THE

HISTORY OF ANIMALS
BY
ARISTOTLE
BOOK 1

1.

Of the parts of animals, some are simple, such as dividing into parts uniform with themselves, as flesh into flesh; others are
composite, such as dividing into parts not uniform with themselves, as, for instance, the hand does not divide into hands nor the
face into faces.

And of such things as these, some are called not parts merely, but limbs or members. Such are those parts that, while entire in
themselves, have within themselves other diverse parts, such as, for instance, the head, foot, hand, the arm as a whole, and the
chest; for these are all in themselves entire parts, and there are other diverse parts belonging to them.

All those parts that do not subdivide into parts uniform with themselves are composed of parts that do so subdivide; for instance,
the hand is composed of flesh, sinews, and bones. Of animals, some resemble one another in all their parts, while others have parts
wherein, they differ. Sometimes the parts are identical in form or species, as, for instance, one man's nose or eye resembles
another man's nose or eye, flesh flesh, and bone bone; and in like manner with a horse, and with all other animals which we
reckon to be of one and the same species, for as the whole is to the whole, so each to each are the parts severally. In other cases,
the parts are identical, save for a difference in the way of excess or defect, as is the case in such cases as being of the same genus.
By 'genus' I mean, for instance, bird or fish, for each of these is subject to difference in respect of its genus, and there are many
species of fish and birds.

Within the limits of genera, most of the parts as a rule exhibit differences through contrast of the property or accident, such as
color and shape, to which they are subject: in that some are more and some in a lesser degree the subject of the same property or
accident; and also, in the way of multitude or fewness, magnitude or parvitude, in short in the way of excess or defect.

Thus, in some cases, the texture of the flesh is soft; in others, it is firm; and some have a long bill, others a short one; some have
an abundance of feathers, and others have only a small quantity. It happens further that some have parts that others do not; for
instance, some have spurs and others do not; some have crests and others do not; but as a general rule, most parts and those that
make up the bulk of the body are either identical with one another or differ from one another in the way of contrast, excess, and
defect. For 'the more' and 'the less' may be represented as 'excess' or 'defect'.

Once again, we may have to do with animals whose parts are neither identical in form nor yet identical, save for differences in the
way of excess or defect, but they are the same only in the way of analogy, as, for instance, bone is only analogous to fish-bone,
nail to hoof, hand to claw, and scale to feather; for what the feather is in a bird, the scale is in a fish.

The parts, then, which animals severally possess are diverse from, or identical with, one another in the fashion above described.
And they are so furthermore in the way of local disposition: for many animals have identical organs that differ in position; for
instance, some have teats in the breast, others close to the thighs.

Of the substances that are composed of parts uniform (or homogeneous) with themselves, some are soft and moist, others are dry
and solid. The soft and moist are such either absolutely or so long as they are in their natural conditions, as, for instance, blood,
serum, lard, suet, marrow, sperm, gall, milk in such as flesh and the like; and also, in a different way, the superfluities, as phlegm
and the excretions of the belly and the bladder. The dry and solid are such things as sinew, skin, vein, hair, bone, gristle, nail, and
horn (a term that, as applied to the part, involves ambiguity since the whole also, by virtue of its form, is designated horn), and
such parts as present an analogy to these.

Animals differ from one another in their modes of subsistence, in their actions, in their habits, and in their parts. Concerning these
differences, we shall first speak in broad and general terms, and subsequently, we shall treat the same with close reference to each
particular genus.

Differences are manifested in modes of subsistence, in habits, and in actions performed. For instance, some animals live in water
and others on land. And of those that live in water, some do so in one way and some in another; that is to say, some live and feed
in the water, take in and emit water, and cannot live if deprived of water, as is the case with the great majority of fish; others get
their food and spend their days in the water, but do not take in water but air, nor do they bring forth in the water. Many of these
creatures are furnished with feet, as the otter, the beaver, and the crocodile; some are furnished with wings, as the diver and the
grebe; and some are destitute of feet, as the water snake. Some creatures get their living in the water and cannot exist outside it,
but for all that do not take in either air or water, as, for instance, the sea-nettles and the oyster, and of the creatures that live in the
water, some live in the sea, some in rivers, some in lakes, and some in marshes, such as the frog and the newt.

Of animals that live on dry land, some take in air and emit it, which phenomena are termed 'inhalation' and 'exhalation', as, for
instance, man and all such land animals as are furnished with lungs. Others, again, do not inhale air yet live and find their
sustenance on dry land, as, for instance, the wasp, the bee, and all other insects. And by 'insects' I mean such creatures as have
nicks or notches on their bodies, either on their bellies or on both backs and bellies.
And of land animals, many, as has been said, derive their subsistence from the water; but of creatures that live in and inhale water,
not a single one derives its subsistence from dry land.

Some animals at first live in water, and by and by they change their shape and live out of water, as is the case with river worms,
for out of these the gadfly develops.

Furthermore, some animals are stationary, and some are erratic. Some animals are found in water, but no such creature is found on
dry land. In the water are many creatures that live in close proximity to an external object, as is the case with several kinds of
oysters. And, by the way, the sponge appears to be endowed with a certain sensibility, as a proof of which it is alleged that the
difficulty in detaching it from its moorings is increased if the movement to detach it is not covertly applied.

Other creatures adhere at one time to an object and detach themselves from it at other times, as is the case with a species of the so-
called sea nettle, for some of these creatures seek their food at night loose and unattached.

Many creatures are unattached but motile, as is the case with oysters and the so-called holothuria. Some can swim, such as, for
instance, fish, mollusks, and crustaceans, such as the crawfish. But some of these last moves by walking, like the crab, for it is the
nature of the creature, though it lives in water, to move by walking.

Of land animals, some are furnished with wings, such as birds and bees, and these are furnished in different ways from one
another; others are furnished with feet. Of the animals that are furnished with feet, some walk, some creep, and some wriggle. But
no creature is able only to move by flying, as the fish is able only to swim, for the animals with leather wings can walk; the bat
has feet, and the seal has imperfect feet.

Some birds have feet of little power and are therefore called apodes. This little bird is powerful on the wing, and, as a rule, birds
that resemble it are weak-footed and strong-winged, such as the swallow and the drepanis or Alpine swift, for all these birds
resemble one another in their habits and in their plumage and may easily be mistaken one for another. (The apus is to be seen at all
seasons, but the drepanis only after rainy weather in summer; for this is the time when it is seen and captured, though, as a general
rule, it is a rare bird.)

