United States Literature and Art in the Nineteenth

Century
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the United States was a provincial culture, still
looking to Britain for values, standards, literature, and art, despite all the rapid
improvements in communication - for example, the great growth in the number of
magazines and newspapers that occurred in the United States following independence
from Great Britain. In a famous essay in the Edinburgh Review in 1820, Sydney Smith
sarcastically inquired, "In the four quarters of the globe, who reads an American book? Or
goes to an American play? Or looks at an American picture or statue?"

Yet, interest in the arts and the cultural institutions that sustain them was rapidly growing
in America. To be sure, cultural institutions were difficult to create in the South, mainly
because the population was so widely dispersed; and in the West, dominated in this era by
pioneers, the emphasis was on the practical rather than on the literary or artistic. But many
eastern seaboard cities were actively building the cultural foundation that would nurture
distinctively American art and literature. During these years, Philadelphia's American
Philosophical Society, founded by Benjamin Franklin in 1743, boasted a distinguished
roster of scientists, including Thomas Jefferson, concurrently its president and president of
the United States. Culturally, Boston ran a close second to Philadelphia, founding the
Boston Athenaeum (1807), an impressive library and reading room containing "works of
learning and science in all languages, particularly such rare and expensive publications as
are not generally to be found in this country," The North American Review,which became
the most important and long-lasting intellectual magazine in the country, was published in
Boston. Devoted to keeping its readers in touch with European intellectual developments,
it had a circulation of 3,000 in 1826, about the same as similar British journals.

Of the eastern cities, New York produced the first widely recognized American writers. In
1809, Washington Irving published America's first great book of comic literature -A History
of New York- a humorous account of life in New York both in colonial times and in Irving's
own day. James Fenimore Cooper's Leatherstocking novels (of which The Last of the
Mohicans, published in 1826, is the best known) achieved wide success in both America
and Europe. In these novels, Cooper established the American experience of westward
expansion as a serious and distinctive American theme.

It was New England, however, that saw itself as the home of American cultural
independence from Europe, a claim voiced in 1837 by Ralph Waldo Emerson in a lecture at
Harvard: "Our day of dependence, our long apprenticeship to the learning of other lands,
draws to a close," Emerson announced. Rather than draw on British models, American
artists, Emerson argued, should seek inspiration from the ordinary details of daily
American life. Immensely popular, Emerson gave more than 1,500 lectures in 20 states
between 1833 and 1860. "The American Scholar," his most famous lecture, carried a
message of cultural self-sufficiency that Americans were eager to hear.

Artists in this period were as successful as writers in finding American themes. Thomas
Cole, who came to the United States from England in 1818, found great inspiration in the
American landscape. Cole founded the Hudson River School of American Painting, whose
romantic renderings of New York landscapes were frankly nationalistic. Other painters
-realists such as Karl Bodmer and George Catlin- drew on the dramatic landscapes and
peoples of the American West. Their art was an important contribution to the American
sense of the land and to the nation's identity. Catlin, driven by a need to document Native
American life, spent eight years among the tribes along the upper Missouri River. Then, he
assembled his collection of more than 500 paintings and toured the country in an effort to
increase the public's awareness and appreciation of Native American lifeways. George
Caleb Bingham, an accomplished genre painter, produced somewhat tidied-up scenes of
real-life American workers, such as flatboat men on the Missouri River. All these painters
found much to record and celebrate in American life. Ironically, the inspiration for the most
prevalent theme, the American wilderness, was profoundly endangered by the rapid
western settlement of which the nation was so proud. Despite such contradictions, the
early nineteenth century was the period in which writers and painters found the national
themes that defined the first distinctively American literature and art.

1. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the
highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in
important ways or leave out essential information.

