Unit 5 family influences

Deprivation
Trauma
Neglect
Abuse
Attachment
Separation
Inadequate parenting style
e Marital discord
Divorce
Maladaptive peer relations
Communication style
Family burden
Emotional adaptation
Expressed emotion and relapse

Deprivation Spa
Bowlby used the term maternal deprivation to refer to the
separation or loss of the mother as wellas failure to develop an
attachment.
Bowlby used the term maternal deprivation' to refer to separation
from an attached figure, loss of an attached figure and failure to
develop an attachment to any igurey. These each have different
effects, argued Rutter. Inparticular Rutter distinguished between
privation and deprivation.
Michael Rutter (1981)Areued that if achild fails to develop
an attachmentthis is privatíon, whereas deprivation refers to the
loss of or damage to an attachment.
 Depri vation might be defined as losing something in which a
person once had, whereas privation might be defined as never
having something in the first place,
Privation 0ccurs when there is afailure to form an attachment to
any individual,
carers (which wasperhaps
because the child has a series of different
the case for many of Bowlby's juvenile thieves)
or family
discord prevents the development of attachment to any
figure (as Rutter proposed).
when separated from afamiliarPrivated children do not show distress
figure, which indicates alack of
attachment.
From his survey
su of research on
likely to lead initially to clinging,privatior, Rutter proposedthat it is
attention-seeking andindiscriminatedependent behavior,
matures, an inability to keep rules, formfriendliness,
lasting
then as the child
evidence of anti-social relationships,
feel guilt. He also found Or
affectionless psychopathy, and disorders of language,behavior,
Rutter arguesdevelopment and physical growh. intellectual
that these problems are not due solely tothe lack of
tOa mother figure, as attachment
Bowlby claimed, but to factorS such as the lack
intellectua! stimulation and social experiences which of
provide. In addition, such problems can be attachments normally
development,with the right kind of care. overcome later in the child's
Manyof the 44 thieves in
childhood, and had probablyBowlby' sstudy had been moved around alot during
never formed an attachment. This
they were suffering from suggested that
privation, rather than
suggested was far more deleterious to the deprivation, which Rutter
study on the long term effects of children. This led to a very important
(1989). privation, carried out by Hodges and Tizard
Trauma

traumais the experience ofsevere psychological distress

terrible or life-threatening event.
SufererS following any
may develop emotional
disturbances such as
orPTSD. They may exreme aXiely, anger, sadness, survivor's guilt.
expenence
pain, encounter turbulence ongoing problems with sleep or physical
in their
relationships, and fel a personal and professional
overwhelming amount ofdiminished
stress. sense
of
self-worth due tothe
 en,
Gyde PSychological trauma is a response to an event that a person finds
highly
stressful. Examples include being in a war zone, anatural disaster, of an
accident. Trauma can cause a wide range of physical and emotional
symptoms.
Not everyone who experiences a stressful event will
develop trauma.
There are also various types of trauma. Some people will
symptoms that resolve aftera few weeks, while others willdevelop
have more
long-term effects
According to the American Psychological Association (APA), trauma is
"an emotional response to a terrible event like an accident, rape, or
natural disaster."
" However, a person may experience trauma as a response to any
they find physically or emotionally threatening or harmful. èvent
A traumatized person can feel a range of
emotions both immediately
after the event and in the long term. They may feel
overwhelmed.
helpless, shocked, or have difficulty processing their experiences.
Trauma can also cause physical symptoms.
Trauma can have long-term effects on the person's well-being. If
sympioms persist and do not decrease in severity, it can indicate that the
trauma has developed into a mental healthdisorder
called post-traumatic sress disorder (PTSD).
> There are several types of trauma, including:
1. Acute trauma: This results from a single stressful or dangerous event.
2. Chronic trauma: This results from repeated and prolonged exposure to
highly stressful events. Examples include cases of child abuse, bullying,
or domestic violence.
J. Cuplex trauma: This results from exposure to multiple traumatic
events.
4. Secondary trauma, or vicarious trauma, is another form of trauma. With
this fom of trauma, a person develops trauma symptoms from close
Contact with someone who has experienced a traumatic event.
Symptoms
The symptoms of trauma range from mild to severe. Many factors determine
how a traumatic event affects a person, incluaing:

