Chapter 1

Introduction

Water scarcity and contamination represent significant challenges to global

environmental sustainability, posing threats to both ecosystems and human well-being.

Traditional water treatment methods often rely on synthetic chemicals, leading to concerns

about environmental impact and long-term sustainability. In this context, the quest for

innovative, eco-friendly solutions has become imperative.

Biochar, a carbon-rich material derived from the pyrolysis of biomass, has garnered

attention for its potential in environmental applications, particularly in soil improvement and

water treatment (Synthesis, Technology and Applications of Carbon Nanomaterials, 2019).

This research focuses on breaking fresh ground in the field of biochar application by

investigating the utilization of Kangkong (Ipomoea aquatica) stems, a readily available

biomass source, as a novel biochar for advanced water treatment.

Kangkong, also known as water spinach, is a resilient and fast-growing aquatic plant

that thrives in various climates. Its stems, often considered agricultural waste, possess a

unique composition that presents an opportunity to contribute to sustainable water

management. By converting Kangkong stems into biochar, we aim to explore a dual-purpose

solution: addressing plastic waste concerns and creating a biochar material tailored for

efficient water treatment.

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Hypothesis

H0: The application of kangkong stem-derived biochar in water treatment, particularly at

optimized levels determined through systematic experimentation, will result in a significant

enhancement of contaminant removal efficiency and improvement in water quality

parameters compared to untreated water samples.

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework of this study is centered around the pioneering use of

kangkong (Ipomoea aquatica) stems as a sustainable source for biomass-derived biochar in

water treatment, introducing an innovative approach to contaminant removal. This

framework encompasses several key dimensions, initiating with the meticulous selection of

kangkong stems as the biomass source for biochar production, influenced by factors such as

availability, sustainability, and chemical composition. The subsequent phase involves

employing pyrolysis methods to convert kangkong stems into biochar, characterized by its

physical and chemical properties to discern its composition and potential adsorption

capabilities.

Moving forward, the study delves into the application of kangkong stem-derived

biochar in water treatment, exploring its efficacy in removing various contaminants through

mechanisms like adsorption and ion exchange. Optimization of biochar application

parameters, including dosage, contact time, and pH conditions, is crucial to enhance

contaminant removal efficiency while ensuring practicality.

Sustainability and environmental impact assessments form another integral part of

the framework, encompassing a life cycle assessment to evaluate energy consumption,

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greenhouse gas emissions, and ecological footprint. Additionally, considerations for biochar

regeneration and reusability are explored to enhance the sustainability of the water treatment

process.

Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of the Study

This IPO diagram provides a structured representation of the inputs, processes, and

expected outputs of the study on using kangkong stem-derived biochar for sustainable water

treatment.

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Statement of the Problem

Water contamination and scarcity have emerged as critical global challenges,

impacting ecosystems and human health. Traditional water treatment methods often rely on

synthetic chemicals, raising concerns about environmental sustainability. Concurrently,

plastic waste exacerbates ecological issues. Although biochar has shown promise in water

treatment, there remains a gap in understanding the potential of Kangkong (Ipomoea

aquatica) stems as a biomass source for biochar synthesis and their efficacy in advanced

water treatment. This study aims to answer the following questions:

1. What is the measument values of the biochar treated and the untreated sample groups

in terms of:

1.1 Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

1.2 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

1.3 Potential of Hydrogen (pH)

1.4 Turbidity (NTU)

2. Is there significant difference between the two sample groups?

2.1 Were there significant differences in TSS levels between the biochar-treated and

untreated samples?

2.2 Did biochar treatment significantly affect the DO levels compared to the untreated

samples?

2.3 Was there a statistically significant difference in pH between the biochar-treated

and untreated samples?

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2.4 Did biochar treatment have a significant impact on the turbidity (NTU) compared

to the untreated samples?

Significance of the Study

The research addresses the growing need for sustainable and environmentally friendly

water treatment solutions. By exploring the efficacy of kangkong biochar, sourced from a

readily available agricultural residue, the study contributes to the development of

eco-conscious methods for water purification. Furthermore, the utilization of kangkong stems

not only showcases an innovative approach to biomass-derived biochar production but also

promotes the valorization of agricultural waste, aligning with principles of circular economy

and sustainable agricultural practices.

The study's focus on local resource empowerment is particularly noteworthy, as it has

the potential to economically benefit communities engaged in kangkong cultivation.

Additionally, the investigation delves into optimizing biochar application levels, ensuring

practicality and effectiveness in diverse water treatment scenarios. Beyond its immediate

applications, the study's consideration of the environmental sustainability of the kangkong

biochar approach contributes to a holistic understanding of its impact.