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the United States was a provincial culture, still
looking to Britain for values, standards, literature, and art, despite all the rapid
improvements in communication - for example, the great growth in the number of
magazines and newspapers that occurred in the United States following independence
from Great Britain. In a famous essay in the Edinburgh Review in 1820, Sydney Smith
sarcastically inquired, "In the four quarters of the globe, who reads an American book? Or
goes to an American play? Or looks at an American picture or statue?"
 At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the United States remained highly
influenced by British culture, even though improvements had been made in
communication in the United States.
After gaining its independence from Great Britain, the United States experienced
rapid improvements in communication.
In the early nineteenth century, most magazines and newspapers in the United
States dealt with British values, standards, literature, and art.
Communication improved rapidly in the nineteenth century, as demonstrated by
the great growth in the number of magazines and newspapers.

2. The word "distinguished" in the passage is closest in meaning to

Yet, interest in the arts and the cultural institutions that sustain them was rapidly growing
in America. To be sure, cultural institutions were difficult to create in the South, mainly
because the population was so widely dispersed; and in the West, dominated in this era by
pioneers, the emphasis was on the practical rather than on the literary or artistic. But many
eastern seaboard cities were actively building the cultural foundation that would nurture
distinctively American art and literature. During these years, Philadelphia's American
Philosophical Society, founded by Benjamin Franklin in 1743, boasted a distinguished
roster of scientists, including Thomas Jefferson, concurrently its president and president of
the United States. Culturally, Boston ran a close second to Philadelphia, founding the
Boston Athenaeum (1807), an impressive library and reading room containing "works of
learning and science in all languages, particularly such rare and expensive publications as
are not generally to be found in this country," The North American Review, which became
the most important and long-lasting intellectual magazine in the country, was published in
Boston. Devoted to keeping its readers in touch with European intellectual developments,
it had a circulation of 3,000 in 1826, about the same as similar British journals.

varied
very large
highly respected
newly formed

3. In paragraph 2, why does the author discuss the Boston Athenaeum?

Yet, interest in the arts and the cultural institutions that sustain them was rapidly growing
in America. To be sure, cultural institutions were difficult to create in the South, mainly
because the population was so widely dispersed; and in the West, dominated in this era by
pioneers, the emphasis was on the practical rather than on the literary or artistic. But many
eastern seaboard cities were actively building the cultural foundation that would nurture
distinctively American art and literature. During these years, Philadelphia's American
Philosophical Society, founded by Benjamin Franklin in 1743, boasted a distinguished
roster of scientists, including Thomas Jefferson, concurrently its president and president of
the United States. Culturally, Boston ran a close second to Philadelphia, founding the
Boston Athenaeum (1807), an impressive library and reading room containing "works of
learning and science in all languages, particularly such rare and expensive publications as
are not generally to be found in this country," The North American Review,which became
the most important and long-lasting intellectual magazine in the country, was published in
Boston. Devoted to keeping its readers in touch with European intellectual developments,
it had a circulation of 3,000 in 1826, about the same as similar British journals.

To suggest that Boston in general was culturally superior to Philadelphia

To provide an example of a cultural organization founded by a president of the
United States
To support the claim that cities in the East were building American cultural
institutions
To argue that there were organizations founded to challenge the influence of
Philadelphia's American Philosophical Society

4. According to paragraph 2, which of the following is true of the North American

Review?

Yet, interest in the arts and the cultural institutions that sustain them was rapidly growing
in America. To be sure, cultural institutions were difficult to create in the South, mainly
because the population was so widely dispersed; and in the West, dominated in this era by
pioneers, the emphasis was on the practical rather than on the literary or artistic. But many
eastern seaboard cities were actively building the cultural foundation that would nurture
distinctively American art and literature. During these years, Philadelphia's American
Philosophical Society, founded by Benjamin Franklin in 1743, boasted a distinguished
roster of scientists, including Thomas Jefferson, concurrently its president and president of
the United States. Culturally, Boston ran a close second to Philadelphia, founding the
Boston Athenaeum (1807), an impressive library and reading room containing "works of
learning and science in all languages, particularly such rare and expensive publications as
are not generally to be found in this country," The North American Review,which became
the most important and long-lasting intellectual magazine in the country, was published in
Boston. Devoted to keeping its readers in touch with European intellectual developments,
it had a circulation of 3,000 in 1826, about the same as similar British journals.