/their characteristics
 the presence of other mental health conditions
prious exposure to traumatic events
thelype and characteristics of the event
Vtheir or events
background and lapproach to handling emotions
$ Emotional and
A person who has psychological
experienced responses
Denial
trauma may feel:
/Anger
Fear
Sadness
Shame
Confusion
anxiety
depression
INuiiuless
V Guilt
Hopelessness
Irritability
difficulty concentrating
They may have
they feel, or emotional outbursts, find it
the withdraw from others. difficult to cope with
traumatic event in their mind, areFlashbacks, where a perSon how
common, as are relives
Physícalan responses
Along with nightmares.
as:
emotional reaction, trauma can
heduacies cause physical
V digestive symptoms symptoms, such
/fatigue
racing heart
Sweating
/ feeling jumpy
J
Sometimes, a
someone feels person
as will also
may make it thoughto they areexperi
in aence
difficult sleep. hyperstatearousalof, or when
constant
alertness. This
 JIndividuals may also go on to develop other mental health issues, such as
depression, anxiety,
causes of trauma:
/bullying
/ harassment
/physical, psychological, or sexual abuse
/ sexual assault
/ traffic collisions
/ childbirth
/ life threatening illnesses
/ sudden loss of a loved one
/ being attacked
Vbeing kidnapped
acts of terrorism
/natural disasters
/war
Traumatic events can be isolated or repeated, ongoing events. A person can
also experience trauma after witnessing something traumatichappening to
Someone else.
People have different reactions to traumatic events. For example, those who
live through the same natural disaster can respond very differently despite
experiencing the same event.
inter-generational trauma is defined as a traumatic event that began yearS prior
which individuals
to the current generation and has impacted the ways in
For exampBe, the
within a family understand, cope with, and heal from trauma.
mental health
patriarch of a family may suffer from an untreated severe
behaviors toward his daughter.
disorder which causes him to engage in harmful
This daughter, having endured years of emotional and psychological abuse,
now has her own amily but has not
been able to release herself
and emotionally) from the torture she endured. As a result,
(psychologically patriarch which leads
same behaviors of the
She begins toexhibit many of the These behaviors, including
exhibiting similar behaviors.
to her ownchildren generations. These unhealthy
of coping, continue for
aystunctional ways raising children within the family.
a "nomal" way of
behaviors then become
 lntengeneational trauma can negatively impact families as aresult of:
V
V Unnesolved emotions and thoughts about a traumatic event
V Negative repeated patterns of
Untreatedor poorly treated behavior including beliefs about
VPoor
V parent -chi ld relationshios emotional attachment
and
par ent
substance abuse or severe mental illness ing
Compl icat ed
Content attitudepersonal ity traits or personality disorders
with the ways things are within the
family
Neglect
Neglect, also referred to as
relaies specifically to a neglection, describes
for. ver's failure to meetmithestreatment
person they provide carecaregi and
chiwhenldren,it neglect can also referThough most basic needs of the
cOmes to elder care. to the often associated with
People who have been through mistreatment of acults. especial y
attachment
law issues, feelings of neglect may be more likely to
care,requi res
and caregiversto to proviisdoleataiochild'
n, anxiety, and experience
depression.
" Incaregiver supervi
many
does sion the degree that it food, shelter,
not meet these keeps
s
them cl
safe. othing, health
ways, abuse and needs, they are When a
treatment of
and dependent individuals, considered
neglect are similar; both negligent.
involve the care and
lasting
distinct negative effects for their harmful
differences victims. behaviors from caregivers,
between the two that However,
impact how eachthereis are some
The Child
Prot
intentioionalnallharmecti v e Servi ces
y, knowito ang1y, or recklessiy causidefines
Law (CPSL) addressed.
emot child abuse as
child,
includes harm, sexualeither by acting or failing ng pilysictoai, sexual, or
the other bodilyhand, may not alwaysexplbeoitation, or mental act. Abuse
declining physical health of a intentional. For exampl injury. Neglect, on
e, the
unindinvtiedntualional's ly neglect their children. Or, in thecausecasethemof to
caregiver could
ithem to deteriorating mental state
neglect elder neglect, an
brought
TYPES OF NEGLECTself-care without realizing it.
on by aging
may lead
there are four main types:
1 Physical: Failure to provide necessities like food, shelter, clothing,
standard medical care, supervision, and safety.
2. Educational: Failure to ensure school age children are enrolled in school,
home schooled, or provided specialized educational training where
appropriate.
3. Emotional: Failure to attend to psychological care and emotional needs.
4, Medical: Failure to allow for necessary medical treatment recommended
bymedical professionals; depending on the state, this may also include
mental health treatment.
The National Adult Protective Services Association (ÑAPSA) outlines
the following types of adult or elderly neglect:
I. Physical: Failure to meet the medical, hygienic, or dietary needs
necessary to an individual's physical health.
I. Emotional: Failure to accommodate or account for an individual's
emouonai weii-being by beiiing, ignoring, ur prevening then1 íron1
seeing family or friends.
III.Abandonment: Failure to fulfillcaregiver duties by forsaking expected
responsibilities or failing to arrange for care in the case of caregiver
absence.
IV. Financial: Failing to fulfil financial obligations, like paying
utilities and rent, to ensure the stability and safety of an individual.
V. Self-neglect: Failure of seniors and adults to meet their own physical,
psychological, emotional, and financial needs to the point that their
safety and well-being are threatened.

Abuse
another human being
Abuse refers to harmtul or injurious reatment ot
psychological/emotional,
that may include physical, sexual, verbal, coexist with neglect,
intellectual, or spiritual maltreatment. Abuse may
dependent person's basic physical
which is defined as failure to meet a
and/or desertion. Neglect is
and medical needs, emotional deprivation,
sometimes described as passive abuse.