Again, some animals move by walking on the ground as well as by swimming in water.

Furthermore, the following differences are manifest in their modes of living and in their actions: Some are gregarious, some are
solitary; if so, they may be furnished with feet or wings or fitted for a life in the water, and some partake of both characters, the
solitary and the gregarious. And of the gregarious, some are disposed to combine for social purposes, others to live each for its
own sake.

Gregarious creatures are among birds such as the pigeon, the crane, and the swan, and, by the way, no bird furnished with crooked
talons is good for us. Of the creatures that live in water, many kinds of fish are referred to as the so-called migrants: the tunny, the
pelamys, and the bonita.

Man, by the way, presents a mixture of the two characters, the gregarious and the solemn.

Social creatures have at least one common object in common, and this property is not common to all creatures that are gregarious.
Such social creatures are man, the bee, the wasp, the ant, and the crane.

Again, of these social creations, some submit to a ruler; others are subject to no governance, such as the crane and several sorts of
bees.

submit to a ruler, whereas ants and numerous other creatures are all his own masters.

And again, both of us and of so many other animals, so many of us are attached to a fixed home and others are erratic or nomad.

Also, some are carnivorous, some graminivorous, and some omnivorous; while some feed on a peculiar diet, as, for instance, the
bees and the spiders, for the bee lives on honey and certa in other sweets, and the spider lives by catching flies; and some creatures
live on fish. Again, some creatures catch their food; others treasure it up, whereas others do not.

Some creatures provide themselves with a dwelling; others go without one. Of the former kind are the mole, the mouse, the ant,
and the bee; of the latter kind are many insects and quadrupeds. Further, with respect to the locality of their dwelling place, some
creatures dwell under the ground, such as the lizard and the snake; others live on the surface of the ground, such as the house and
the dog. make to themselves holes, others do not.

Some are nocturnal, like the owl and the bat; others live in the daylight.

Moreover, some creatures are tame and some are wild: some are at all times tame, as man and the mule; others are at all times
savage, as the leopard and the wolf; and some creatures can be rapidly tamed, as the elephant.

Again, we may regard animals in another light. For whenever a race of animals is domesticated, the same is always to be found in
a wild condition, as we find to be the case with horses, kine, swine, men, sheep, goats, and dogs.
Further, some animals emit sound while others are mute, and some are endowed with voice; of these latter, some have articulated
speech while others are inarticulate; some are given to continual chirping and twittering; some are prone to silence; some are
musical, and some are unmusical; but all animals, without exception, exercise their power of singing or chattering chiefly in
connection with the intercourse of the sexes.

Again, some creatures live in the fields, as the cushat; some on the mountains, as the hoopoe; and some frequent the abodes of
men, as the pigeon.

Some, again, are peculiarly salacious, as the partridge, the barn-door cock, and their congeners; others are inclined to chastity, as
the whole tribe of crows, for birds of this kind indulge but rarely in sexual intercourse.

Of marine animals, again, some live in the open seas, some near the shore, and some on rocks.

Furthermore, some are combative on offense; others are provident for defense. Of the former kind, they act as aggressors upon
others or retaliate when subjected to ill usage, and of the latter kind, they merely have some means of guarding themselves against
attack.

Animals also differ from one another in regard to character in the following respects: some are good-tempered, sluggish, and little
prone to ferocity, as the ox; others are quick-tempered, ferocious, and unteachable, as the wild boar; some are intelligent and
timid, as the stag and the hare; others are mean and treacherous, as the snake; others are noble and courageous and high-bred, as
the lion; others are thorough-bred and wild and treacherous, as the wolf; for, by the way, an animal is high-bred if it comes from a
noble stock, and an animal is t horo ugh-bred if it does not deflect from its racial characteristics.

Further, some are crafty and mischievous, as the fox; some are spirited and affectionate and fawning, as the dog; others are easy-
tempered and easily domesticated, as the elephant; others are cautious and watchful, as the goose; others are jealous and self-
conceited, as the peacock. But of all animals, man alone is capable of deliberation.

Many animals have memory and are capable of instruction, but no other creature except man can recall the past at will.

With regard to the several genera of animals, particulars as to their habits of life and modes of existence will be discussed more
fully by and by.

2.

Common to all animals are the organs whereby they take food and the organs wherein they take it, and these are either identical
with one another or are diverse in the ways above specified: to wit, either identical in form, varying in respect of excess or defect,
resembling one another analogically, or differing in position.

Furthermore, the great majority of animals have other organs besides these in common, whereby they discharge the residue of
their food. I say the great majority, for this statement does not apply to all. And, by the way, the organ whereby food is taken in is
called the mouth, and the organ whereinto it is taken is the belly; the remainder of the alimentary system has a great variety of
names.

Now the residuum of food is twofold in kind, wet and dry, and such creatures as have organs receptive to wet residuum are
invariably found with organs receptive to dry residuum; but such creatures as have organs receptive to dry residuum need not
possess organs receptive to wet residuum. In other words, an animal has a bowel or intestine if it has a bladder, but an animal may
have a bowel and be without a bladder. And, by the way, I may here remark that the organ receptive of wet residuum is termed
'bladder', and the organ receptive of dry residuum is 'intestine or 'bowel'.

3.

Of animals and humans, a great many have, besides the organs above-mentioned, an organ for excretion of the sperm, and of
animals and humans, one secretes into another and the other into itself. The latter is termed 'female', and the former'male'', but
some animals are neither male nor female. Consequently, the organs connected with this function differ in form, for some animals
have a womb and others have an organ analogous thereto. The above-mentioned organs, then, are the most indispensable parts of
animals, and with some of them, all animals without exception, and with others, animals for the most part, must be provided.

One sense, and one alone, is common to all animals—the sense of touch.

Consequentially, there is no special name for the organ in which it has its seat, for in some groups of imals the organ is identical;
in others it is only analogous.
4.

Every animal is supplied with moisture, and if the animal is deprived of the same by natural causes or artificial means, death
ensues. Further, every animal has a part in which the moisture is contained. These parts are blood and vein, and in other animals
there is something to correspond; but in this latte, the parts are imperfect, being merely fiber and serum or lymph.

