caste, creed, location or sex have access to education of
a comparable quality. All educational programmes, he said, must be carried
out in strict conformity with secular values and constitutional framework. He
stood for a common educational structure of 10+2+3 throughout India. If
Maulana Azad were alive today he would have been the happiest to see the
Right to Free Education Bill getting cabinet approval for the approval of
Parliament. The wealth of the nation, according to Maulana Azad, was not in
the country’s banks but in primary schools. The Maulana was also a great
votary of the concept of Neighbourhood schools and the Common School
System. In this lesson, we shall study the educational though of this great man
whose contribution in the field of education outstanding.

Objectives

After reading this lesson, you should be able to:

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• Discuss the concept of education as envisaged by Maulana Abul Kalam

Azad;
• Explain the educational philosophy of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad;
• State the importance of women education as highlighted by Maulana
Abul Kalam Azad; and
• Elaborate the views of Azad on the Syllabus and Scheme of Education.

Life Sketch of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, born in Mecca on November 11, 1888 and
his father Maulana Khairuddin was a noted scholar, his mother Alia was an
Arab, niece of Shaikh Mohammad Zahir Vatri of Madina. His father gave him
the name of Feroze Bakht but he became Abul Kalam and the name stayed. At
the age of 10, he was well-versed in Quran. At 17 years of his age Abul Kalam
was a trained theologian recognized in the Islamic world. His studies at Al
Azhar University Cairo further deepened his knowledge. At Calcutta where his
family had settled, he started a magazine called ‘Lisan-ul-Sidq’. His early
influences were Maulana Shibli Naomani and Altaf Hussain Haali, the two
great Urdu critics.
Azad made a debut in politics when the British Government partitioned
Bengal in 1905 on religious grounds. The Muslim middle classes supported the
partition but Azad rejected it outright. He took active part in the agitation,
joined the secret societies and revolutionary organization and came in contact
with Sri Aurobindo Ghosh and Shyam Sundar Chakravarty. He stood for a
unified India and never deviated from his stand. He writes in his famous book
‘India Wins Freedom’: ‘It is one of the greatest frauds on the people to suggest
that religious affinity can unite areas which are geographically, economically

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and culturally different’. It is a fact of history that while other Congress leaders
accepted the partition in 1947, Maulana stood steadfast. His famous statement
on Hindu-Muslim unity stands out as Magna Charta of his faith: “If an angel
were to descend from the heavens and proclaim from the heights of Qutab
Minar: Discard Hindu-Muslim unity and within 24 hours Swaraj is yours, I will
refuse the preferred Swaraj but shall not budge an inch from my stand. The
refusal of Swaraj will affect only India while the end of our unity will be the
loss of our entire human world.”
At the age of 20 he went on a tour of Iraq, Syria and Egypt and met the
young Turks and Arab nationalists including Christians. The tour proved very
useful to Azad to crystallize his thoughts on the neo-colonialists who were
exploiting those countries and how India could help them. On return he started
a journal in Urdu named ‘Al Hilal’ in 1912. It was this journal where he aired
his liberal views, ‘Rationalist in outlook and profoundly versed in Islamic lore
and history’. Writes Nehru in his ‘Discovery of India’. “The Maulana interpreted
scriptures from the rationalist point of view. Soaked in Islamic tradition and
with many personal contacts with prominent Muslim leaders of Egypt, Turkey,
Syria, Palestine, Iraq and Iran, he was profoundly affected by political and
cultural developments in these countries. He was known in Islamic countries
probably more than any other Indian Muslim.
The journal ‘Al-Hilal’ became extremely popular and in two years its
circulation rose to 30,000. The inevitable happened when in 1914 the British
Government confiscated the press and banned the journal under the Defence of
India Act. Azad was arrested and sent to Ranchi jail where he suffered untold
hardships.