> Physical Abuse

 Physical abuse refersto striking or beating another person with
or an object, but may include assault he
with a knife, gun, or other
Physical abuse also includes such behaviors as hands
closet or other smmall space,
depriving
locking someone in a Weapon,
gaggng, or tying them up, etc. Physicalsomeone of sleep, burming,
shaking them, dropping them on the floor,abuse of infants may include
or throwing them
wall or other hard against the
Sexual Abuse object.

Sexual abuse refers to

adult and someone whoinappropriate sexual
has some kind of contact betweenachild or an
authority over family or
or kissing, or them. Sexual abuse may include verbalprofessional
between achildattempted or remarks,
and a completed intercourse. Sexual contactfondling
SOme therapists extendbiological
the term torelative known as incest, although
is
and any tnisted cover sexual contact
caregiver,
likely than boys to be incl1uding relatives hy between a child
abused
estimate, 38% of girls and 16%sexually; marriage. Girls are more
of according to a conservatbeforeive their
eighteenth birhday. boys are sexually
abused
Verbal Abuse
Verbal abuse refers to
labeling, ortheridicule of regular
It is one of a
and
person; butconsi stent
it may belittling,
most difficult
leave physical scarS forms also
of abuse to include spoken name-calling,
or other
Verbal abuse may Occur prove because it threats.
in evidence,
schools or
but it is
nonetheless hurtful.does not
Emotional oror Psychological Abuse workplaces as well as in families.
orEmot io nal
injure otherspsychol o gical abuse coversa variety of
even
fact, emotional abuse though
is a
no physical
contact may behaviors that hurt
be
kelihoodtheof suicide attemptstronger
iinvolves in predictor than in vol
s later life. One form of abuse of the
physical ved. In
to cause destruction of
pain. Another someone's pet or valued emotional abuse
twanted.
hreateniOther abusive behavior is
ng to commit suicide possessi on in order
unless emotional blackmail, such as
the other
behaviors thiscategory includeperSon
in does is
the silent what
treatment,
 shaming or humiliating somcone in front of others, or punishing them for
receiving an award or honor.

Intellectual or Spiritual Abuse

Intellectual or spiritual abuse refers to such behaviors as punishing
Someone for having different intellectual interests or religious beliefs
from others in the family, preventing them from
services, ridiculing their opinions, and the like. attending worship

Attachment

u Attachmentis an emotional bond to another person.

Psychologist John Bowlby was the first attachment theorist, describing
four characteristics of attachment observed in
developing children
between the ages of six months and two years old. 6 o 2 yet
Bowlby believed that the bonds formed as a result of these observed
characteristics continued throughout life, becoming ablueprint used in
the development of subsequent relationships.
Mary Ainsworth, initially conducted research into attachment theory
with Bowlby, and later on her Own. She expanded the theory to include
three styles of attachment (with a fourth being added later). By being
responsive to an infant's needs, a caregiver (usually the mother)
establishes a sense of security for the infant. Once the infant establishes
this feeling of security, it develops a secure base to explore the world.
The definition of attachment, according td Merriam-Webster is "he
state of being personally attached: fidelity, affectionate regard"The
basic idea of attachment theory isthat if acaregivor (nsually the
caregiver) is attentive and dependable, then that caregivers child will be
secure in their environment and will use the security of this relationship
with the caregiver as a base from which to explore their world. Once a
child has established this primary relationship, it uses it as a template
for other relationships.
(vAlachment theory is the result of joint and individual research by John
Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth (Ainsworth, 2009). Drawing on concepts
from psychoanalysts, developmental psychologists, psychology, and
others,
 theory. He introduced ar
Bowlby formulated the basic
revolutionary way
>of thinking about how a mother and child bond, and the reperussions of
the disruption of that bond. Mary Ainsworth'ss methodology with her
"strange situation" experiments made it possible to test Bowlbys ideas
and ultimately expanded the theoryiself (Bretherton,I. 1992). Bowlby
believedi that the earliest bonds formed by children with their
have a tremendous impact that continues throughout lite (Cherry. Kcaregivers
n.d.).
> John Bowlbys work defines attachment theory as "lasting psychological
connectedness between human beings" (Bowlby, J. 1969). Bowlby
formulated the theory that an infant's attachment to its caregiver came
about as an evolutionary mechanism. He theorized that by being closer
to its caregiver, an infant is more likely tosurvive. He also theorized that
not only is the infant innately programmed to form
attachments, but the
caregiver is also programmed to respond (Flanagan, C. 1999). Bowlby
believed that the emotional bond formed
is both powerful and lifelong in their between child and caregiver
a
nature, forming when the child is
between six months and two years of age (Hayes,
Attachment does not have to be reciprocal. One personn.d.).
attachment to an individual which is not shared. may have an
characterized by specific behaviors in children, suchAttachment is
proximity to the attachment figure when upset or as seeking
1969). threatened (Bowlby,
Attachment provides the infant's first coping
system; it sets up a mental
representation of the caregiver in an infant's mind,
summoned up as a comforting mental presence in one that can be
Attachment allows an infant to separate from the difficult moments.
distress and to begin to explore the world caregiver without
Bowlbys Characteristics of Attachment around her.
Attachment theory defines four
1) proximity maintenance,
characteristics;
2) safe haven,
3) secure base, and
4) separation
distress (Bowlby,
Proximity Maintenance is 1969). by how a
caregiver, thus keeping the demonstrated
child safe. This is child will stay near the
evidenced what Bowlby
by
 termed as attachment behaviors. Clinging, smiling, crying, and
are evolved behaviors meant to increase the tollowing
bond between caregiver and
Child, by keeping them inclose proximity to one another (Hayes,
Separation or threatened separation of the child from the caregivern.d.).
is
what triggers these behaviors, This is termed as
Bowlby- Once the child feels that the caregiver isseparation distress by
close by, he is
encouraged to explore his teritory The constant proximity of the
caregiver causes the child to regard the caregiver as a safe haven
(because the caregiver has been a constant and
them). The caregiver, by providing the safe havenresponsive presence to
tothe child.becomes a
secure base from which the child can begin to explore its world.
the child feels that there is danger nearby he can When
return to his caregiver.
Bowlby defined this behavioral system of moving between 'exploring
behavior' and 'safe haven behavjor as ahomoeostatic control system
(Bowlby, 1969).

