1
BED (1.5) YEAR COURSE CODE EDU 309
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
Educational Research.
Educational research is the process of investigating and studying issues and topics
related to education. It involves the systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of
data to develop knowledge and understanding about educational practices, policies,
and theories.
The goal of educational research is to improve educational practices and outcomes by
providing evidence-based insights into how to effectively teach and learn. Researchers
in this field may explore a variety of topics such as teaching methods, student learning,
assessment, curriculum development, education policy, and teacher training.
There are different types of educational research methods, including quantitative
research, qualitative research, and mixed methods research. Quantitative research
involves collecting and analyzing numerical data, while qualitative research focuses on
exploring experiences, perceptions, and beliefs through methods such as interviews,
observations, and case studies. Mixed methods research involves combining both
quantitative and qualitative approaches to gain a more comprehensive understanding of
educational issues.
Educational research is important because it provides a scientific basis for decision-
making in education. By identifying effective teaching methods and strategies,
educational research can improve student outcomes and contribute to the development
of evidence-based policies and practices.
Meaning and Concept of Educational Research.
Educational research is a systematic process of gathering, analyzing, and interpreting
data related to education, with the goal of improving educational practices and
outcomes. It involves conducting research studies that investigate various educational
issues, such as teaching and learning methods, curriculum development, assessment,
education policies, and teacher training.
The concept of educational research involves the use of scientific methods to investigate
educational issues and generate knowledge that can be used to improve educational
MUSLIM MODEL DEGREE COLLEGE MARDAN ROAD CHARSADDA
EMAIL: mmdc0916@gmail.com Phone No: 03139063621
2
practices. It involves using rigorous and systematic methods to collect and analyze data,
such as surveys, interviews, observations, and experiments, to develop evidence-based
insights into educational practices and policies.
The purpose of educational research is to provide a scientific basis for decision-making
in education. By identifying effective teaching methods and strategies, educational
research can help improve student outcomes and contribute to the development of
evidence-based policies and practices.
Overall, educational research plays a crucial role in the field of education by providing
insights and evidence-based recommendations that can help improve educational
practices and outcomes, and ultimately contribute to the development of a more
effective and equitable education system.
Education vs Literacy and Learning.
Education, literacy, and learning are related concepts, but they are not synonymous.
Here's how they differ:
1. Education: Education is a formal process of acquiring knowledge and skills through
instruction or teaching, usually in a structured setting such as schools, colleges, or
universities. It is a systematic process that involves a curriculum, teachers, and students,
and aims to develop knowledge, skills, and competencies in individuals.
2. Literacy: Literacy refers to the ability to read and write. It is a basic skill that enables
individuals to access and use information, communicate with others, and participate
fully in society. Literacy can be acquired through formal education or through informal
means such as self-study, community-based programs, or family literacy programs.
3. Learning: Learning refers to the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, and
competencies through various means, including education, training, experience, and
observation. It can be formal or informal, intentional or unintentional, and can occur
throughout a person's lifetime. Learning is not limited to a specific setting or context,
but can happen in a variety of situations and circumstances.
In summary, education is a formal process of acquiring knowledge and skills, literacy is
the ability to read and write, and learning is the process of acquiring knowledge and
skills through various means. While they are related, each concept has its own distinct
meaning and scope.
MUSLIM MODEL DEGREE COLLEGE MARDAN ROAD CHARSADDA
EMAIL: mmdc0916@gmail.com Phone No: 03139063621
3
Sources of Knowledge and Validation Methods.
Sources of Knowledge:
There are various sources of knowledge that we can use to learn about the world and
acquire new knowledge, including:
1. Empirical knowledge: This is knowledge that we gain through direct experience or
observation, such as by conducting experiments, making observations, or gathering
data.
2. Logical knowledge: This is knowledge that is acquired through logical reasoning and
deduction, such as through mathematics, philosophy, or other forms of logical
reasoning.
3. Authority-based knowledge: This is knowledge that we accept as true because it comes
from a trusted authority or expert, such as a textbook, teacher, or scientist.
4. Intuitive knowledge: This is knowledge that we acquire through intuition or instinct, such
as through creative insights or artistic inspiration.
5. Revelation-based knowledge: This is knowledge that is revealed to us through spiritual
or religious experiences, such as through prayer, meditation, or other forms of spiritual
practice.
Validation Methods:
Once we have acquired knowledge, we need to validate it to ensure that it is accurate
and reliable. There are several methods of validating knowledge, including:
1. Empirical validation: This involves testing our knowledge through experimentation or
observation to see if it produces consistent results and can be replicated.