Touch has its seat in a part uniform and homogeneous, as in the flesh or something of the kind, and generally, with animals
supplied with blood, in the parts charged with blood. In other animals, it has its seat in parts analogous to the parts charged with
blood, but in all cases, it is seated in parts that, in their texture, are homogeneous.

The active faculties, on the contrary, are seated in the parts that are heterogeneous, as, for instance, the business of preparing the
food is seated in the mouth and the office of locomotion in the feet, the wings, or in organs to correspond.

Again, some animals are supplied with blood, such as man, the horse, and all such animals as are, when full-grown, either
destitute of feet, two-footed, or four-footed; other animals are bloodless, such as the bee and the wasp; and marine animals, the
cuttlefish, the crawfish, and all such animals as have more than four feet.

5.

Again, some animals are viviparous, others oviparous, others vermiparous, or 'rub-bearing'. Some are viviparous, such as man, the
horse, the seal, and all other animals that are ir-coated, and of marine animals, the cetaceans, such as the dolphin, and the so-called
Selachia. (Of these latter animals, some have a tubular air passage and no gills, as the dolphin and the whale: the dolphin with the
air passage going through its back, the whale with the air passage in its forehead; others have uncovered red gills, as the Selachia,
the sharks, and the rays.)

What we term an egg is a certain complete result of concept, out of which the animal is to be developed in such a way that, with
respect to its primary germ, it comes from only part of the egg, while the rest serves as food as the germ develops. A 'grub', on the
other hand, is a thing out of which, in its entirety, the animal in its entirety develops through the differentiation and growth of the
embryo.

Of viviparous animals, some hatch eggs in their own interior, as creatures of the shark kind; others engender in their interior a live
fetus, as man and the horse. When the result of conception is perfected, with some animals a living creature is brought forth, with
others an egg is brought to light, and with others a grub. Of the eggs, some have eggshells and are of two different species within,
such as birds' eggs; others are soft-skinned and of uniform.

as the eggs of animals of the shark kind. Of the grubs, some are from the first generation capable of moving, and others are
motionless. However, with regard to these phenomena, we shall speak precisely hereafter when we come to treat Generation.

Furthermore, some animals have feet, and some are destitute thereof. Of those that have feet, some animals have two, as is the
case with men and birds, and with men and birds only; some have four, as the lizard and the dog; some have more, as the
centipede and the bee; but all those that have feet have an even number of them.

Of swimming creatures that are destitute of feet, some have winglets or fins, as fishes; and of these, some have four fins, two
above on the back and two below on the belly, as the gilt head and the basse; some have only two, to wit, such as the eel and the
conger; some have none at all, as the muraena, but use the sea just as snakes use dry ground; and by the way, snakes swim in
water in just the same way. Of the shark-kind, some have no fins, such as those that are flat and long-tailed, such as the ray and
the sting-ray, but these fish swim actually by the undulatory motion of their flat bodies; the fishing frog, however, has fins, and so
likewise have all such fishes as have not had their flat surfaces thinned off to a sharp edge.

Of those swimming creatures that appear to have feet, as is the case with the mollusks, these creatures swim by the aid of their feet
and their fins as well, and they swim most rapidly backwards in the direction of the trunk, as is the case with the cuttlefish or sepia
and the calamary; and, by the way, neither of these latter can walk as the poulpe or octopus can.

The hard-skinned or crustaceous animals, like the crawfish, swim by the instrumentality of their tail-parts, and they swim most
rapidly, tail foremost, with the aid of the fins developed upon that member. The newt swims by means of its feet and tail, and its
tail resembles that of the sheatfish, to compare little with great.

Of the animals that can fly, some are furnished with feathered wings, as the hawk; some are furnished with membranous wings, as
the bee and the cockchafer; others are furnished with leather wings, as the flying fox and the bat. All flying creatures possessed of
blood have feathered wings or leathern wings; the bloodless creatures have membranous wings, as insects. The creatures that have
feathered wings or leather wings have either two feet or no feet at all, for there are said to be certain flying serpents in Ethiopia
that are destitute of feet.
Creatures that have feathered wings are classified as a genus under the name of 'bird'; the other two genera, the leather-winged and
membrane-winged, are as yet without a generic title.

Of creatures that can fly and are bloodless, some are coleopterous or sheath winged, for they have their wings in a sheath or shard,
like the cockchafer and the dung-beetle; others are sheath less, and of these latter, some are dipterous and some tetrapetalous, such
as are comparatively large or have their stings in the tail, dipterous, such as are or have their stings in front. The coleoptera are,
with the exception of the Petra, devoid of stings; the Diptera have the sting in front, as do the fly, the humming fly, the gad fly,
and the gnat.

Bloodless animals, as a general rule, are inferior in point of size to blooded animals; though, by the way, they are found in the sea,
so there are a few bloodless creatures of abnormal size, as in the case of carta in mollusks. And of these bloodless genera, those
are the ones that dwell in milder climates, and those that inhabit the sea are larger than those living on dry land or in fresh water.

All creatures that are capable of motion move with four or more points of motion; the blooded animals with four only, such as, for
instance, man with two hands and two feet; birds with two wings and two feet; quadrupeds and fish with severally four feet and
four fins. Creatures that have two

winglets or fins, or that have none at all like serpents, move all the same with not less than four points of motion, for there are four
bends in their bodies as they move, or two bends together with their fins. Bloodless and many footed animals, whether they are
furnished with wings or feet, move with more than four points of motion; for instance, the dayfly moves with four feet and four
wings; and, as I may observe in passing, this creature is exceptional not only in regard to the duration of its existence, whence it
derives its name, but also because, though a quadruped, it has wings also.

All animals move alike, four-footed and many-footed; in other words, they all move cross-corner-wise. And animals in general
have two feet in advance; the crab alone has four.

6.

Very extensive genera of animals, into which other subdivisions fall, are the following: one, of birds; one, of fishes; and another,
of cetaceans. Now all these creatures are blooded.

There is another genus of the hard-shell kind, which is called oyster; another of the soft-shell kind, not as yet designated by a
single term, such as the spiny crawfish and the various kinds of crabs and lobsters; and another of mollusks, as the two kinds of
calamary and the cuttlefish; that of insects is different. All these latter creatures are bloodless, and such of them as have feet have a
good number of them; and of the insects, some have wings as well as feet.

Of the other animals, the genera are not extensive. For in them one species does not comprehend many species; but in one case, as
man, the species is simple, admitting of no differentiation, while other cases admit of differentiation, but the forms lack particular
designations.