The Stages of Atachment

/ Researchers Rudolph Schaffer and Peggy Emerson analyzed the number
of attachment relationships that infants form in a longitudinal study with
60 infants. The infants were observed every four weeks during the first
year of life, and then once again at 18 months.
/ The children were all studied in their own home, and a regular pattern
was identified in the development of attachment.
V The babies were visited monthly for approximately one year, their
interactions with their carers were observed, and carers were
interviewed.
VA diary was kept by the mother to examine the evidence for the
development of attachment.Three measures were recorded:
Stranger Anxiety - response to the arrival of a stranger.
the degree of
Separation Anxiety - distress level when separated from a carer,
comfort needed on returm.
their carer to check how they
Social Referencing- the degree a child looks at
should respond to something new (secure base).
 Based on their observations, Schaffer and Emerson outlined
phases of attachment, including: four disting
Pre-Attachment Stage
From bith o 3months, infants do not
show particular
specilic caegiver. The infant's signals, such any
as
attachment toa
attract the attention of the crying and fusSing, naturallu
caregiver and the baby's positive
responses
encourage the caregiver to remain close.
Indiscriminate Attachment
Between 6weeks of age to 7months,
prirespond
mary'atond secondary caregivers. Infants infants begin to show
their needs. While they still develop trust that the
preferences for
accept care from others, caregiver will
diposistitnivguielyshitongthebetween familiar and unfami infants start
primary caregiver. liar people, responding more
Disuiminate Atachrment
At this point,
from about 7to 1l
attachment and preference for onemonths of age, infants show astrong
separated from the primary specific individual. They will
display anxiety around attachment figure (separation protest when
Multiple Attachments strangers (stranger anxiety).) anxiety), and begin to
After
bonds approxi mately 9months of age, children begin to form
with other
includes the father,caregivers beyond the primary
older siblings, attachment
strong emotional.
and figure. This often
)
Factors That Influence
Attachment grandparents.
Upportasuthose
such nity attachment: Children who do not
for
needed to formraised may fail to have atheprimary care figure,
in
an orphanages,
attachment. develop sense of trust
)
Quality ving: When
learn thatcaregi
they can depend caregi
which is the essential on thevers respond quickly and
people who are
foundation for attachment responsible consistently,
children
for their care,
Attachment Theories . This a vital factor.
is
 The learning / behaviorist theory of attachment (e.g., Dollard &Miller,
1950) suggest that attachment is aset of learmed behaviors.The basis
for the learning of attachments is the provision of food. An
infant will
initially fom an attachment to whoever feeds it.
Ahey learm to associate the feeder (usually the mother)
with the comfort of
being fed and through the process of classical
contact with the mother comforting. conditioning, come to find
They also find that certain behaviors (e.g., crying,
smiling)
responses from others (e.g., attention, comfort), and throughbring
the
desirable
of operant conditioning learm to repeat these process
want.
behaviorS to get the things they
The evolutionary theory of attachment (e.g,, Bowlby, Harlow,
suggests that children come into the world biologically Lorenz)
to form attachments with others, because this will pre-programmed
help them to survive.
The infant produces innate 'social releaser' behaviors such as crving and
smiling that stimulate innate caregiving responses from adults, The
determinant of attachment is not food, but care and responsiveness.
Bowlby suggested that a child would initially form only one primary
attachment (monotropy) and that the attachment figure acted as a secure base
for exploring the world. The attachment relationship acts as a prototype for all
future social relationships so disrupting it can have severe consequences.
This theory also suggests that there isa critical period for developing an
attachment (about 0-5 years). If an attachment has not developed during this
period, then the child will suffer from irreversible developmental
consequences, such as reduced intelligence and increased aggression.
Harry Harlow's Monkey Studies
Harlow (1958 wanted to study the mechanisms by which newbom rhesus
monkeys bond with their mothers,
These infants were highly dependent on their mothers for nutrition, protection,
comfort, and socialization. What, exactly, though, was the basis of the bond?
The behavioral theory of attachment would suggest that an infant would form
an attachment witha carer that provides food! In contrast, Harlow's
explanation was that attachment develops as a result of the mother providing
"tactile comfort," suggesting that infants have an innate (biological) need to
 cling to something for emotional comfort.
touch and
of studieson attachment in hesus monkeys
Harry
the
Harlow
1950's and
did a
1960'
number
s. His experiments took several forms:
1.Infant monkeys rearedin isolation - He took babiesand isolated them from
during,
anybody else.
birth.They had no contact with each other or
He kept some this way for three months, some for six, some for nine and some
for the first year of their lives. He then put them back with other monkeys to
see what effect their failure to fom attachment had on behavior.