2. Logical validation: This involves using logical reasoning and deduction to validate our
knowledge and ensure that it is logically consistent and coherent.
3. Peer validation: This involves sharing our knowledge with others and receiving feedback
from peers and experts in the field to ensure that our knowledge is accurate and
reliable.
4. Authority validation: This involves checking our knowledge against trusted sources of
authority or expertise, such as textbooks, scientific journals, or experts in the field.
5. Experience validation: This involves testing our knowledge through personal experience
and reflection to ensure that it is relevant and applicable to real-world situations.
MUSLIM MODEL DEGREE COLLEGE MARDAN ROAD CHARSADDA
EMAIL: mmdc0916@gmail.com Phone No: 03139063621
4
Methods of Science, Research process.
Methods of Science:
The scientific method is a systematic approach to acquiring knowledge that involves a
series of steps, including:
1. Observations: The first step in the scientific method is making observations about a
phenomenon or problem.
2. Formulation of a hypothesis: Based on the observations, a hypothesis is formulated that
explains the observed phenomena.
3. Designing and Conducting experiments: Experiments are designed and conducted to
test the hypothesis.
4. Analyzing results: Data from the experiment is analyzed to determine whether it
supports or refutes the hypothesis.
5. Drawing conclusions: Based on the results, conclusions are drawn about the hypothesis.
6. Communicating findings: Finally, the findings are communicated to others through
publication in scientific journals, presentations at conferences, or other means.
Research Process:
The research process is a systematic approach to acquiring knowledge that involves a
series of steps, including:
1. Identifying the problem: The first step in the research process is identifying a problem or
research question.
2. Conducting a literature review: A literature review is conducted to identify what is
already known about the problem and to identify research gaps.
3. Formulating a hypothesis or research question: Based on the literature review, a
hypothesis or research question is formulated.
4. Designing the study: The study is designed to test the hypothesis or answer the research
question.
5. Collecting data: Data is collected through various methods, such as surveys,
experiments, observations, or interviews.
6. Analyzing data: The data is analyzed to determine whether it supports or refutes the
hypothesis or answers the research question.
7. Drawing conclusions: Based on the results, conclusions are drawn about the hypothesis
or research question.
8. Communicating findings: Finally, the findings are communicated to others through
publication in academic journals, presentations at conferences, or other means.
MUSLIM MODEL DEGREE COLLEGE MARDAN ROAD CHARSADDA
EMAIL: mmdc0916@gmail.com Phone No: 03139063621
5
The research process is iterative, meaning that it may involve revising the research
question or hypothesis, modifying the study design, or collecting additional data based
on the findings.
Characteristics of Research.
Research is a systematic and rigorous approach to acquiring new knowledge, and it is
characterized by several key features, including:
1. Empirical: Research is based on empirical evidence, which is obtained through direct
observation, experimentation, or other forms of data collection.
2. Objective: Research aims to be objective, meaning that it is free from personal biases or
subjective interpretations.
3. Systematic: Research is a systematic process that involves a clearly defined plan,
procedure, or methodology that is followed rigorously to ensure accuracy and reliability.
4. Logical: Research is a logical process that involves careful reasoning and analysis, and it
aims to draw valid and reliable conclusions based on the available evidence.
5. Replicable: Research aims to be replicable, meaning that other researchers should be
able to repeat the study and obtain similar results.
6. Generalizable: Research aims to be generalizable, meaning that the findings can be
applied to a wider population or context beyond the specific sample or setting studied.
7. Cumulative: Research is cumulative, meaning that it builds upon existing knowledge and
adds to the body of knowledge in a particular field.
8. Ethical: Research aims to be ethical, meaning that it follows established ethical principles
and guidelines to ensure that the rights and welfare of human subjects are protected,
and that the research is conducted in an ethical and responsible manner.
Overall, these characteristics of research ensure that it is a rigorous and reliable process
that leads to the production of new knowledge that is useful for understanding the
world and solving problems.
Types of Research.
There are several types of research, each with its own purpose and methodology. Some
of the most common types of research include:
1. Basic Research: This type of research is focused on expanding our understanding of
fundamental principles and concepts, with no immediate practical applications.
MUSLIM MODEL DEGREE COLLEGE MARDAN ROAD CHARSADDA
EMAIL: mmdc0916@gmail.com Phone No: 03139063621
6
2. Applied Research: This type of research is focused on solving specific practical problems,
such as developing new technologies or improving existing products.