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Released from jail he resumed his educational writings. He spoke in a

new language, writes Nehru. It was not only a new language in thought and
approach, even its texture was different, for Azad’s style was tense and virile
though sometimes a little difficult because of its Persian background. He used
new phrases for new ideas and was a definite influence in giving shape to
Urdu language as it is today. The older conservative Muslims did not react
favourably to all this and criticized Azad’s opinion and approach. Yet not even
the most learned of them could meet Azad in debate and argument, even on
the basis of scriptures and tradition, for Azad’s knowledge of these happened
to be greater than theirs. He was a strange mixture of medieval scholasticism,
eighteenth century rationalism and modern outlook. There were a few among
the older generation who approved of Azad’s writings, among them being
Shibli and Sir Sayid of Aligarh University.
After the confiscation of ‘Al-Hilal’ Azad brought out a new weekly called
‘Al Balagh’ but this too came to an end when Azad was interned in 1916. He
remained in jail for four years. When he came out he was an acknowledged
leader and took his seat with the great might of the Indian National Congress.
In 1920 he met Tilak and Gandhi which was the turning point of his life.
Gandhi had launched the ‘Khilafat Movement’ under the Deoband School and
Firanghi Mahal where Gandhi and Azad were frequent visitors. But when
Muslim League denounced Gandhiji’s Satyagraha, Azad who had enrolled
himself in the League when a boy, left the Muslim League forever. His
popularity was so high that at 35 he became the President of the Indian
National Congress, the youngest ever to hold that office. In 1942 during the
Quit India Movement he was elected as the Chief spokesman of the Congress.

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This distinction he also had during the negotiations with the Cabinet Mission
in 1946 at Shimla.

Maulana Azad As An Education Minister

In 1947, when the Interim Government was formed Maulana Azad was
included as Member for Education and Arts. On August 15, 1947 when India
attained Independence he became Free India’s first Education Minister with a
cabinet rank where he achieved a number of distinctions and established
institutions of excellence to promote education and culture.
Among the new institutions he established were the three National
Academies viz., the Sangeet Natak Academy (1953), Sahitya Academy (1954)
and Lalit Kala Academy (1954), the Indian Council for Cultural Relations
having been established by him earlier in 1950. The Maulana felt that the
cultural content in Indian Education was very low during the British rule and
needs to be strengthened through curriculum. As Chairman of the Central
Advisory Board of Education, an apex body to recommend to the Government
educational reform both at the center and the states including universities, he
advocated, in particular, universal primary education, free and compulsory for
all children upto the age of 14, girls education, vocational training, agricultural
education and technical education. He established University Grants
Commission (UGC) in 1956 by an Act of Parliament for disbursement of grants
and maintainence of standards in Indian universities. He firmly believed with
Nehru that if the universities discharged their functions well, all will be well
with the Nation. According to him the universities have not only academic
functions, they have social responsibilities as well. He was pioneer in the field
of adult education. His greatest contribution, however, is that in spite of being

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an eminent scholar of Urdu, Persian and Arabic he stood for the retention of
English language for educational advantages and national and international
needs. However primary education should be imparted in the mother-tongue.
On the technical education side he strengthened All Indian Council for
Technical Education. The Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur was
established in 1951 followed by a chain of IIT’s at Bombay, Madras and Kanpur
and Delhi. School of Planning and Architecture came into existence at Delhi in
1955.

Maulana Azad As An Author

Maulana Azad was a prolific writer with books in Urdu, Persian and
Arabic notably amongst which is ‘India Wins Freedom’, his political biography,
translated from Urdu to English. Maulana’s translation of Quran from Arabic
into Urdu in six volumes published by Sahitya Akademy in 1977 is indeed his
‘Magnum Opus”. Since then several editions of ‘Tarjaman-e-Quran’ have come
out. His other books include ‘Gubar-e-Khatir’, ‘Hijr-o-Vasal’, ‘Khatbat-I-Azad’,
‘Hamari Azadi’, ‘Tazkara’. He gave a new life to Anjamane-Tarrqui-e-Urdu-e-
Hind’. During the partition riots when the ‘Anjamane-Tarrqui-Urdu suffered,
its Secretary Maulvi Abdul Haqq decided to leave for Pakistan alongwith the
books of the Anjaman. Abdul Haqq had packed the books but Maulana Azad
got them retrieved and thus saved a national treasure being lost to Pakistan. He
also helped the Anjaman to revive by sanctioning a grant of Rs. 48,000 per
month from the Ministry of Education.