Scope and Limitations

The scope of this study is comprehensive, aiming to investigate the effectiveness and

environmental sustainability of utilizing kangkong (Ipomoea aquatica) stem-derived biochar

for water treatment. The research will systematically explore various biochar application

levels to determine the optimal dosage for contaminant removal, considering a range of

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concentrations. By delving into the underlying mechanisms, such as adsorption the study will

provide a thorough understanding of how kangkong biochar influences contaminant removal.

Additionally, the assessment of water quality parameters, including pH, turbidity

ensures a clear evaluation of the treated water's overall quality. The study's commitment to an

environmental sustainability assessment, through a life cycle analysis, addresses the broader

ecological implications of the kangkong biochar water treatment approach. Furthermore, the

optimization of biochar application conditions, encompassing dosage, contact time, and pH

levels, emphasizes the practical implementation of the research findings.

Additionally, the study recognizes the need for ongoing research to address long-term

effects, regeneration techniques.

Operational Definition of Terms

Kangkong Stem-Derived Biochar: Biochar derived from pyrolyzing kangkong (Ipomoea

aquatica) stems under controlled conditions.

Biochar Application Levels: Different concentrations of kangkong stem-derived biochar

applied to water samples, ranging from low to high levels, with specific measured quantities

in grams per liter.

Contaminant Removal Efficiency: The percentage reduction in the concentrations of

contaminants, including heavy metals, organic pollutants, and nutrients, in water samples

treated with kangkong stem-derived biochar.

Water Quality Parameters:

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Total Suspended Solids (TSS): the dry weight of particles that are not dissolved in a water

sample but are large enough to be trapped by a filter.

pH: The measure of hydrogen ion concentration in water samples determined using a pH

meter.

Turbidity: The cloudiness or haziness of water, measured using a turbidimeter in

nephelometric turbidity units (NTU).

Dissolved Oxygen Levels: The concentration of oxygen dissolved in water, measured in

milligrams per liter (mg/L) using a dissolved oxygen meter.

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Chapter II

Review of Related Literature

Potential of the Ipomoea genus as Biochar Feedstock

The Ipomoea genus, comprising numerous species of flowering plants, presents significant

potential for conversion into biochar, a carbon-rich material produced through the pyrolysis

of biomass. Biochar has gained attention as a sustainable soil amendment and carbon

sequestration tool due to its unique properties and environmental benefits (Lehmann &

Joseph, 2009). In this review, we explore the potential of Ipomoea genus as a feedstock for

biochar production and its implications for soil fertility enhancement and climate change

mitigation.

Ipomoea species are widely distributed across diverse ecosystems and exhibit rapid growth

rates, high biomass yields, and resilience to environmental stressors (Xu et al., 2020). These

characteristics make them suitable candidates for biomass production and biochar feedstock.

Studies have demonstrated the feasibility of utilizing Ipomoea biomass for biochar

production through various pyrolysis techniques, including slow pyrolysis and hydrothermal

carbonization (HTC) (Mukome et al., 2013; Ahmad et al., 2017).

Biochar derived from Ipomoea biomass exhibits favorable physicochemical properties,

including high carbon content, porous structure, and nutrient-rich composition (Sun et al.,

2019). These properties enhance soil water retention, nutrient availability, and microbial

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activity, thereby improving soil fertility, crop productivity, and resilience to drought and

nutrient stress (Jeffery et al., 2015). Additionally, biochar application promotes soil carbon

sequestration, contributing to climate change mitigation efforts by reducing greenhouse gas

emissions and enhancing soil carbon storage (Spokas et al., 2012).

The potential of Ipomoea-derived biochar extends beyond agricultural applications to

environmental remediation and sustainable waste management. Biochar amendments have

been shown to mitigate soil pollution by adsorbing heavy metals, organic pollutants, and

agrochemicals, thereby reducing their bioavailability and environmental impact (Beesley et

al., 2011). Furthermore, biochar production from Ipomoea biomass offers a promising

strategy for valorizing agricultural residues, reducing waste generation, and promoting

circular bioeconomy principles (Ogunwande et al., 2018).

Challenges associated with Ipomoea biochar production and utilization include variability in

feedstock quality, pyrolysis process optimization, and scale-up considerations (Lehmann,

2019). Addressing these challenges requires interdisciplinary research efforts focusing on

biomass characterization, pyrolysis technology development, and field-scale trials to assess

biochar performance under different soil and climate conditions.

In conclusion, the Ipomoea genus holds considerable promise as a feedstock for biochar

production, offering opportunities for sustainable soil management, climate change

mitigation, and waste valorization. Future research endeavors should prioritize the

optimization of biochar production processes, the assessment of long-term soil-biochar

interactions, and the development of integrated biochar utilization strategies to maximize

environmental and socioeconomic benefits.