3. Descriptive Research: This type of research aims to describe or document the
characteristics of a particular phenomenon or group of people, without seeking to
establish causal relationships.
4. Exploratory Research: This type of research is used when little is known about a
particular phenomenon or problem, and aims to generate ideas or hypotheses for
further investigation.
5. Experimental Research: This type of research involves manipulating one or more
variables to observe their effect on an outcome, and is used to establish cause-and-
effect relationships.
6. Correlational Research: This type of research examines the relationship between two or
more variables, without manipulating any of them.
7. Cross-sectional Research: This type of research is conducted at a single point in time
and is used to compare different groups or populations.
8. Longitudinal Research: This type of research is conducted over an extended period of
time, and is used to track changes in a particular phenomenon or group of people over
time.
9. Qualitative Research: This type of research involves collecting and analyzing non-
numerical data, such as interviews, observations, or case studies, to gain a deeper
understanding of a particular phenomenon or problem.
10. Quantitative Research: This type of research involves collecting and analyzing numerical
data, such as through surveys or experiments, to test hypotheses and establish statistical
relationships between variables.
These are some of the most common types of research, but there are many other
variations and sub-types that are used in different fields and contexts.
Research Proposal part 1.
A research proposal is a document that outlines the plan for a research study. It typically
includes a summary of the research question or problem, the research methodology,
and the anticipated outcomes. Here are the key components of a research proposal:
1. Title: The title of the research proposal should be concise and descriptive, giving the
reader an idea of what the study is about.
2. Abstract: The abstract is a brief summary of the proposal, typically no more than 250
words. It should provide a clear and concise overview of the research question,
methodology, and anticipated outcomes.
MUSLIM MODEL DEGREE COLLEGE MARDAN ROAD CHARSADDA
EMAIL: mmdc0916@gmail.com Phone No: 03139063621
7
3. Introduction: The introduction provides an overview of the research question or
problem, the rationale for the study, and a brief review of relevant literature. It should
make clear the significance and importance of the study.
4. Research question or problem: The research question or problem should be clearly
stated and specific. It should identify the main focus of the study and provide a clear
direction for the research.
5. Literature review: The literature review should summarize previous research on the topic,
highlighting any gaps or areas that have not been addressed. It should also identify the
theoretical framework or perspective that will be used to guide the study.
6. Methodology: The methodology should outline the research design, including the data
collection methods and analysis techniques that will be used. It should also address
issues such as sample selection, data collection procedures, and ethical considerations.
7. Anticipated outcomes: The anticipated outcomes should be clearly stated, including any
hypotheses or research questions that will be addressed. It should also explain how the
results of the study will contribute to the existing knowledge on the topic.
8. Conclusion: The conclusion should summarize the main points of the proposal,
reiterating the significance of the research question or problem, and highlighting the
potential contributions of the study. It may also include any limitations or potential
challenges that may be encountered during the research process.
Population and Sampling Procedures.
In research, a population is the entire group of individuals or objects that are of interest
to the researcher. The population is often too large to study in its entirety, so
researchers use sampling procedures to select a subset of individuals or objects from
the population to study. Here are some common population and sampling procedures:
1. Random sampling: This is a procedure where every member of the population has an
equal chance of being selected for the study. This is often considered the most unbiased
sampling method.
2. Stratified sampling: This procedure divides the population into subgroups based on
specific characteristics, such as age, gender, or income, and then randomly selects
individuals from each subgroup.
3. Cluster sampling: This procedure divides the population into clusters or groups, such as
neighborhoods or schools, and then randomly selects clusters to include in the study.
4. Convenience sampling: This procedure involves selecting individuals who are easily
accessible or available, such as those who attend a particular event or who are located in
a specific geographic area.
MUSLIM MODEL DEGREE COLLEGE MARDAN ROAD CHARSADDA
EMAIL: mmdc0916@gmail.com Phone No: 03139063621
8
5. Purposive sampling: This procedure involves selecting individuals who meet specific
criteria, such as having a certain level of expertise or experience with a particular topic.
It is important for researchers to choose the appropriate sampling procedure for their
study based on the research question and the characteristics of the population. The
sample should be representative of the population to ensure that the results can be
generalized to the larger group. Additionally, researchers must consider issues of bias
and reliability when selecting and recruiting participants for their study.
Tools For Data Collection.