Maulana Azad As An Orator

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As an orator Azad had no equal among his contemporaries. When he

spoke the audience listened to him spell-bound. Recalling the memories of the
Roman and the Greek orators, there was magic in his words, his language was
chaste, civilized, his speech was dramatic. In October 1947 when the Delhi
Muslims were leaving for Pakistan tens of thousands of them, he spoke from
the ramparts of Jama Masjid, like an ancient oracle: “Behold, the high towers of
Jama Masjid are asking you: where have you lost the pages of your history.
Only yesterday your caravans had performed ‘Wazu; (Ablutions) on the banks
of Jamuna. And today you are afraid to live here. Remember that you have
nourished Delhi with your blood. You are afraid of tremors, time was when
you yourself were an earthquake. You fear darkness when you yourself
symbolized light only recently. The clouds have only poured dirty water and
you have raised your trousers for fear of being drenched. They were your
forefathers who had dived deep into the seas, cut across the mighty mountains,
laughed away the lightnings, answered the thunder of the skies with the
velocity of your laughter, changed the direction of the winds and turned the
typhoons that they have been misled to a wrong destination. It is an irony of
faith that those who played with the destinies of the kings are victims of their
own destiny today. And in doing so they have become so forgetful of their God
as if it never existed. Go back it is your home, your country….”
The effect of his speech was dramatic. Those who packed up their
baggages to migrate to Pakistan returned home filled with a new sense of
freedom and patriotism. There was no mass migration thereafter. In the history
of international oratory Maulana Azad’s Jama Masjid speech can only be
compared with the Gettysburg address of Abraham Lincoln, Birla House

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speech of Nehru on Gandhi’s assassination and recently of Martin Luther’s

speech: ‘I have a dream’.
As a man Maulana was even greater, he led an austere life. He had the
madness of a Spinoza, the courage of Prometheus Unbound, the humility of a
Dervesh. At the time of his death he had neither any property nor any bank
account. In his personal almirah were found some cotton ‘Achkans’. A dozen
‘Khadi Kurtas’ and ‘pyjama’, two pairs of sandals, an old dressing gown and a
used brush. But there were lots of rare books which are now a property of the
Nation.
A man like Maulana Azad is born rarely. Throughout his life he stood
for the unity of India and its composite culture. His opposition to partition of
India has created a niche in the hearts of all patriotic Indians.There he stands
with Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, his senior an Ashfaqullah his junior. In the
words of Iqbal : Hazaron sall Nargis apni benoori par roti hai, Bari Mushkil sey
hota hai chaman mein deeda var paida. ( For a thousand years the Narcissus
weeps for her blindness, With great difficulty is born in the garden a man with
vision). Maulana Abul Kalam Azad’s Birthday 11th November has been
declared as National Education Day.

Educational Philosophy of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad

In the words of Azad, “A state cannot claim to have discharged its duty
till it has provided for every single individual the means to the acquisition of
knowledge and self-betterment.” Being an educationist, Azad had decided to
devote his life for writing to educate the masses even after getting released
from the internment at Ranchi, Journalism was his favourite career and
through his weeklies he instilled great scholarly views in the readers. He

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expressed his dissatisfaction with the ancient system of education. The

education imparted to him in his early life could give him nothing more than a
static mind unaware of reality. That is why he laid stress on the need of proper
and healthy education to the nation. As back as in June 1913, he criticized the
educational policy of the then Government of India and compared it with the
system prevalent in Europe. In reply to a circular of the Government of India
concerning education of Muslims in India, Azad wrote an article in the Al-
Hilal' dated 4th June 1913, in which he discussed the principles of education.
To him education does not mean external progress based on superficial
knowledge of vocabulary essays and literature. In fact, education means the
manifestation of those hidden abilities which nature has endowed to man.
Hence he should be made accustomed to putting his capabilities to test. It
should not be considered a means of earning one's livelihood. Human faculties
should be developed through extensive knowledge, authenticity and criticism.
The schools and educational institutions should be reformed so as teachers
become ideal in performance of their duties and are sympathetic towards
students. The pupils should be taught while keeping in view their mental and
intellectual cadre. The individual taste of the pupils too should be properly
heeded on. Primary education should be well organised. The aim of education
is to make the individual enlightened and progressive. The system of education
should be such as every individual makes satisfactory progress in his life
according to the best of his abilities.
To Azad, education was an end in itself and not a means. He advised
students not to take education as means to earn monetary profits. Knowledge
should be acquired on its merit. It is virtue and as virtue is worth acquiring,
with hard work and; labour. It should not be made a profession or means of