So, for instance, creatures that are quadrupedal and unprovided with wings are blooded without exception, but some of them are
viviparous and some are oviparous. Such as are viviparous are hair-coated, and such as are oviparous are covered with a kind of
tessellated hard substance, and the tessellated bits of this substance are, as it were, similar in regard to position to a scale.

An animal that is blooded and capable of movement on dry land but is naturally unprovided with feet belongs to the serpent
genus, and animals of this genus are coated with the tessellated horny substance. Serpents in general are oviparous; the adder, an
exceptional case, is viviparous, for not all viviparous animals are hair-coated, and some fish are also viviparous.

All animals, however, that are hair-coated are viviparous. For, by the way, one must regard as a kind of hair such prickly hairs as
hedgehogs and porcupines carry; for these spines perform the office of hair and not of feet, as is the case with similar parts of sea-
urchins.

In the genus that combines all viviparous quadrupeds, there are many species, but there is no common appellation. They are only
named as it were one by one, as we say man, lion, stag, horse, dog, and so on; though, by the way, there is a sort of genus that
embraces all creatures that have bushy manes and bushy tails, such as the horse, the ass, the mule, the jennet, and the animals that
are called Hemione Syria, from their externally resembling mules, though they are not strictly of the same species. And that they
are not so is proved by the fact that they mate with and breed from one another. For all these reasons, we must take animals
species by species and discuss their peculiarities severally.

These preceding statements, then, have been put forward in a general way, as a kind of foretaste of the number of subjects and of
the properties that we have to consider in order that we may first get a clear notion of distinctive character and common
properties. By and by, we shall discuss these matters with greater minuteness.
After this, we shall pass on to the discussion of causes. To do this when the investigation of the details is complete is the proper
and natural method, and the subjects and the premises of our argument will afterwards be rendered plain.

In the first place, we must listen to the constituent parts of animals. For it is in a way relative to these parts, first and foremost, that
animals in their entirety differ from one another: either in the fact that some have this or that, while they have not that or this; or
by peculiarities of position or of arrangement; or by the differences that have been previously mentioned, depending upon
diversity of form, or excess or defect in this or that particular, on analogy, or on contrasts of the accidental qualities.

To begin with, we must take into consideration the parts of man. For just as each nation is wont to reckon by that monetary
standard with which it is most familiar, so must we do in other matters. And, of course, man is the animal with which we are all
most familiar.

Now the parts are obvious enough for physical perception. However, with the view of observing due order and sequence and of
combining rational notions with physical perception, we shall proceed to enumerate the parts: firstly, the organic, and afterwards,
the simple or non-composite.

7.

The chief parts into which the body as a whole is subdivided are the head, the neck, the trunk (extending from the neck to the
privy parts), which is called the thorax, two arms, and two legs.

Of the parts of which the head is composed, the hair-covered portion is called the ‘skull'. The front portion of it is termed 'bregma'
or ‘sinciput', developed after birth—for it is the last of all the bones in the body to acquire solidity—the hinder part is termed the
'occiput', and the part intervening between the sinciput and the occiput is the 'crown'. The brain lies underneath the sinciput; the
occiput is hollow. The skull consists entirely of thin bone, rounded in shape, and contained within a wrapper of flaky skin.

The skull has sutures: one, of circular form, in the case of women; in the case of men, as a general rule, three meeting at a point.
Instances have been known of a man's skull devoid of sutures altogether. In the skull, the middle line, where the hair parts are, is
called the crown or vertex. In some cases, the parting is double; that is to say, some men are double-crowned, not in regard to the
bony skull but in consequence of the double fall or set of the hair.

8.

The part that lies under the skull is called the 'face', but in the case of men only, the term is not applied to a fish or to an ox. In the
face, the part below the sinciput and between the eyes is termed the forehead. When men have large foreheads, they are slow to
move; when they have small ones, they are fickle; when they have broad ones, they are apt to be distraught;

When they have their foreheads rounded or bulging out, they are quick-tempered.

9.

Underneath the forehead are two eyebrows. Straight eyebrows are a sign of softness of disposition, such as a curve toward the
nose, of harshness; a curve out towards the temples, of humor and dissatisfaction; or being drawn in towards one another, of
jealousy.

Under the eyebrows come the eyes. These are, naturally, two in number. Each of them has an upper and a lower eyelid, and the
hairs on the edges of these are termed 'eyelashes'. The central part of the eye includes the moist part whereby vision is affected,
termed the 'pupil', and the part surrounding it called the 'b lac k'; the part outside this is the 'white'. A part common to the upper
and lower eyelids is a pair of nicks or corners, one in the direction of the nose and the other in the direction of the eyelid. When
these are long, they are a sign of bad disposition; if the side toward the nostril is fleshy and comb-like, they are a sign of
dishonesty.

All animals, as a general rule, are provided with eyes, except the ostracoderms and other imperfect creatures; at all events, all
viviparous animals have eyes, with the exception of the mole. And yet one might assert that, though the mole does not have eyes
in the full sense, it does have eyes in a kind of way. For in point of absolute fact, it cannot see and has no eyes visible externally;
but when the outer skin is removed, it is found to have the place where eyes are usually situated, the black parts of the eyes rightly
situated, and all the place that is usually devoted on the outside to eyes, showing that the parts are stunted in every aspect and the
skin allowed to grow over.

10.
Of the eye, the white is pretty much the same in all creatures, but what is called the black differs in various animals. Some have
the rim black, some distinctly blue, some greyish-blue, and some greenish; and this last color is the sign of an excellent disposition
and is particularly well adapted for sharpness of vision. Man is the only, or nearly the only, creature that has eyes of diverse
colors. Animals, as a rule, have eyes of one color only.

Some horses have blue eyes.

Of the eyes, some are large, some are small, and some are medium-sized; of these, the medium-sized are the best. Moreover, eyes
sometimes protrude, sometimes recede, and sometimes are neither protruding nor receding. Of these, the receding eye is in all
animals the most acute, but the last kind is the sign of the best disposition. Again, eyes are sometimes inclined to wink under
observation, sometimes to remain open and staring, and sometimes they are disposed neither to wink nor stare. The last kind is the
sign of the best nature, and of the others, the latter kind indicates impudence and the former is indecision.

11.