Results: The monkeys engaged in bizarre behavior such as clutching their own
bodies and rocking compulsively. They were then placed back in the company
of other monkeys.
To start with the babies were scared of the other monkeys, and then became
very aggressive towards them. They were also unable to communicate or
socializc with other monkeys. The other monkeys bullied thcm. They indulged
in self-mutilation, tearing hair out, scratching, and
biting their own arms and
legs.
Harlow concluded that privation (i.e., never forming an
permanently damaging (to monkeys). The extent of the abnormal attachment bond) is
reflected the length of the isolation. Those kept in behavior
were the least affected, but those in isolation for three months
isolation for a year never recovered the
effects of privation.
2. Infant monkeys reared with
from their mothers immediatelysurrogate mothers - &monkeys were
after birth and placed in cages with separated
wire and one covered in soft terTyaccess
two surrogate mothers, one made of to
cloth. toweling
Four of the monkeys could get milk
from the wire mother and four from the
cloth mother. The animals were
studied for 165 days.
Both groups of monkeys spent more
had no milk). The infant time with the cloth mother (even if
would only go to the wire mother she
Once fed it would return to the when hungry.
cloth mother for moSt of the day. If
frightening object was placed in the cage the infant took
a
mother (its safe base). refuge with the cloth
 This surrOgate was more effective in decreasing the youngsters fear. The intant
would explore more when the cloth mother was
present.
This supports the evolutionary theory of attachment, in that it is
the sensitive
response and security of the caregiver that is important (as
provision of food). opposed to the
The behavioral differences that Harlow
had groWn up with surrogate mothers and
observed between the monkeys wh0
those with normal mothers were;
a) They were much more timid.
b)They didn't know how to act with
other monkys.
c) They were easily bullied and
wouldn'tstand up for themselves.
d) They had difficulty with
mating,
e) The females were
inadequate mothers.
Harlow concluded that for a monkey to develop
interactionwith an object to which they can clingnomally s/he must have some
during the first months of
life (critical period).
Clinging is a natural response - in times of stress the monkey runs
to which it normally clings as if the to the object
clinging decreases thestress.
He also concluded that early maternal
but that its impact could be reversed indeprivation leads to emotional damage
monkeys if an attachment was made
before the end of the critical period.
However, if maternal deprivation lasted after the end of the critical
no amount of exposure to mothers or peers could alter the period, then
that had already occuned. emotional damage
Harlow found therefore that it was social deprivation rather than
matermal
deprivation that the young monkeys were suffering from.
Mary Ainsworth and the "Strange Situation"
During the 1970's, psychologist Mary Ainsworth conducted further research
into John Bowlbys attachment theory in a study that came to be known as
the
strange situation".The study involved observing children between the ages of
12 to 18 months responding to asituation in which they were briefly left alone
and then reunited with their caregiver (Hutchinson, 2009).
 Based on these observations, Ainsworth concluded that there were three major
Styles of attachment: secbre attachment, ambivalent-insecure attachment,, and
avoidant-insecure attachment (Ainsworth, 2009). Afourth style was
by Ainsworth's colleague Mary Main with Ainsworth's approval. ,added late
he fist style is "'secure attachmenf". A childin this category willexplore
teely while the caregiver is present. This includes engaging strangers.
However, when the caregiver leaves the child, it becomes visibly upset and
stops interacçng with the stranger. When the caregiver comes back, the child
calms down and starts interacting again.
The secondstyle is "anxious-resistant insecure attachment." Thiscategory is
more dramatic. Even when the caregiver is present, the child is anxious when a
Stranger is around, and becomes upset when the caregiver leaves. When the
caregiver returns,the child is resentful and resistant to attention.
The third style is anxious-avoidant insecure
he benavioi äTsUciated wiui çis styie acis
attachment. Achild who exhibits
indinierent io aiyoie
strangers and the caregiver alike are ignored and receive little pltscit, iie
represents a disengaged relationship between thechild and attention. This
(Ainsworth, 2009). caregiver
The last style is
style often have "disorganized/disoriented attachment" Children
caregivers that experienced something traumatic exhibiting this
that left them suffering from depression. The after the birth
will usualy cry when the caregiver leaves, anddisorganized/disoriented child
then freeze or fall to the floor
when the caregiver returns. When strangers are
upset and confused.
present, the child is slightly