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profession. If education is acquired on its own merit naturally the students will
try to achieve true and healthy knowledge with all their sincerity and thus will
be truly learned men. Those who acquire knowledge for the purpose of gaining
some job they in fact, gain only certificates and are deprived of true knowledge.
Such kind of education does not bring any change or progress in their life. They
take education as means and thus lose its real significance. Addressing a press
conference, Azad stressed the importance of quality of individuals composing a
society. He saids "Not only is the existing condition of society determined by
the quality of individuals composing it but its future as well. Nothing has a
more important bearing on the quality of the individual than the type of
education imparted."
On his becoming Minister of Education for the Union Government of
India, Azad tried his level best to reform educational system and institutions in
India. Azad knew well that the prevalent system of education at that time was
shaped by foreigners in their interests. Its chief aim was to create such Indians
who in their outlook and loyalty would be devoted to the interests of the Great
Britain. Though Azad was not unaware of the great services the system
rendered to the Indian people, he emphasized on reforms in the post
independence period. He opposed all forms of narrowness in education. In the
advancements of nations, he considered, there is no greater hindrance than
narrow-mindedness. Therefore, he appealed the nation to keep free from this
disease in the new era of independence as there is no other disease so
dangerous for the healthy growth of national life. Azad was conscious of its
implications in, every field of thought and action. 'Like an actor it
masquerades in disguise. In the domain of religion it appears in the form of
blind faith and wants to deceive us in the name of orthodoxy. In politics it

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wants to overpower us in the guise of nationalism. In learning and culture it

makes an appeal to us in the name of our nation and country. It behaves us not
to be taken in by the fictitious names. We must remember that the root cause of
all this is nothing but narrow mindedness.

Aims of Education

Maulana Azad did not favoured the type of education which aims at
material gains. According to him, “the real aim of education is the harmonious
development of the individual and good personality built. His educational
policy includes:
1. Compulsory education for children of 6 to 14 years of age.
2. Social education for illiterate adults.
3. Standard higher education.
4. Art education for the development and preservation of national culture
and
5. Education of science and technology for the complete development of
the country.
Maulana Azad was the first Education minister of free India for over a
decade (from 15th of January, 1947 to February, 1957). He endeavoured to
transform the department of education, into a full-fledged Ministry for the
purpose of “providing leadership in the whole field of education and culture”.
He took the opportunity to actualize his own ideas on educational reform in
the country. He worked hard to bring his community in line with the national
upsurge which finally set the stage for the programme of national
reconstruction on a sound basis. Azad advocated four important objectives of
education for their countrymen. These are: i) Democratization of Education,

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ii) Maintenance of Educational Standards, iii) Broadening of Educational

Outlook and iv) Promotion of Mutual understanding. These are explained as:
1. Democratization of Education: Maulana Azad advocated about
equalizing educational opportunities in Indian society. He felt that our
general masses suffer from class discrimination and caste disabilities. In
this regard he held state responsible for providing every individual as
the means of ‘ the acquisition of knowledge and self-betterment. He also
pleaded that the expansion in educational facilities will lead to the
liquidation of centuries old caste and class barriers and sex prejudices.
Azad tried his level best in framing the official policy of instituting
special stipends and scholarships for students coming from backward
classes. Besides, extending educational facilities to weaker sex was
equally stressed by Azad. This, according to Azad, will eradicate the
sense of social discrimination in the country. In one of his press
conferences ( 31st May 1948), he remarked, “if women take to education,
more than half our problems will be solved. Educated mothers will
mean children who can be easily made literate”. In his outlook, the
education of women is doubly purposeful: i) they need to be educated as
citizens of our country, ii) to educate them will facilitate in educating
the younger generation.
Azad further advocated that democratization of education is
possible if national language is used as the media of education. After
taking over as the Education Minister, declared the gradual replacement
of English by the languages of the people.
2. Maintenance of Educational Standards: Maulana Azad emphasized for
an unprecedented expansion in education so that the demands of

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democracy are met out. He advocated the idea of promoting the

standards of learning for intellectual excellence. His proposal of raising
the standards necessitated an educational strategy of the wider scope
which did not in any way interfere with his proposal of universalizing
education in the country. He in categorical terms did not favour
universal enrolment in the higher seats of learning. He further
advocated that we should not enter the universities to secure
qualifications for employment. Universities must attract for knowledge.
The essence of the maintenance of educational standards is possible if
we adhere the principle of demand and supply. Therefore, universities
are to restrict their admission by adjusting, “the facilities to the needs of
the society”.
3. Broadening of Educational Outlook: Azad firmly believed that
education must ensure the service of multi dimensional advancement.
He recommended for the formulation of a new educational guideline
which contributes in broadening its scope at various stages of
education: Basic, Secondary and University. In this regard Azad
appreciated the Basic pattern of education as the sound system of
primary education in India. This pattern will have the spirit of, “co-
operative action for social good”.
4. Promotion of Mutual Understanding: Maulana Azad is considered as
an apostle of international amity. Before taking over the responsibility as
the first Education Minister of free India ,he expressed his unflinching
faith in the essential unity of man, holding it above all other objectives of
human life such as religious salvation, economic prosperity, cultural
advancement and political emancipation. In order to understand the