It had about as many readers as similar British magazines had.

It was published by the Boston Athenaeum.
It was written by European intellectuals.
It focused on intellectual developments in the United States.

5. According to paragraph 3, which of the following is true of the Leatherstocking

novels?

Of the eastern cities, New York produced the first widely recognized American writers. In
1809, Washington Irving published America's first great book of comic literature -A History
of New York- a humorous account of life in New York both in colonial times and in Irving's
own day. James Fenimore Cooper's Leatherstocking novels (of which The Last of the
Mohicans, published in 1826, is the best known) achieved wide success in both America
and Europe. In these novels, Cooper established the American experience of westward
expansion as a serious and distinctive American theme.

They included America's first great book of comic literature.

They were widely read within the United States but were unknown outside that
country.
They were more popular than comic literature.
They began a tradition of literature dealing with America's westward expansion.

6. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 4 as being true of Emerson's

view of art EXCEPT:

It was New England, however, that saw itself as the home of American cultural
independence from Europe, a claim voiced in 1837 by Ralph Waldo Emerson in a lecture at
Harvard: "Our day of dependence, our long apprenticeship to the learning of other lands,
draws to a close," Emerson announced. Rather than draw on British models, American
artists, Emerson argued, should seek inspiration from the ordinary details of daily
American life. Immensely popular, Emerson gave more than 1,500 lectures in 20 states
between 1833 and 1860. "The American Scholar," his most famous lecture, carried a
message of cultural self-sufficiency that Americans were eager to hear.

It was based on ideas that Emerson first heard in a famous lecture when he was
at Harvard.
It focused on making day-to-day aspects of American life serve as sources of
artistic inspiration.
It was popular with American readers and audiences.
It stressed that the art of American artists could contribute to cultural
independence.

7. Paragraph 5 suggests which of the following about Thomas Cole's paintings?

Artists in this period were as successful as writers in finding American themes. Thomas
Cole, who came to the United States from England in 1818, found great inspiration in the
American landscape. Cole founded the Hudson River School of American Painting, whose
romantic renderings of New York landscapes were frankly nationalistic. Other painters
-realists such as Karl Bodmer and George Catlin- drew on the dramatic landscapes and
peoples of the American West. Their art was an important contribution to the American
sense of the land and to the nation's identity. Catlin, driven by a need to document Native
American life, spent eight years among the tribes along the upper Missouri River. Then, he
assembled his collection of more than 500 paintings and toured the country in an effort to
increase the public's awareness and appreciation of Native American lifeways. George
Caleb Bingham, an accomplished genre painter, produced somewhat tidied-up scenes of
real-life American workers, such as flatboat men on the Missouri River. All these painters
found much to record and celebrate in American life. Ironically, the inspiration for the most
prevalent theme, the American wilderness, was profoundly endangered by the rapid
western settlement of which the nation was so proud. Despite such contradictions, the
early nineteenth century was the period in which writers and painters found the national
themes that defined the first distinctively American literature and art.

They featured realistic portrayals of the peoples of the American West.

They portrayed the New York landscape as more impressive than it was.
They influenced realists such as Karl Bodmer and George Catlin.
They often made comparisons between the United States and England.
8. According to paragraph 5, George Catlin did all of the following EXCEPT:

Artists in this period were as successful as writers in finding American themes. Thomas
Cole, who came to the United States from England in 1818, found great inspiration in the
American landscape. Cole founded the Hudson River School of American Painting, whose
romantic renderings of New York landscapes were frankly nationalistic. Other painters
-realists such as Karl Bodmer and George Catlin- drew on the dramatic landscapes and
peoples of the American West. Their art was an important contribution to the American
sense of the land and to the nation's identity. Catlin, driven by a need to document Native
American life, spent eight years among the tribes along the upper Missouri River. Then, he
assembled his collection of more than 500 paintings and toured the country in an effort to
increase the public's awareness and appreciation of Native American lifeways. George
Caleb Bingham, an accomplished genre painter, produced somewhat tidied-up scenes of
real-life American workers, such as flatboat men on the Missouri River. All these painters
found much to record and celebrate in American life. Ironically, the inspiration for the most
prevalent theme, the American wilderness, was profoundly endangered by the rapid
western settlement of which the nation was so proud. Despite such contradictions, the
early nineteenth century was the period in which writers and painters found the national
themes that defined the first distinctively American literature and art.

establish the Hudson River School of American Painting

live with and paint Native Americans for eight years
take his paintings around the country to teach people about Native Americans
create realistic portrayals of life along the upper Missouri River

9. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be
added to the passage.

New York was not the only source of artistic inspiration around this time.

Where would the sentence best fit?

Click on a square [■] to insert the sentence in passage.

Artists in this period were as successful as writers in finding American themes.■ Thomas
Cole, who came to the United States from England in 1818, found great inspiration in the
American landscape.■ Cole founded the Hudson River School of American Painting, whose
romantic renderings of New York landscapes were frankly nationalistic.■ Other painters
-realists such as Karl Bodmer and George Catlin- drew on the dramatic landscapes and
peoples of the American West.■ Their art was an important contribution to the American
sense of the land and to the nation's identity. Catlin, driven by a need to document Native
American life, spent eight years among the tribes along the upper Missouri River. Then, he
assembled his collection of more than 500 paintings and toured the country in an effort to
increase the public's awareness and appreciation of Native American lifeways. George
Caleb Bingham, an accomplished genre painter, produced somewhat tidied-up scenes of
real-life American workers, such as flatboat men on the Missouri River. All these painters
found much to record and celebrate in American life. Ironically, the inspiration for the most
prevalent theme, the American wilderness, was profoundly endangered by the rapid
western settlement of which the nation was so proud. Despite such contradictions, the
early nineteenth century was the period in which writers and painters found the national
themes that defined the first distinctively American literature and art.

10. Direction: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided
below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the
most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary
because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the
passage. This question is worth 2 points.

In the nineteenth century, the United States started to develop its own cultural
institutions and styles.

A. The rapid improvements in communication in the United States meant that readers
in other countries, such as those of the Edinburgh Review, could learn about American
cultural life.

B. Authors Washington Irving and James Fenimore Cooper were widely recognized, and
Ralph Waldo Emerson gave popular lectures advocating for American cultural
self-sufficiency.

C. The Hudson River School specialized in romanticized landscapes, while some other
American painters produced realistic portraits of American peoples and places, particularly
of the West.

D. The American Philosophical Society included many distinguished scientists, and Boston
boasted an impressive new library and a respectable and widely distributed intellectual
journal.

E. Cultural institutions in the South and West could not compete with those on the eastern
seaboard, which had advantages in terms of greater wealth and connections to Europe.

F. Fearing the loss of the American wilderness, painters such as Cole, Catlin, and Bingham
criticized the rapid western settlement of which the nation was so proud.
 Development of Intensive Agriculture
Anthropologists and scientists in other fields have long been concerned with the origins of
intensive farming and early civilization, with the social and economic structure of rural
society, and with the strategies that have enabled diverse populations to adapt to
environmental and other problems. Agricultural intensification involves increasing the yield
from labor or land. This implies that due to the complex ways in which land and labor are
interrelated, there is more than one route to intensification. Generally, the perspective of
most American or European economists is to concentrate on labor. Agricultural history is
usually described in terms of progress in labor-saving technology -the plow, seed drills,
cultivators, and the like- because the economies of the Western world experienced labor
shortages over much of their histories. Technology, of course, not only may increase food
production by allowing the same labor force to cultivate more land but also may free up
labor for other endeavors. Thus, Australia, Canada, and the United States produce massive
amounts of food with a relatively small rural labor force.