Furthermore, there is a portion of the head whereby an animal hears, a part incapable of breathing, the 'ear'. I say 'incapable of
breathing', for Alcmaeon is mistaken when he says that goats inspire through their ears. Of the ear, one part is unnamed; the other
part is called the 'lobe'; and it is entirely composed of gristle and flesh. The ear is constructed internally like the trumpet shell, and
the innermost bone is like the ear itself, and into it at the end the sound makes its way, as into the bottom of a jar. This receptacle
does not communicate by any means with the brain but does so with the palate, and a vein extends from the brain towards it. The
eyes are also connected with the brain, and each of them lies at the end of a little vein. Of animals possessed by ears, man is the
only one that cannot move this organ. Of creatures possessed of hearing, some have ears, while others have none but merely have
the passages for ears visible, as, for example, feathered animals or animals coated with horny tessellates.

Viviparous animals, with the exception of the seal, the dolphin, and those others that, in a similar fashion to these, are cetaceans,
are all provided with ears; for, by the way, the shark-kind are also viviparous. Now, the seal has the passages visible whereby it
hears, but the dolphin can hear but has no ears, nor yet any passages visible. But man, alone is unable to move his ears, and all
other animals can move them. And the ears lie, with man, in the same horizontal plane as the eyes and not in a plane above them,
as is the case with some quadrupeds. Of ears, some are fine, some are coarse, and some are of medium texture; the last kind are
best for hearing, but they serve in no way to indicate character. Some ears are large, some small, and some medium-sized; again,
some stand out far, some lie close and tight, and some take up a medium position; of these, the large and outstanding ones are
indications of the best disposition, while the large and outstanding ones indicate a tendency to irrelevant talk or chattering. The
part intercepted between the eye, the ear, and the crown is termed the 'temp le'. Again, there is a part of the countenance that
serves as a passage for the breath, the 'nose'. A man inhales and exhales through this organ, and sneezing is affected by its means,
which last is an outward rush of collected breath and is the only mode of breath used as an omen and regarded as supernatural.
Both inhalation and exhalation go right on from the nose towards the chest, and with the nostrils alone and separately, it is
impossible to inhale or exhale, owing to the fact that inspiration and respiration take place from the chest along with the windpipe
and not from any portion connected with the head. Indeed, it is possible for a creature to live without using this process of nasal
respiration.

Again, smelling takes place by means of the nose, smelling, or the sensible discrimination of odor. And the nostril admits of easy
motion and is not, like the ear, intrinsically immovable. A part of it, composed of gristle, constitutes a septum or partition, and the
other part is an open passage; the nostril consists of two separate channels. The nostril (or nose) of the elephant is long and strong,
and the animal uses it like a hand, for by means of this organ it draws objects towards it, takes hold of them, and introduces its
food into its mouth, whether liquid or dry food, and it is the only living creature that does so.

Furthermore, there are two jaws: the front part of them contains the chin, and the hind part of the cheek. All mammals move the
lower jaw, with the exception of the river crocodile; this creature moves the upper jaw only.

Next after the nose come two lips, composed of flesh and facile of motion. The mouth lies inside the jaws and lips. Parts of the
mouth are the roof, or palate, and the pharynx.

The part that is sensible of taste is the tongue. The sensation has its seat at the tip of the tongue; if the object to be tasted is placed
on the flat surface of the organ, the taste is less sensibly experienced. The tongue is sensitive in all other ways wherein flesh in
general is so: that is, it can appreciate hardness, warmth, and cold in any part of it, just as it can appreciate taste. The tongue is
sometimes broad, sometimes narrow, and sometimes of medium width; the last kind is the best and the clearest in its
discrimination of taste. Moreover, the tongue is sometimes loosely hanging and sometimes fastened, as in the case of those who
mumble and who lisp.

The tongue consists of flesh, soft and spongy, and the so-called 'epiglottis' is a part of this organ.

That part of the mouth that splits into two bits is called the 'tonsils'; that part that splits into many bits is called the 'gums'. Both the
tonsils and the gums are composed of flesh. In the gums are teeth, composed of bone.
Inside the mouth is another part, shaped like a bunch of grapes—a pillar streaked with veins. If this pillar gets relaxed and
inflamed, it is called 'uvula' or 'bunch of grapes', and it then has a tendency to bring about suffocation.

12.

The neck is the part between the face and the trunk. Of this, the front part is the larynx, and the back part is the the front part,
composed of gristle, through which respiration and speech are affected, is termed the 'windpipe'; the part that is fleshy is the
oesophagus, inside just in front of the chine. The part to the back of the neck is the epomis, or shoulder point'.

These are the parts to be met with before you come to the thorax.

On the trunk, there is a front part and a back part. Next after the neck in the front part is the chest, with a pair of breasts. To each
of the breasts is attached a teat or nipple, through which, in the case of females, the milk percolates, and the breast is of a spongy
texture. Milk, by the way, is found at times in the male, but with the male, the flesh of the breast is tough; with the female, it is
soft and porous.

13.

Next after the thorax and in front comes the 'belly', and its root is the 'navel.' Underneath this root, the bilateral part is the 'flank':
the undivided part below the navel, the 'abdomen', the extremity of which is the region of the 'pubes'; above the navel, the
'hypochondrium'; the cavity common to the hypochondrium; and the flank, the gut cavity.

Serving as a brace girdle to the hinder parts is the pelvis, and hence it gets its name (osphus), for it is symmetrical (isophues) in
appearance; of the fundament, the part for resting on is termed the 'rump', and the part where on the thigh pivots is termed the
‘socket' (or acetabulum).

The 'womb' is a part peculiar to the female, and the 'penis' is peculiar to the male. This latter organ is external and situated at the
extremity of the trunk; it is composed of two separate parts, of which the extreme part is fleshy, does not alter in size, and is called
the glans; and round about it is a skin devoid of any specific title, which, if cut asunder, never grows together again, any more than
does the jaw or the eyelid. And the connection between the latter and the glans is called the frenum. The remaining part of the
penis is composed of gristle; it is easily susceptible to enlargement; and it protrudes and recedes in the opposite directions to what
is observable in the identical organ in cats. Underneath the penis are two 'testicles', and the integument of these is a skin that is
termed the 'scrotum'.

Testicles are not identical with flesh and are not altogether different from it. But by and by, we shall treat them in an exhaustive
way regarding all such parts.

14.