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philosophy of universalism Azad found support both in Islamic and

Hindu world views. He interpreted Islam as a message of love and
brotherhood, transcending all the considerations of “race, community,
language and land”. Azad is seen to have observed, “the sense of
kinship with the whole world” as the essence of Indian culture and
perhaps “ its greatest contribution to the world.

Salient Features of Educational Philosophy of Azad

1. Not Extreme Ways: Azad warned the students to be at guards against

extremes. 'Man is always inclined to go to extremes in realms of thought
and action. It is very seldom that he steers a middle course, and it is
where he stumbles. He is like the watch of which the regulator has gone
wrong. It goes either too fast or too slow. It never keeps right time. This
habit of extremism leaves no room for them to adjust in the changed
circumstances and they cannot go atfead with the time.
2. Syllabus and Scheme of Education: In a letter to Maulvi Mohiuddin,
Azad has given an outline of the scheme of education. The letter was
written from Ranchi during internment. Azad has mentioned in the
letter that the Director of Bengal in order to reform the educational
system in high school Calcutta asked Maulvi Addullah Bari Tonki to
prepare a detft for the reforms. Azad, perhaps, was a member of the
sub-committee. He prepared a scheme of education with notes and sent
them to the Director of Education, Bengal This should have happened
in 191B. In the letter Azad has given a brief sketch of the scheme. The
period of education was sixteen years including three years for degree.
High school education was divided into two parts. Junior classes and

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senior classes; eight years for Junior classes and five years for senior
classes. Junior classes programme included two years for infants
education. Thus the whole system was as follows-
1. Infants classes - two years course
2. Junior classes or middle classes - six years
3. Senior classes or higher secondary - five years
4. Degree classes - three years, and then
5. University education.
Syllabus was also discussed in the above letter. It was prepared for a
private school. Religious education was a part of the syllabus. This trend
of imparting religious educations to the students by the state, was not
only retained but also advocated by Azad, even in post-independence
era.
3. Right to Education: Azad believed that every individual has a natural
right to achieve education that would enable him to develop his
faculties of body and mind and live a full human life. It was not the
privilege of a few, who could afford it. Hence it was the duty of the state
to provide education to its citizens. 'A state cannot claim to have
discharged its duty till it has provided for every single individual the
means to the acquisition of knowledge and self betterment.' The
minimum standard which a state should provide to its citizens is upto
the secondary stage. Every citizen 'unconditionally and without
qualifications' must be entitled to receive education upto this standard.
Azad was convinced that regardless of the question of employment, the
state must make available to all citizens the facilities of education upto
the secondary stage. Azad has especially stressed the importance of the

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primary and elementary education. If the foundation was weak or

wrongly laid, the rest of the educational structure was bound to be
defective and faulty.
4. Demand and Supply: Regarding the higher education, the needs and
demands of society must be kept in view, Azad was aware that any
maladjustment between demand and supply at this stage would create
problems which the state must at all costs seek to avoid. It should be
according to the number of qualified persons required by the society. If
their number increases, obviously, it will create a havoc problem for the
society and the Government both. At this stage Azad recommended
education with some objective. Education for degree's sake was waste of
national time, energy and money. Any deviation from correlation in
demand and supply in the field of education might lead to social crisis,
as actually it did. One may not agree with the principle of demand and
supply in the field of education, however the problem is concerned with
the structure of society and it depends upon the approach of society
how to solve it. Azad viewed: "If the supply is less than the demand, the
progress of society is impeded; if it is more, there is unemployment,"
Hence restriction on supply. Azad also criticised the compulsory
condition of university degree for Government service. Everybody runs
after this passport to employment, and the very objective of education is
suppressed.To avoid unfortunate consequences, Azad suggested to
reorganise the system of education in such a way that majority of our
people, having passed through the secondary stage are able to engage
themselves in the various professions, industries, handicrafts, etc., and