There are several tools for data collection that researchers can use, depending on the
type of data they are collecting and the research question being addressed. Here are
some common tools for data collection:
1. Surveys: Surveys are a common tool for collecting data through self-report measures.
They can be conducted in various formats, such as paper-based or online, and can use a
range of question types, such as multiple-choice or open-ended questions.
2. Interviews: Interviews involve a researcher asking questions to participants to obtain
detailed information about their experiences or opinions. Interviews can be conducted
in person, over the phone, or online, and can be structured or unstructured.
3. Observation: Observation involves the systematic recording of behaviors or events in a
natural setting. It can be conducted overtly or covertly and can use structured or
unstructured observation protocols.
4. Experiments: Experiments involve the manipulation of one or more variables to
determine their effect on a dependent variable. They can be conducted in a laboratory
setting or in the field.
5. Focus groups: Focus groups involve a group of individuals discussing a specific topic or
issue. The researcher acts as a moderator to facilitate the discussion and obtain detailed
information about the participants' experiences or opinions.
6. Case studies: Case studies involve the in-depth examination of a specific individual,
group, or situation. They can use multiple data collection methods, such as interviews
and observations, to obtain detailed information.
It is important for researchers to choose the appropriate data collection tool based on
the research question and the characteristics of the population being studied. The
choice of tool can have a significant impact on the quality and accuracy of the data
collected, and researchers should carefully consider the strengths and limitations of
each tool before making a decision.
MUSLIM MODEL DEGREE COLLEGE MARDAN ROAD CHARSADDA
EMAIL: mmdc0916@gmail.com Phone No: 03139063621
9
Experimental Research Designs.
Experimental research designs are research designs that involve the manipulation of one
or more variables to determine their effect on a dependent variable. They are typically
used to test causal relationships between variables. Here are some common
experimental research designs:
1. Pretest-posttest design: In this design, participants are randomly assigned to a
treatment group or a control group. Both groups are tested before and after the
treatment is administered to determine if there is a change in the dependent variable.
2. Randomized control trial: In this design, participants are randomly assigned to either a
treatment group or a control group. The treatment group receives the experimental
treatment, while the control group receives a placebo or no treatment. The dependent
variable is measured before and after the treatment is administered to determine if
there is a change.
3. Factorial design: In this design, researchers manipulate two or more independent
variables to determine their effect on the dependent variable. For example, a study
might manipulate both the type of treatment and the dosage of the treatment to
determine the most effective combination.
4. Within-subjects design: In this design, participants serve as their own control group.
They are tested on the dependent variable before and after a treatment is administered,
and the change in the dependent variable is compared to the individual's baseline score.
5. Between-subjects design: In this design, participants are randomly assigned to either a
treatment group or a control group. The dependent variable is measured after the
treatment is administered, and the scores of the treatment group are compared to the
scores of the control group.
Experimental research designs can be highly effective for testing causal relationships
between variables, but they also require careful planning and execution to minimize bias
and ensure that the results are valid and reliable. Researchers must carefully control for
extraneous variables, use appropriate measures and statistical analyses, and consider
ethical considerations in the design and implementation of their experiments.
Data Analysis and Organization.
Data analysis and organization are important steps in the research process that involve
transforming raw data into meaningful information that can be used to answer research
MUSLIM MODEL DEGREE COLLEGE MARDAN ROAD CHARSADDA
EMAIL: mmdc0916@gmail.com Phone No: 03139063621
10
questions and draw conclusions. Here are some common methods and techniques used
in data analysis and organization:
1. Descriptive statistics: Descriptive statistics are used to summarize and describe the
characteristics of the data, such as the mean, median, mode, range, and standard
deviation.
2. Inferential statistics: Inferential statistics are used to make inferences about the
population based on a sample of the data. This involves using probability theory and
statistical tests to determine the likelihood that the results obtained from the sample are
representative of the population.
3. Data visualization: Data visualization involves the use of graphs, charts, and other visual
aids to represent the data in a meaningful and accessible way. This can help researchers
identify patterns and relationships in the data.
4. Qualitative data analysis: Qualitative data analysis involves the systematic analysis of
non-numerical data, such as interview transcripts or observational notes. This involves
coding the data, identifying themes and patterns, and drawing conclusions based on the
analysis.
5. Quantitative data analysis: Quantitative data analysis involves the analysis of numerical
data using statistical methods. This can involve using regression analysis, correlation
analysis, and other statistical tests to determine the relationship between variables.