The adult attachment styles follow the

same general pattern described above:
Secure Attachment These adults are more likely to be
satisfied with their
relationships, feeling secure andconnected to their partners without feeling the
need to be together all the time. Their
feature honesty, support, independence,relationships
are likely to
and deep emotional connections.
Dismissive-Avoidant (or Anxious-Avoidant) Attachment: One of the two types
of adult avoidant
attachments, people with this attachment style generally keep
 their distance from others. They mav feel
that
conneclion to survive or thrive, and insiston they don't need human
and isolation from others. These maintaining their independence
individuals areoften able to "shut down"
emotionally when a potentially hurtful scenario arises, such as a
argument with their partner or a threat to the serious
continuance of their relationship.
Anxious-Preoccupied (or Anxious-Resistant)
Attachment: Those who form less
secure bonds with their partners may feel desperate
feel that their partner must for love or affection and
"complete" them or fix their problems. While they
long for safety and security in their
romantic relationships, they may also be
acting in ways that push their partner away rather than invite them in. The
behavioral manifestations of their fears can include being clingy, demanding,
jealous, or easily upset by small issues.
Fearful-Avoidant (or Disorganized) Attachment: The second type of adult
avoidant attachment manifests as ambivalence rather than isolation. People
with.this attachment stvle generally trv to avoid their feelings hecanse it is easy
to get overwhelmed by them. They may suffer from unpredictable or abrupt
mood swings and fear getting hurt by a romantic partner. These individuals are
simultaneously drawn toa partner or potentialpartner and fearful of getting to
close. Unsurprisingly, thisstyle makes it difficult to form and maintain
meaningful, healthy relationships with others (Firestone, 2013).

Dollard and Miller (1950)suggested that the attachment was due to drive
reduction. Hunger and cold have a strong motivating affect on the child,
driving the child to satisfy its need by eating or seeking warmth. Obtaining
reward for
food or warmth results in drive reduction which in itself provides
the child.
as primary drives and foad and
Hunger and cold (discomfort) are referred tosupplying
primary reinforcers. The person the food and warmth
warmth are with the food and warmth and acts as
(usually the mother) becomes associated the child wants the
attachment occurs because
a secondary reinforcer. The warmth.
person providing the food and
child is cold and hungry it cries. This is unpleasant for the
Note: When the child
is likely tofeed and cuddle the child. The
mother (punishment) whonegative reinforcer for the mother (something
Stopping crying acts as away). Negative reinforcers make the mother's
a
unpleasant has been taken
 behaviouw, fecding and cuddling, more likely in future!
In both classical and operant explanations the
attachment is formed
chld secks the person providing the food.
Evaluaion
because the
Anmumber of studies tell us that food is not relevant to
attachment formation:
Glasgow Babies: the infants form their primary
though in many cases she was absent for much ofattachment with mum even
would be providing the food. the day andother people

Harlow's Monkeys: the infan: monkeys formed the

terry-cloth mum, the attachment with the
visit the wire mum foronefood.that provided warm änd conmfort. They would only
When
one that fed frightened
the cloth mum, not the they always sought
them! comfort on
Lorenz's geese: fom an immediate
see. Again no food
required. attachment with the first moving thing they
The theory also
ignores factors such as
interactional reciprocity, sensitive caregiving and
formation. synchrony that we've seen are important in attachment
However, before we dismiss learning
issatisfying theories completely, it could be that
primary needs in other ways
behaviourist terms she could stillbe a such as comfort and warmth. In mum
secondary reinforce.
Psychoanalytotic theory according to Freud (1926),
attachment
Freud
the
satisfaction of the child's attributed the
development
of
stated that the instinctual drives by
result of the infant's emotional bond between mother and child formsmother.
the
attachment to the mother as provider of food.
as a
Konrad Lorenz's Imprinting
Lorenz (1935) Theory
of animals forminvestigated the
tomechanisms
of
large imprinting,
an
attachment
This process suggests that the first where species
moving object thatsome
attachment is innate and they meet.
He took a large clutch of
hatch out. Half of the eggsgoose eggs and kept them programmed
until they
genetically.
were
Lorenz kept the other half thenin placedunder agoose were about to
was the first moving hatched an incubator, with
object the newly hatched
mother, while
Lorenz making sure he
goslings encountered
 The naturally hatched baby goslings followed their
hatched ones follow Lorenz. mother, while the incubator
To ensure imprining had occured
an upturmed box and allowed them Lorenz put all the
to mix. When the goslings togetner uidel
box was removed the two
groups separated t0 go to their respective 'mothers' - half to
to Lorenz. the goose, andhalI
Imprinting does not appear to be active immediately after
there seems to be acritical period during which imprintinghatching,
can
althougn
Hess (1958)showed that although the occul.
as one hour after hatching, the imprinting process could occur as early
strongest
hours after hatching, and that after 32 responses occurred between 12 and I/
at all. hours the response was unlikely to
ocCUr
Imprinting has consequences, both for short-term survival, and in
term forming internal templates for later the longer
wihout any feeding taking place. relationships. Imprinting occurs
Lorenz and Hess believe that once imprinting has
reversed, nor can a gosling imprint on anything else.occurred. it cannot be