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only a small number which is considered adequate to the needs of

society, go on to the universities for higher education.
5. Religious Education: As it has been mentioned above, after the
independence of India the education department was put under the
stewardship of Azad. The Government decided to adopt new
educational measures with new determination and approach. In
connection with the scheme of the Basic Education the question of
religious instruction had cropped in the dismissions of the committees
and boards pondering over the new educational scheme. Azad, though
aware of the secular system of education in European countries, was of
the view that religious education should be imparted in Government
institutions so that the students should be saved from the narrow
religious education which they are imparted privately by their parents
or narrow and communal educational institutions which feel no
responsibility of them towards nation or the country. Azad held a
different view from his other colleagues. In his presidential speech at the
fourteenth session of the Central Advisory Board of Education, 'Our
present difficulties, unlike those of Europe, are not creations of
materialistic zealous but of religious fanatics; If we want to overcome
them, the solution lies not in rejecting religious instruction in elementary
stages but in imparting sound and healthy religious education under
our direct supervision so that misguided credulism may not affect the
children in their plastic stage. Azad knew it well that millions of Indians
would not like to see that their children are brought up in an unreligious
atmosphere, and if the Government imparted only secular education,
naturally the people would provide religious education to their children

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through private sources. For imparting religious education 'they would

employ uneducated but literate teachers privately whom religion meant
nothing but bigotry. Their method of education had no scope for broad
and liberal outlook, and the children would 'not be able to drive out the
ideas infused into them, in their early stage, whatever modern education
may be given to them at a later stage. He suggested that in order to
safeguard the intellectual life of the country against this danger, it
became 'all the more necessary for us not to leave the imparting of early
religious education to private sources.
We should rather take it under our direct care and super vision.
He reminded that the first responsibility of the National Government
was to mould the growing mind of the nation on the right lines. In
India, we cannot have an intellectual mould without religion.
6. Medium of Instruction: The most controversial issue the Education
Department had to face immediately after the independence was the
medium of instruction. However, Azad was quite clear in his mind
about the issue. The mother tongue was the only medium to begin with
land slowly the medium could be switched over to the regional
language in the higher studies. As backras in 1947 he was sure that the
Indian languages had attained the development where they can serve as
the medium of instruction upto the highest stages, and that all education
in the land must be accessible to the people in their own language. In
December 1947 suggested the following formula:-
1. Regional languages should be the medium of instruction
throughout.

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2. A time-limit of five years should be fixed to start imparting all

branches of higher education through our own regional
languages.
3. In order to keep ourselves in direct touch with the
achievements of Europe and America a large section of our
people will have to depend on English.
In another speech he further explained his views on the topic, that
two things were certain: First that in future English could not remain the
medium of instruction. Secondly, whatever the change might be in this
direction, it should not be sudden but gradual so far as higher education
was concerned. He suggested that the status quo might be preserved for
five years with a provision made by the Universities for the coming
change.
English being foreign language to our students, they were greatly
handicapped by having it as the medium of, instruction. But in one
sense it had greatly benefitted India, Azad viewed. All the educated
people in the country thought and expressed themselves in the same
language. It cemented the national unity. It was such a great boon to us
that had it not been fundamentally wrong to impart education through a
foreign language Azad should have advocated its, retention as the
medium of instruction. Instead he pleaded national language. 'If only
till recently a Madras! or Punjabi or a Bengalee felt no difficulty in
receiving education through a foreign language, why he should be
handicapped if he were to be educated through one of the Indian
languages. If instead of English we adopt an Indian language, we shall
certainly be able to retain the same intellectual unity with, which was

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created for us by the English language. But if we fail to substitute an

Indian language for English our intellectual unity will certainly be
affected.'
Azad declared it in unequivocal terms that there was no place for
English as a medium of instruction in future but at the same time he was
aware of that precipitation in switching over to the medium might
damage the cause of education. The replacement of English as a medium
of Instruction should be gradual and stage by stage so that there would
be the least possible interruption or interference with the process of
education in the country.
7. Education and Employment: Azad was quite clear on the issue of
employment. He had expressed it in unequivocal terms that education is
not the means of earning or money making. It is true that education
should be according to the needs of society. Our educational system had
been proved unable to make the adjustments between their education
and their needs. The result was that the unemployment problem in the
country took a dangerous turn. Azad traced out that the reason for such
an Imbalance was that previously there was no National Government in
India. The foreign Government looked more to their own needs than the
needs of the country. The motto of education them, was to prepare a
military of government personnel obedient and faithful to the
Government and not to the nation. The system of education was,
therefore, based on the 'providing higher education needs for the
training of such personnel.
At the beginning of the post independent era the unemployment
problem was becoming and still is becoming more acute. Azad observed that 'if