The privy part of the female is in character opposite to that of the male. In other words, the part under the pubes is hollow or
receding and not, like the male organ, protruding. Further, there is a 'urethra' outside the womb, which organ serves as a passage
for the sperm of the male and as an outlet for liquid excretion for both sexes.

The part common to the neck and chest is the 'throat'; the 'armpit' is common to the side, arm, and shoulder; and the 'groin' is
common to the thigh and abdomen. The part inside the thigh and buttocks is the 'perineum', and the part outside the thigh and
buttocks is the 'hypoglutis'.

The front parts of the trunk have now been enumerated. The part behind the chest is termed the 'back'.

15.

Parts of the back are a pair of shoulder blades', the 'backbone', and, underneath, on a level with the belly in the trunk, the 'loins'.
Common to the upper and lower parts of the trunk are the 'ribs', eight on either side; for the so-called seven-ribbed Ligyans, we
have not received any trustworthy evidence.

Man, then, has an upper and a lower part, a front and a back part, and a right and a left side. Now the right and the left side are
pretty well alike in their parts and identical throughout, except that the left side is the weaker of the two; but the back parts do not
resemble the front ones, nor do the lower ones the upper: only that these upper and lower parts may be said to resemble one
another thus far, that if the face be plump or meager, the abdomen is plump or meager to correspond; and that the legs correspond
to the arms, and where the upper arm is short, the thigh is usually short also, and where the feet are small, the hands are small
correspondingly.
Of the limbs, one set, forming a pair, is 'arms'. To the arm belong the 'shoulder', 'up per-arm', 'elbow', 'fore-arm', and 'hand'. To the
hand belong the 'palm', and the five 'fingers'. The part of the finger that bends is called the 'knuckle'; the part that is inflexible is
termed the 'phalanx'. The big finger or thumb is single-jointed; the other fingers are double-jointed. The bending of both the arm
and the finger takes place from without inwards in all cases, and the arm bends at the elbow. The inner part of the hand is termed
the palm', and is fleshy and divided by joints or lines: in the case of long-lived people, by one or two extending right across; in the
case of short-lived people, by two, not so extending. The joint between hand and arm is termed the 'wrist '. The outside or back of
the hand is sinewy and has no specific designation.

There is another duplicate limb, the 'leg'. Of this limb, the double-knobbed part is termed the 'thigh-bone', the sliding part of the
'kneecap', the double-boned part the 'leg'; the front part of this limb is termed the 'shin', and the part behind it the 'calf', wherein the
flesh is sinewy and venous, in some cases drawn upwards towards the hollow behind the knee, as in the case of people with large
hips, and in other cases drawn downwards. The lower extremity of the shin is the 'ankle', duplicate in either leg. The part of the
limb that contains a multiplicity of bones is the 'foot'. The hinder part of the foot is the 'heel'; at the front of it, the divided part
consists of 'toes', five in number; the fleshy part underneath is the 'ball'; the upper part or back of the foot is sinewy and has no
particular appellation; of the toe, one portion is the 'nail' and another the 'joint', and the nail is in all cases at the extremity, and toes
are, without exception, single-jointed. Men that have the inside or sole of the foot clumsy and not arched, that is, that walk resting
on the entire under-surf ace of their feet, are prone to roguery. The joint common to the thigh and shin is the 'knee'.

These, then, are the parts common to the male and female sexes. The relative position of the parts as to up and down, or to front
and back, or to right and left—all this as regards externals might safely be left to mere ordinary perception. But for all that, we
must treat of them for the same reason as the one previously brought forward; that is to say, we must refer to them in order that a
due and regular sequence may be observed in our exposition, and in order that by the enumeration of these obvious facts, due
attention may be subsequently given to those parts in men and other animals that are diverse in any way from one another.

In man, above all in her animals, the terms 'upper' and 'lower' are used in harmony with their natural positions; for in him, upper
and lower have the same meaning as when they are applied to the universe as a whole. In like in this manner, the terms 'in front',
'behind', 'right', and 'left' are used in accordance with their natural sense. But in regard to other animals, in some cases these
distinctions do not exist, and in others they do, but in a vague way. For instance, the head of all animals is up and above in respect
to their bodies, but man alone, as has been said, has, in maturity, this part uppermost in respect to the material universe.

Next after the head comes the neck, and then the chest and the back—the one in front and the other behind. Next after these come
the belly, the lips, the sexual parts, and the haunches; then the thigh and shin; and, lastly, the feet.

The legs bend frontwards, in the direction of actual progression, and frontwards also lies that part of the foot that is the most
effective of motion and the flexure of that part; but the heel lies at the back, and the anklebones lie laterally, ear wise. The arms are
situated to the right and left and bend inwards, so that the convexities formed by bent arms and legs are practically face-to-face
with one another in the case of man.

As for the senses and for the organs of sensation, the eyes, the nostrils, and the tongue, all alike, are situated frontwards; the sense
of hearing and the organ of hearing, the ear, are situated sideways, on the same horizontal plane as the eyes. The eyes in man are,
in proportion to his size, nearer to one another than in any other animal.

Of the senses, man has the sense of touch more refined than any animal, and so also, but to a lesser degree, the sense of taste; in
the development of the other senses, he is surpassed by a great number of animals.

16.

The parts, then, that are externally visible are arranged in the way above stated and, as a rule, have their own special designations,
and from use and wont, they are known to all, but this is not the case with the inner parts. For the fact is that the inner parts of man
are to a very great extent unknown, and the consequence is that we must have recourse to an examination of the inner parts of
other animals whose nature in any way resembles that of man.

In the first place, then, the brain lies in the front part of the head. And this holds alike with all animals possessed of a brain, and all
blooded animals are possessed thereof, and, by the way, mollusks as well. But, taking size for size of animal, the largest brain and
the moistest is that of man. Two membranes enclose it: the outer one near the bone of the skull; the inner one, around the brain
itself, is finer. In all cases, the brain is bilateral. Behind this, right at the back, comes what is termed the 'cerebellum', differing in
form from the brain as we may both feel and see.

The back of the head is empty and hollow, whatever the size of the different animals. Some creatures have big heads while the
face below is small in proportion, as is the case with round-faced animals; some have little heads and long jaws, as is the case,
without exception, among animals of the mane-and-tail species.
The brain in all animals is bloodless, devoid of veins, and naturally cold to the touch; in the great majority of animals, it has a
small hollow in its center. The brain caul around it is reticulated with veins, and this brain caul is that skin-like membrane that
closely surrounds the brain. Above the brain is the thinnest and weakest bone of the head, which is termed sinciput'.