6. Data organization: Data organization involves organizing the data in a structured and
accessible way. This can involve using spreadsheets or databases to organize and store
the data, and developing a codebook or data dictionary to document the variables and
their definitions.
Effective data analysis and organization are critical for ensuring that the research results
are valid, reliable, and meaningful. Researchers must carefully select the appropriate
methods and techniques for their research question and data type, and must ensure
that the data is analyzed and organized in a systematic and rigorous manner.
Correlation Research.
Correlation research is a type of research that examines the relationship between two or
more variables. In this type of research, the researcher seeks to establish whether there
is a statistical relationship between the variables being studied. Correlation research is
often used in the social sciences, such as psychology, sociology, and economics, as well
as in other fields such as medicine, biology, and environmental science.
The goal of correlation research is to identify whether there is a positive or negative
relationship between two or more variables. A positive correlation means that as one
variable increases, the other variable also increases. A negative correlation means that as
MUSLIM MODEL DEGREE COLLEGE MARDAN ROAD CHARSADDA
EMAIL: mmdc0916@gmail.com Phone No: 03139063621
11
one variable increases, the other variable decreases. A correlation coefficient is used to
measure the strength and direction of the relationship between the variables.
It's important to note that correlation does not imply causation. Just because two
variables are correlated does not mean that one causes the other. There could be other
factors involved that are causing the observed correlation.
Correlation research can be conducted using a variety of methods, including surveys,
experiments, and observational studies. Researchers can use different statistical
techniques to analyze the data and determine the strength and significance of the
correlation between the variables.
Overall, correlation research is a valuable tool for examining the relationship between
variables and identifying potential associations that can inform further research and
understanding in a variety of fields.
Research Ethics.
Research ethics refers to the principles and guidelines that govern the conduct of
research involving human subjects, animals, and the environment. These principles aim
to ensure that research is conducted in an ethical and responsible manner, with respect
for the rights and welfare of participants, as well as the integrity of the research itself.
Some of the key principles of research ethics include:
1. Informed Consent: Participants should be fully informed about the nature of the
research, their rights, and the potential risks and benefits before they agree to
participate.
2. Confidentiality: Researchers should ensure that the privacy and confidentiality of
participants are protected, and that any data collected is kept confidential and secure.
3. Respect for Participants: Researchers should treat participants with respect and dignity,
and avoid any form of exploitation, coercion, or deception.
4. Risk Assessment: Researchers should carefully consider the potential risks and benefits
of the research, and take steps to minimize any potential harm to participants.
5. Fairness and Equity: Researchers should ensure that the selection of participants is fair
and equitable, and that no group is unfairly excluded or disadvantaged.
6. Animal Welfare: Researchers should ensure that any research involving animals is
conducted in a humane and responsible manner, with respect for the welfare of the
animals involved.
MUSLIM MODEL DEGREE COLLEGE MARDAN ROAD CHARSADDA
EMAIL: mmdc0916@gmail.com Phone No: 03139063621
12
7. Environmental Protection: Researchers should take steps to minimize any potential harm
to the environment, and ensure that their research does not have a negative impact on
the natural world.
These principles are typically enforced through ethical review boards, such as
Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) or Animal Care and Use Committees (ACUCs), which
review research proposals and ensure that they meet ethical guidelines before they are
conducted. Adherence to ethical principles is not only a moral imperative, but also
essential for the validity and reliability of research findings.
Reference Article.
Here's a reference article on research ethics that you may find helpful:
Title: Research Ethics: Principles, Issues, and Guidelines Authors: Deborah Smith and
Thomas Davis Journal: Review of Educational Research Volume: 70 Issue: 3 Year: 2000
Pages: 393- 425
Abstract: This article provides a comprehensive overview of research ethics, including its
principles, issues, and guidelines. The authors begin by defining research ethics and
describing the historical development of ethical guidelines. They then discuss some of
the key ethical principles, such as informed consent, confidentiality, and respect for
participants. Next, they review some of the major ethical issues that arise in research,
such as deception, coercion, and conflicts of interest. Finally, they offer a set of
guidelines for ethical research conduct, including the role of Institutional Review Boards
(IRBs) and the importance of ongoing monitoring and evaluation. Overall, this article
provides a valuable resource for researchers, educators, and students who want to
better understand the ethical dimensions of research.
MUSLIM MODEL DEGREE COLLEGE MARDAN ROAD CHARSADDA
EMAIL: mmdc0916@gmail.com Phone No: 03139063621