Production can also be intensified by increasing the productivity of land without reducing
the labor requirements; that is, expanding production by using an existing labor force or
even a larger one. This can be important, for example, where there are few alternative
sources for employment, as is often the case in densely populated developing countries.
Irrigation and the introduction of new crop strains are well-known examples of this form of
intensification. Water control may allow for multiple harvests of a particular crop; new
plant strains may also increase productivity without new capital input needed to reduce
labor requirements.

One of the most ancient (and still important) ways land productivity can be increased is
through water management. So diverse are the ways in which moisture can be controlled
that it is somewhat misleading to refer to them all as irrigation." Simply adding small stones
to fields, as did some ancient peoples of North America, can enhance the field's ability to
retain moisture. In this sense, irrigation, or, at least, "moisture control," is as early as
agriculture itself. Archaeological evidence in the Middle East indicates that simple systems
of water control predate the rise of large agrarian states with their concomitantly dense
populations. Populations near rivers or marshes would simply capture or divert annual
floodwaters or runoff from rains. The term "irrigation" refers to actually transporting water
to the field and then managing its direct application and subsequent drainage, since
drainage is important in order to maintain a salt-free soil base.
The earliest known large-scale system of irrigation in Egypt appears with the emergence of
one government throughout that land in 5100 B.C. We know that even fairly complicated
irrigation systems can be managed by local farmers, although the potential for interfamilial
or intercommunity conflict is substantial. People who share a common water resource may
have very different interests in its use. As a consequence, we see a widespread pattern of
large-scale irrigation systems that come to be run by special managers, with a
corresponding lessening of control by households or even by local communities.
Centralized decision-making facilitates the mobilization of large workforces, allocation of
water, conflict resolution, and storage of surpluses.

In the emerging prehistoric states of Mesopotamia, this managerial role was first assumed
by religious leaders and only later by secular rulers. It is interesting to note a similar
pattern in large-scale irrigation systems in the southwest United States that were managed
by the Mormon Church (a religious organization) in the nineteenth century. Making water
control feasible required centralized control by a committed bureaucracy willing to use
resources to sustain building and rebuilding dams and canals beyond the ability of local
communities.

The main impetus for irrigation, in most places, is simply the need to have water available
in areas where rainfall is unpredictable -not necessarily a wish to increase the average yield
of a unit of land. But with the advent of irrigation, slight differences in the productivity of
different pieces of land become greatly magnified. Fields that lend themselves to irrigation
-fields close to the water source or that drain well- produce far more than those less suited
to irrigation.

1. The word "adapt" in the passage is closest in meaning to

Anthropologists and scientists in other fields have long been concerned with the origins of
intensive farming and early civilization, with the social and economic structure of rural
society, and with the strategies that have enabled diverse populations to adapt to
environmental and other problems. Agricultural intensification involves increasing the yield
from labor or land. This implies that due to the complex ways in which land and labor are
interrelated, there is more than one route to intensification. Generally, the perspective of
most American or European economists is to concentrate on labor. Agricultural history is
usually described in terms of progress in labor-saving technology -the plow, seed drills,
cultivators, and the like- because the economies of the Western world experienced labor
shortages over much of their histories. Technology, of course, not only may increase food
production by allowing the same labor force to cultivate more land but also may free up
labor for other endeavors. Thus, Australia, Canada, and the United States produce massive
amounts of food with a relatively small rural labor force.

attend
refer
adjust
respond

2. According to paragraph 1, when discussing agriculture, economists in the

United States and Europe have focused on labor for which the following reasons?