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the result of education is to create a situation where society is not able to utilise
the services of the educated there is obviously some defect which must be
remedied. He, therefore, laid special emphasis on technical education, but as
there was no clear picture of how the industries would develop in the country,
it was evident that even technically trained hands might have no work to do.
Such state of affairs were bound to result in dissatisfaction in society and
frustration among youths. In this context.

Let Us Sum Up

Maulana Azad was a patriot, a leader, a philosopher-statesman and a

scholar of repute. By a profound learning and “luminous intelligence" he did a
real good job for Islam, by clearing it of the dust of prejudice and bigotry
which had gathered up on it during the eleven hundred years of its history in
India. He was a rightful inheritor of all the thought movements of the past. In
the unfolding of his intellectual life and in the evolution of his thought, we
find staged the whole history of Islamic thought. He was one of the very few
acquainted with the philosophies of India and had deep insight into the
various religions of the world and could isolate the real and essential from the
spurious.
The first Prime Minister of our country Pandit Nehru in one of his
speeches said about Azad, “…..He was great in many ways. He combined in
himself the greatness of the past with the greatness of the present. He always
reminded me of the great men of several hundred years ago about whom I
have read in history, the great men of the Renaissance, or in a later period the
encyclopaedists who proceeded the French Revolution, men of intellect and
men of action. He remembered also of what might be called the great quality

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of olden days - the graciousness which we sadly seek in the world today….It
was the strange and unique of the good qualities of the past, the graciousness,
the deep learning and toleration and the urges of today which made Maulana
Azad what he was.” Rajagopalachari considered Azad as “one who represents
the keen understanding and synthetic ideology of the great Akbar."
Rajagopalachari had all praise for Azad's liberal outlook. His devotion to
Indian National Movements was the result of the new religious awakening. It
was out of his deep understanding of the fundamentals of Islamic thought that
he was able to question Pakistan's religious basis itself. Azad wrote in India
Wins Freedom, “It is one of the greatest frauds on the people to suggest that
religious affinity can unite areas which are geographically, economically,
linguistically and culturally different.”
On February 22, 1958 the Nation mourned the death of this
distinguished scholar, philosopher and statesman who had the courage of
conviction to preach unity of mankind, at a time when religion was used by
fanatic elements to separate man from man and ideals of nationalism were
used to separate nations from nations. Announcing his death in the Parliament
Jawaharlal Nehru said, “We mourn today the passing of a great man, a man of
luminous intelligence and mighty intellect with an amazing capacity to pierce
through a problem to its core. The word ‘luminous’ is perhaps the best word I
can use about his mind. When we part with such a companion, friend,
colleague, comrade, leader and teacher, there is inevitably a tremendous void
created in our life and activities.” Recently Ministry of Human Resource
Development celebrated the National Education Day on 11, Nov 2010 to
commemorate the exceptional contribution of veteran freedom fighter and
academic par excellence Abdul Kalam , to the Indian education system. On

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this occasion, Sh Ansari (vice-President of India) recalled the contribution of

Molana and quoted Maulana Azad , who had said.
“ The course of modern independent India was guided by his firm belief that
the democracy can not function while its citizen remained illiterates’.

Check Your Progress

• Discuss in detail the scheme of education as envisaged by Maulana Abul
Kalam Azad?
• Discuss the relevance of Azad’s educational policy to modern education
though and practice?
• Trace out the basic postulates of education as advocated by Maulana
Abul Kalam Azad?

Suggested Readings

1. Aggarwal, A. K. (2005). Development of Education System in India. Anmol

Publication Pvt. Ltd.
2. Altekar, A.S. (1943). Education in Ancient India, New Delhi, Motilal
Banarsidass.
3. MHRD, (December 2010) The Newsletter on Higher Education available at
www.education.nic.in
4. Saini, S .K. (1993). Development of Education System in India. Cosmo
publishers New Delhi
5. Walia, J.S. (2003). Development of Education System in India. Paul publishers.

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