From the eye, there are three ducts to the brain: the largest and the medium-sized to the cerebellum, the least to the brain itself,
and the least is the one situated nearest to the nostril. The two largest ones, then, run side by side and do not meet; the medium-
sized ones meet—and this is particularly visible in fish—for they lie nearer than the large ones to the brain; the smallest pair are
the most widely separated from one another and do not meet.

Inside the neck are what is termed the oesophagus (whose other name is derived from the oesophagus from its length and
narrowness) and the windpipe. The windpipe is situated in front of the oesophagus in all animals that have a windpipe, and all
animals have one that is furnished with lungs. The windpipe is made up of gristle, is sparingly supplied with blood, and is streaked
all around with numerous minute veins. It is situated, in its upper part, near the mouth, below the aperture formed by the nostrils
into the mouth an aperture through which, when men, in drinking, inhale any of the liquid, this liquid finds its way out through the
nostrils. Between the two openings comes the so-called epiglottis, an organ capable of being drawn over and covering the orifice
of the windpipe communicating with the mouth; the end of the tongue is attached to the epiglottis. In the other direction, the
windpipe extends to the interval between the lungs and hereupon bifurcates into each of the two divisions of the lung, for the lung
in all animals possessed of the organ has a tendency to be double. In viviparous animals, however, the duplication is not as plainly
discernible as in other species, and the duplication is least discernible in humans. And in man, the organ is not split into many
parts, as is the case with some vivipara; neither is it smooth, but its surface is uneven.

In the case of the ovipara, such as birds and oviparous quadrupeds, the two parts of the organ are separated to a distance from one
another, so that the creatures appear to be furnished with a pair of lungs; and from the windpipe, itself single, there branch off two
separate parts extending to each of the two divisions of the lung. It is also attached to the great vein and to what is designated the
'aorta'. When the windpipe is charged with air, the air passes on to the lungs. These parts have divisions, composed of gristle,
which meet at an acute angle; from the divisions run passages through the entire lung, giving off smaller and smaller
ramifications. The heart is also attached to the windpipe by connections of fat, gristle, and sinew, and at the point of juncture there
is a hollow. When the windpipe is charged with air, the entrance of the air into the heart, though imperceptible in some animals, is
perceptible enough in the larger ones. Such are the properties of the windpipe, and it takes in and throws out air only and takes in
nothing else, either dry or liquid, or else it causes you pain until you have coughed up whatever may have gone down.

The oesophagus communicates at the top with the mouth, close to the windpipe, is attached to the backbone and the windpipe by
membranous ligaments, and at last finds its way through the midriff into the belly. It is composed of a flesh-like substance and is
elastic both lengthways and breadthways.

The stomach of man resembles that of a dog, for it is not much bigger than the bowel but is somewhat like a bowel of more than
usual width; then comes the bowel, single, convoluted, and moderately wide. The lower part of the gut is like that of a pig, for it is
broad, and the part from it to the buttocks is thick and short. The caul, or great omentum, is attached to the middle of the stomach
and consists of a fatty membrane, as is the case with all other animals whose stomachs are single and which have teeth in both
jaws.

The mesentery is over the bowels; this is also membranous and broad and turns to fat. It is attached to the great vein and the aorta,
and there run through it a number of veins closely packed together, extending towards the region of the bowels, beginning above
and ending below.

So much for the properties of the oesophagus, the windpipe, and the stomach.

17.

The heart has three cavities, is situated above the lung at the division of the windpipe, and is provided with a fatty and thick
membrane where it fastens on to the great vein and the aorta. It lies with its tapering portion upon the aorta, and this portion is
similarly situated in relation to the chest in all animals that have a chest. In all animals alike, in those that have a chest and in those
that have none, the apex of the heart points forwards, although this fact might possibly escape notice by a change of position under
dissection. The rounded end of the heart is at the top. The apex is, to a great extent, fleshy and close in texture, and in the cavities
of the heart are sinews. As a rule, the heart is situated in the middle of the chest in animals that have a chest, and in humans, it is
situated a little to the left-hand side, leaning a little way from the division of the breasts towards the left breast in the upper part of
the chest.

The heart is not large, and in its general shape it is not elongated; in fact, it is somewhat round in form; only, be it remembered, is
it sharp-pointed at the bottom. It has three cavities, as has been said; the right-hand one is the largest.
Of the three, the left-hand one is the least, and the middle one is intermediate in size. All these cavities, even the two small ones,
are connected by passages with the lung, and this fact is rendered quite plain in one of the cavities. And below, at the point of
attachment, in the largest cavity there is a connection with the great vein (near which the mesentery lies), and in the middle one
there is a connection with the aorta.

Canals lead from the heart into the lung and branch off just as the windpipe does, running all over the lung in parallel with the
passages from the windpipe. The canals from the heart are uppermost, and there is no common passage, but the passages through
their having a common wall receive the breath and pass it on to the heart, and one of the passages conveys it to the right cavity
and the other to the left.

With regard to the great vein and the aorta, we shall, by and by, treat of them together in a discussion devoted to them and to them
alone. In all animals that are furnished with a lung and that are both internally and extremely viviparous, the lung is of all organs
the most richly supplied with blood, for the lung is throughout spongy in texture, and along with every single pore in it go
branches from the great vein. Those who imagine it to be empty are altogether mistaken, and they are led into their error by their
observation of lungs removed from animals under dissection, out of which organs the blood had all escaped immediately after
death.

Of the other internal organs, the heart alone contains blood. And the lung has blood not in itself but in its veins, but the heart has
blood in itself, for in each of its three cavities it has blood, but the thinnest blood is what it has in its central cavity.

Under the lung comes the thoracic diaphragm, or midriff, attached to the ribs, the hypochondria, and the backbone, with a thin
membrane in the middle of it. It has veins running through it, and the diaphragm in the case of man is thicker in proportion to the
size of his frame than in other animals.

Under the diaphragm on the right-hand side lies the 'liver', and on the left-hand side the ‘spleen', alike in all animals that are
provided with these organs in an ordinary and not preternatural way; for, Beit observed, in some in quadrupeds, these organs have
been found in a transposed position. These organs are connected with the stomach by the caul.