Anthropologists and scientists in other fields have long been concerned with the origins of
intensive farming and early civilization, with the social and economic structure of rural
society, and with the strategies that have enabled diverse populations to adapt to
environmental and other problems. Agricultural intensification involves increasing the yield
from labor or land. This implies that due to the complex ways in which land and labor are
interrelated, there is more than one route to intensification. Generally, the perspective of
most American or European economists is to concentrate on labor. Agricultural history is
usually described in terms of progress in labor-saving technology -the plow, seed drills,
cultivators, and the like- because the economies of the Western world experienced labor
shortages over much of their histories. Technology, of course, not only may increase food
production by allowing the same labor force to cultivate more land but also may free up
labor for other endeavors. Thus, Australia, Canada, and the United States produce massive
amounts of food with a relatively small rural labor force.

The economic structures in the United States and Europe have been based on
rural society.
The United Sates and Europe have historically lacked a sufficient workforce.
The environmental conditions in the United States and Europe have made
working the land there particularly difficult
The number of laborers in the United States and Europe has continuously
expanded.
3. Why does the author indicate that "The term "irrigation" refers to actually
transporting water to the field and then managing its direct application and
subsequent drainage"?

One of the most ancient (and still important) ways land productivity can be increased is
through water management. So diverse are the ways in which moisture can be controlled
that it is somewhat misleading to refer to them all as irrigation." Simply adding small stones
to fields, as did some ancient peoples of North America, can enhance the field's ability to
retain moisture. In this sense, irrigation, or, at least, "moisture control," is as early as
agriculture itself. Archaeological evidence in the Middle East indicates that simple systems
of water control predate the rise of large agrarian states with their concomitantly dense
populations. Populations near rivers or marshes would simply capture or divert annual
floodwaters or runoff from rains. The term "irrigation" refers to actually transporting water
to the field and then managing its direct application and subsequent drainage, since
drainage is important in order to maintain a salt-free soil base.

To demonstrate how much labor was involved in making the water salt-free
To argue that salt-free water is only possible with drainage
To indicate what populations near rivers and marshes do after capturing and
diverting water
To distinguish irrigation from simply capturing and diverting water

4. According to paragraph 3, some ancient peoples of North America kept water

available to their crops by doing which of the following?

One of the most ancient (and still important) ways land productivity can be increased is
through water management. So diverse are the ways in which moisture can be controlled
that it is somewhat misleading to refer to them all as irrigation." Simply adding small stones
to fields, as did some ancient peoples of North America, can enhance the field's ability to
retain moisture. In this sense, irrigation, or, at least, "moisture control," is as early as
agriculture itself. Archaeological evidence in the Middle East indicates that simple systems
of water control predate the rise of large agrarian states with their concomitantly dense
populations. Populations near rivers or marshes would simply capture or divert annual
floodwaters or runoff from rains. The term "irrigation" refers to actually transporting water
to the field and then managing its direct application and subsequent drainage, since
drainage is important in order to maintain a salt-free soil base.
 Diverting annual floodwaters into their fields
Collecting runoff from rains
Putting small stones in the soil
Transporting water to their fields

5. According to paragraph 3, archaeological evidence indicates which of the

following about water control in the Middle East?

One of the most ancient (and still important) ways land productivity can be increased is
through water management. So diverse are the ways in which moisture can be controlled
that it is somewhat misleading to refer to them all as irrigation." Simply adding small stones
to fields, as did some ancient peoples of North America, can enhance the field's ability to
retain moisture. In this sense, irrigation, or, at least, "moisture control," is as early as
agriculture itself. Archaeological evidence in the Middle East indicates that simple systems
of water control predate the rise of large agrarian states with their concomitantly dense
populations. Populations near rivers or marshes would simply capture or divert annual
floodwaters or runoff from rains. The term "irrigation" refers to actually transporting water
to the field and then managing its direct application and subsequent drainage, since
drainage is important in order to maintain a salt-free soil base.

Water control was introduced by organized governments.