Separation
Effects of separation
Robertson & Bowlby [1952] believed that short- term separation from an
attachment figure leads to distress. They formed three progressive stages of
distress [PDD model]:/
Protest
V Child cries, screams and protests angrily when parent leaves.
V They will try to cling on the parent to stop.
Despair
V Child appear to be calmer but still upset.
V Often seems withdrawn and uninterested in anything.
Detachment
V Child engage with others.
V Reject the caregiver on return and show anger.

Separation-Individuation Theory of Child Development (Mahler)

 Mahler is negarded os one of the main contributors to the field of 'ego
svchology, aschool of thought which evolved from Sigmund Freud'
Stnctural Moxdiel (id-eg0-superego). Her aim was not to
but to broaden the develop a novel
primartheiolnyy,
Scope of pre-existing theories. Her studies
on mother- infant
interactions within the first three years of lifefocus1]|21.
tilling avoid in psychodynamic stage ,
slages ot development, and Erikson's theories, such as Freud's
psychosexual thereby
Although this article will refer to psychosocial stages of development.
tor aiv pimary
caregiver.
mother-infant relations, the theory holds thie
According to Mahler, sucCessful
first few years of life results in completion of the developmental stages in the
to an intermal
process of mentalseparation and individuation. Separation refers
ndividuatforiononerefersto to adevelopingseparation
ipossible from the mother, while
self concept.
Although interrelated, it is
develop more than the other, largely
mother's attitude towards the depending on the
Stages of Development child[3).
Normal autistic stage: (0-1
At the very month)
uniinfant,nterestedbeginning of
in extermal life, the infant is primarily
stimuli. The mother is viewedfocused on
devoid of aseparate as an himself/herself,
achieve astate of existence. (The primary goal at thisintrinsic part of the
satisfaction of needsequimaylibricome
um, while lacking the
underst
point, is to
source.anding
from an extermal thatthe
Normal symbiotic stage: (1-5
Atthis months)
phase,the infant vaguely
unique entúty, but as the main acknowledges the mother's
íant's physiological needs source of need-satisfaction, Theexistence, not as a
and thus serves as the
basis becomes intertwined with fulfilment of the
Crucial tO successful
and the ability
upon
progressi on
which future
rel atio psychol
nshi ps ogibecalformed.
will desires
of the through next stages are the
mother to adapt the
successfully to the avai lability
Separation-Individuation
transition
an occurs in two
stage (5-24 months) In this
overl appi ng
infant's
final stage a
needs.
understas aannding boundaries of the self, and separat
viewed
of realms. n
ion, the infantsignificant
individual. Meanwhile, thus the mother is develops
sense of self. This
COnsists of four individuation marks the increasinglofy a
sub-Stages: development
 3a: Differentiation/Hatching: (5-9 months) fhe infant's
transform from primary focus begns to
intemally
point of reference continuesfocused to focused, although the primary
to be the externally
mothet. This internal process IS
exemplified by milestones in motor
increased separation, such as Crawling.development which physically allow
tThe infant becomes increasingly
interested in discovering his mother (e.g. how she looks or smells)
trying to become symbiotically unified with rather han
her)
3b: Practicing: (9-14 months) Capacity for
with increased autonomous functions, separation continues to develop
particularly
explore freely, the child still regards the mother as walking., Although able to
unified with him/her and
thus explores his/her surroundings while keeping within an
The child's experience of the world he or she optimal distance
discovers is
mother's reactions and by her availability to sooth when influenced by the
frightening or painful.) experiences may be
3c: Rapprochement(14-4 months)At this point the child's desire tn
achieve
independence is marred by a fear of abandonment. Therefore, the child seeks to
maintain proximity tothe caretaker while engaging in exploration. This stage
is essential to the development of a stable sense of self. This includes three
sub- stages:
Beginning: The child returns to the caretaker in order to share experiences and
excitement. There is an overarching felon of omnipotence and exuberance.
Crisis: The child recognizes his/her limitations versus the desire to be all
powerfuland self sufficient, The child is torn in choosing between physical and
emotional proximity to the caretaker or independence. (fhis stage is
characterized by temper tantrums and helplessness and'thus the need for
emotional availability of the mother increases)
Soluion: he child reaches ahealthy medium between the two extremes due to
language and superego development. If the crisis is not resolved well, there
will be an increase in extreme clinging or shunning behaviour.