To outward view, the spleen of man is narrow and long, resembling the self-same organ in the pig. The liver in the great majority
of animals is not provided with a 'gall bladder," but the latter is present in some. The liver of a man is round-shaped and resembles
the same organ in the ox. And, by the way, the absence of a gallbladder is sometimes met with in the practice of augury. For
instance, in a certain district of the Chalcidic settlement in Euboea, the sheep are devoid of gallbladders, and in Naxos, nearly all
the quadrupeds have one so large that foreigners, when they offer sacrifice with such victims, are bewildered with fright, under the
impression that the phenomenon is not due to natural causes but bodes some mischief to the individual offerers of the sacrifice.

Again, the liver is attached to the great vein, but it has no communication with the aorta; the vein that goes off from the great vein
goes right.

through the liver, at a point where the so-called 'portals' of the liver. The spleen is also connected only with the great vein, for a
vein extends to the spleen from it.

After these organs come the 'kidneys', and these are placed close to the backbone and resemble in character the same organ in
kine.

In all animals that are provided with this organ, the right kidney is situated higher up than the other. It also has less fatty substance
than the left-hand one and is less moist. And this phenomenon is also observable in all the other animals.

Furthermore, passages or ducts lead into the kidneys both from the great vein and from the aorta, but not into the cavity. For, by
the way, there is a cavity in the middle of the kidney, bigger in some creatures and smaller in others, but there is none in the case
of the seal. This latter animal has kidneys resembling in shape the identical organ in kine, but in its case, the organs are more solid
than in any other known creature. The ducts that lead into the kidneys lose themselves in the substance of the kidneys themselves,
and the proof that they extend no farther rests on the fact that they contain no blood, nor is any clot found therein. The kidneys,
however, have, as has been said, a small cavity. In this cavity in the kidney, there are two considerable ducts or ureters into the
bladder; and others spring from the aorta, strong and continuous. And to the middle of each of the two kidneys is attached a
hollow sinewy vein, stretching right along the spine through the narrows; by and by these veins are lost in either loin and again
become visible, extending to the flank. And these off-branchings of the veins terminate in the bladder. The bladder lies at the
extremity and is held in position by the ducts stretching from the kidneys along the stalk that extends to the urethra, and pretty
well all around it is fastened by fine sinewy membranes that resemble to some extent the thoracic diaphragm. The bladder in man
is, proportionately to his size, tolerably large.

To the stalk of the bladder, the private part is attached, the external orifices coalescing, but a little lower down, one of the openings
communicates with the testicles and the other with the bladder. The penis is gristly and sinewy in texture. With it are connected
the testicles in male animals, and the properties of these organs we shall discuss in our general account of the said organ.

All these organs are similar in the female, for there is no difference in regard to the internal organs except with respect to the
womb, and with reference to the appearance of this organ, I must refer the reader to diagrams in my 'Anatomy'. The womb,
however, is situated over the bowel, and the bladder lies over the womb. However, we must treat the wombs of all female animals
depicted in our pages. The wombs of all female animals are not identical, nor do their local dispositions coincide.

These are the organs, internal and external, of man, and such is their nature and their local disposition.

BOOK 2

1.

With regard to animals in general, some parts or organs are common to all, as has been said, and some are common only to
particular genera; the parts, moreover, are identical with or different from one another on the lines already repeatedly laid down.
As a general rule, all animals that are genetically distinct have the majority of their parts or organs different in form or species;
some of them are only analogically similar and diverse in kind or genus, while others are alike in kind but specifically diverse; and
many parts or organs exist in some animals but not in others.

For instance, viviparous quadrupeds have a head and a neck and all the parts or organs of the head, but they differ from each other
in the shapes of the parts. The lion has its neck composed of one single bone instead of vertebrae, but, when dissected, the animal
is found in all internal characteristics to resemble the dog.

The quadrupedal vivipara, instead of arms, has forelegs. This is true of all quadrupeds, but such of them as have toes have,
practically speaking, organs analogous to hands; at all events, they use these forelimbs for many purposes as hands. And they have
the limbs on the left-hand side less distinct from those on the right than men.

The forelimbs then serve more or less the purpose of hands in quadrupeds, with the exception of the elephant. This latter animal
has its toes somewhat indistinctly defined, and its front legs are much bigger than its hind legs; it is five-toed and has short ankles
to its hind feet. But it has a nose such in properties and such in size as to allow for using the same for a hand. For it eats and drinks
by lifting up its food with the aid of this organ into its mouth, and with the same organ it lifts up articles to the driver on its back;
with this organ it can pluck up trees by the roots, and when walking through water it spouts the water up by means of it; and this
organ is capable of being crooked or coiled at the tip, but not flexing like a joint, for it is composed of gristle.

Of all animals, man alone can learn to make equal use of both hands.

All animals have a part analogous to the chest in man but not similar to his; for the chest in man is broad, but that of all other
animals is narrow.

Moreover, no other animal but man has breasts in front; the elephant certainly has two breasts, not in the chest but near it.

Moreover, animals have the flexions of their fore and hind limbs in directions opposite to one another and in directions the reverse
of those observed in the arms and legs of men, with the exception of the elephant. In other words, with the viviparous quadrupeds,
the front legs bend forward and the hind ones backward, and the concavities of the two pairs of limbs thus face one another.

The elephant does not sleep standing, as some were wont to assert, but it bends its legs and settles down; only that, in consequence
of its weight, it cannot bend its leg on both sides simultaneously, but falls into a recumbent position on one side or the other, and
in this position, it goes to sleep. And it bends its hind legs just as a man bends his legs.

In the case of the ovipara, as with the crocodile, the lizard, and the like, both pairs of legs, fore and hind, bend forward with a
slight swerve on one side. The flexion is similar in the case of the multiped, only that the legs in between the extreme ends always
move in a manner intermediate between that of those in front and those behind and accordingly bend sideways rather than
backwards or forwards. But man bends his arms and his legs towards the same point, and therefore in opposite ways; that is to say,
he bends his arms backwards, with just a slight inclination inwards, and his legs forwards. No animal bends both its fore-limbs
and hind-limbs backwards, but in the case of all animals, the flexion of the shoulders is in the opposite direction to that of the
elbows or joints of the forelegs, and the flexion in the hips to that of the knees of the hind-legs, so that since man differs from
other animals in inflexion, those animals that possess such parts as these move them contrariwise to man.