Large populations forced governments to begin water control systems.
Systems to control water developed before there were heavily populated states.
Water management was necessary because of annual floods

6. What does paragraph 4 suggest about management of irrigation systems by

local farmers?

The earliest known large-scale system of irrigation in Egypt appears with the emergence of
one government throughout that land in 5100 B.C. We know that even fairly complicated
irrigation systems can be managed by local farmers, although the potential for interfamilial
or intercommunity conflict is substantial. People who share a common water resource may
have very different interests in its use. As a consequence, we see a widespread pattern of
large-scale irrigation systems that come to be run by special managers, with a
corresponding lessening of control by households or even by local communities.
Centralized decision-making facilitates the mobilization of large workforces, allocation of
water, conflict resolution, and storage of surpluses.

Control by farmers is less successful at resolving conflicts over water use than
control by special managers is.
Local farmers manage complex irrigation systems better than governments can.
Irrigation systems are too complicated for local farmers to manage by
themselves.
Local farmers can manage irrigation successfully if large workforces are present.

7. Why does the author mention in paragraph 5 that the Mormon Church
managed irrigation systems during the nineteenth century?

In the emerging prehistoric states of Mesopotamia, this managerial role was first assumed
by religious leaders and only later by secular rulers. It is interesting to note a similar
pattern in large-scale irrigation systems in the southwest United States that were managed
by the Mormon Church (a religious organization) in the nineteenth century. Making water
control feasible required centralized control by a committed bureaucracy willing to use
resources to sustain building and rebuilding dams and canals beyond the ability of local
communities.

To contrast the ways in which ancient and modern systems of irrigation have
been managed
To argue that religious leaders have sometimes opposed the management of
irrigation systems by secular rulers
To show that the involvement of religious leaders in irrigation management is
not limited to ancient civilizations
To illustrate the advances made in the management of irrigation systems by
using a wide variety of historical evidence

8. The phrase “suited to" in the passage is closest in meaning to

The main impetus for irrigation, in most places, is simply the need to have water available
in areas where rainfall is unpredictable -not necessarily a wish to increase the average yield
of a unit of land. But with the advent of irrigation, slight differences in the productivity of
different pieces of land become greatly magnified. Fields that lend themselves to irrigation
-fields close to the water source or that drain well- produce far more than those less suited
to irrigation.

prepared for
appropriate for
exposed to
disturbed by

9. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be
added to the passage.

Removing water management from local control has benefits beyond ensuring fair
distribution of resources.

Where would the sentence best fit?

Click on a square [■] to insert the sentence in passage.

The earliest known large-scale system of irrigation in Egypt appears with the emergence of
one government throughout that land in 5100 B.C.■ We know that even fairly complicated
irrigation systems can be managed by local farmers, although the potential for interfamilial
or intercommunity conflict is substantial.■ People who share a common water resource
may have very different interests in its use.■ As a consequence, we see a widespread
pattern of large-scale irrigation systems that come to be run by special managers, with a
corresponding lessening of control by households or even by local communities.
Centralized decision-making facilitates the mobilization of large workforces, allocation of
water, conflict resolution, and storage of surpluses.■

10. Direction: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided
below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the
most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary
because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the
passage. This question is worth 2 points.

Different populations have used different methods to address the need to increase
agricultural production.
A. The introduction of new crops usually makes the use of water management less
important.

B. Water control, or irrigation, has long been an important way to increase the productivity
of fields.

C. American and European economists have studied agricultural history to find

explanations for food shortages.

D. Land productivity in the Western world was intensified through the development of new
tools that allowed crops to be grown with less labor.

E. Local farmers and religious communities usually work together make water available
when there is little rainfall.

F. Centralized management is historically necessary for large-scale irrigation to be

successful.
Answers:
1. A
2. C
3. C
4. A
5. D
6. A
7. B
8. A
9. C
10. BCD
11. C
12. B
13. D
14. C
15. C
16. A
17. C
18. B
19. C
20. BDF