3d: Object constancy:(24+ months) Successful completion of this phase marks

the development of an internalized mental model of the mother, which
unconsciously accompanies and supports the child even when they are
to develop.
physically separated. In addition, a sense of individuality begins the
implicates formation
The degree of ambivalence in the internalized model
 self-confidence.
ot ahealthy scBf concetand

4J TIEIVESSTUDY
ICD -DISORDER SEPARATION ANXIETY

Inadequate parenting styles

Parenting style
> characteristic of theparent that alters the
efficacy of the parent's
socialization efforts by modérating the effectiveness of particular
practices and by changing the child's openness to
(Darling and Steinberg, 1993) socialization.
" Factors
influencing outcome of parenting(Darling and
/Goals towards which socialization is
directed Steinberg, 1993)
/Parenting practices used to reach the goals
V Parenting style

MODELS:
/Psychodynamic
Focus areas:

Emotional relationship
Unidirectional model
Attitudes
Atitudes (Parental attribute)-
emotional relationships betweenInividual differences in the
Emotional tenor of the family milieuparents and children spor
parent-child
(Baldwin, relationship and that
determines lavi
Flaw of the theory: influences the child's the
measuring behaviour.There1948;is no0rlmeans
ansky, of1949; Schaefer,the development
1959;
studying attitude Symonds, 1939)
/
> MOLAR LEVEL (Schaefer
without
Particular (1959)
categories pract
on theices were grouped
of their conceptually into
processes. (Baldwibasis potential to alter broader
n, 1948; Orlansky, emoti&onal
1949; Schaefer
Bell,
 1958; Symonds, 1939).
/ Punitive-ness

/Autonomy granting
V Expression of
affection
Using fear to control
/ Ignoring
/ Child as a burden
/ LEARNING MODEL
/
Focused on parental practices rather than attitudes.
/ Differences in child development reflect
differences in the learning
environment (Sears, Maccoby, &Levin, 1957: Whiting &Child, 1953)
EXAMPLES: practices such as use of physical punishment, tolerance of
masturbation, sanctions against aggression, failure to enforce rules, and rules
for use of common living areas.
V LjVE-jR0ENIED VIS ÜBJECI-OR*E0NTED STYLES

Love Oriented Object Oriented

esponse to child Warmth, praise, and Use (and withdrawal) of

ehaviours emotional affection and tangible objects, such as
withdro"al) toyc or axtra playtime
 Sclcontol and Exposure after a
sell rgnlation misdeed, spend
cognitivet
energy
physical
rying to
object wihdrawalavoid
(e.g.,
their parents taking away
a privilege).

Intenalizing parental Yes No

vales

Lincerstanding narents
rational
Yes Do not exert
sufficient
cognitive effort to
understand their parents'
actions

/ PARENTAL USE OF INDUCTION

/ Given by Martin Hoffman
/Induction- parents' provision of explanations (1.e.,
reasoning) with respect to their acuviis, vaiues, dild
/
disciplinary behaviors.
Other oriented
induction- enables children to realize the
influences and consequences of their behaviors on others
(e.g.. peers, siblings,
J
OUTCOME: Learning teachers).
reasons behind parents' actions.
Internalization
moral
ofparental values, development of
altruism,

reasoning and empathy..Understanding parents'

cognitive thought processing- transfer of values
from
 parent to child
V Eftective for child's misdeeds such as lying
and steal1ng
(Grusec et al., 1982). First use power assertion at the outset
to get the child's attention and then using
induction
DIMENSIONS OF STYLE
Symonds (1939) -Acceptance/rejection and
Baldwin (1955) -Emotional warmth/hostilitydominance/submission
and detachment l
involvement
Schaefer (1959) - Love/ hostility and
Sears et al. (1957) - Warmth and autonomy/control
Becker (1964)- Warmth/hostility permissivegess/strictness
and restrictiveness/permissiveness.
Belief Systems and Ecological Niches:
Baumrind's Typology
Control:
Early definition- Strictness, use of physical punishment,
consistency of punishment, use of explanations.
/ Parents' willingness tosocialize their child is conceptually distinct
from parental restrictiveness
/ Parents' attempts to integrate the child into the family/society by
demanding behavioral compliance. (Baumrind, 1966)
/ Instead of parental control be organized linearly from high to low
distinguished among three qualitatively different types of parental
control: permissive, authoritarian, and authoritative.

A. Authoritative Parenting /L- explorations

st) and pursuit ofinterests.
/Affection and spport in child's
conuuuuication uuULUyn
Fostering maturity demands bidirectional
+encouragement of independence.|
guidelines that their children are expected to follow.
V Establish rules &
/ Democratic.
meet the expectations- nurturing and forgiving than
Failure to
punishing. restrictive)
Assertive (not intrusive and punitive).Desire children to be
disciplinary methods (not
V Supportive responsible, self-regulated as well as
socially
assertive as well as
cooperative.