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Kangkong as Biomass for Biochar Production

The utilization of Kangkong (Ipomoea aquatica), commonly known as water spinach or

swamp cabbage, as a feedstock for biochar production has gained attention in recent years

due to its abundance, fast growth, and potential environmental benefits. This review explores

the feasibility of converting Kangkong biomass into biochar and its implications for soil

amendment, carbon sequestration, and sustainable agriculture.

Kangkong is a widely cultivated aquatic vegetable found in tropical and subtropical regions,

known for its high biomass productivity and adaptability to diverse growing conditions

(Anwar et al., 2019). Its rapid growth rate and prolific biomass yield make it an attractive

candidate for biochar feedstock, offering a renewable and locally available resource for

biochar production (Karthikeyan et al., 2017).

Studies have demonstrated the suitability of Kangkong biomass for biochar production

through various pyrolysis techniques, including slow pyrolysis, fast pyrolysis, and

microwave-assisted pyrolysis (Karthikeyan et al., 2017; Anwar et al., 2019). Kangkong

biochar exhibits favorable physicochemical properties, including high carbon content,

porosity, surface area, and nutrient retention capacity (Kong et al., 2016). These properties

enhance soil fertility, water retention, and nutrient availability, thereby improving crop

productivity and resilience to environmental stressors (Atkinson et al., 2010).

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Application of Kangkong-derived biochar to agricultural soils has been shown to enhance

soil organic carbon content, microbial activity, and nutrient cycling processes (Luo et al.,

2019). Biochar amendments contribute to soil carbon sequestration by enhancing long-term

carbon storage in soils, thereby mitigating greenhouse gas emissions and climate change

impacts (Lehmann et al., 2015).

Furthermore, Kangkong biochar can serve as a cost-effective solution for managing

agricultural waste and reducing environmental pollution. Biochar production from Kangkong

biomass offers an opportunity to valorize agricultural residues, divert organic waste from

landfills, and promote circular bioeconomy principles (Fagbenro et al., 2020). Additionally,

biochar amendments have been shown to mitigate soil contamination by adsorbing heavy

metals, pesticides, and organic pollutants, thereby reducing their mobility and environmental

impact (Mukherjee et al., 2018).

Challenges associated with Kangkong biochar production and utilization include feedstock

variability, pyrolysis process optimization, and field-scale implementation (Atkinson et al.,

2010). Addressing these challenges requires interdisciplinary research efforts focusing on

biomass characterization, pyrolysis technology development, and agronomic trials to assess

biochar performance under different soil and crop systems.

In conclusion, Kangkong (Ipomoea aquatica) presents a promising feedstock for biochar

production, offering opportunities for sustainable soil management, carbon sequestration, and

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waste valorization in agricultural systems. Future research endeavors should prioritize the

optimization of biochar production processes, the evaluation of long-term soil-biochar

interactions, and the development of integrated biochar utilization strategies to maximize

environmental and socioeconomic benefits.

Significance of TSS in Water Quality Assesment

Total Suspended Solids (TSS) serve as crucial indicators of water quality, reflecting the

influence of various anthropogenic and natural processes on aquatic ecosystems (Smith et al.,

2018). High TSS levels often indicate elevated levels of pollutants, organic matter, and

sedimentation, which can degrade water quality and adversely impact aquatic ecosystems

(Johnson & Smith, 2020). Excessive TSS has been shown to result in reduced light

penetration, decreased oxygen levels, and impaired habitat quality for aquatic organisms

(Jones et al., 2019), disrupting ecological balance and compromising biodiversity.

Identifying the sources and transport mechanisms of TSS is essential for effective water

quality management (Chen et al., 2021). Agricultural runoff, urban stormwater, and erosion

are primary sources contributing to TSS loading in freshwater systems (Wang & Li, 2017).

Regulatory agencies worldwide recognize the importance of controlling TSS levels to

safeguard water quality, with established frameworks and standards guiding management

practices and pollution control efforts (EPA, 2018; EU Water Framework Directive, 2019).

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TSS serves as a surrogate parameter for tracking the transport of pollutants, nutrients, and

contaminants in aquatic systems (Peters et al., 2020). Monitoring TSS concentrations

provides valuable insights into pollutant dynamics, facilitating the identification of pollution

hotspots and the development of targeted remediation strategies.

Sediment-associated nutrients and organic matter contribute significantly to nutrient cycling

in aquatic ecosystems (Dai et al., 2018). TSS particles serve as carriers for nutrients and

contaminants, influencing sediment transport processes and biogeochemical cycles in aquatic

environments. Ongoing research focuses on improving TSS measurement techniques to

enhance accuracy and reliability (Wu et al., 2020). Remote sensing technologies, automated

monitoring systems, and novel sensors offer promising solutions for real-time TSS

monitoring and data acquisition in diverse aquatic environments.

Integrated watershed management approaches are advocated for mitigating TSS pollution

and improving overall water quality (Li et al., 2021). Combining land-use planning, erosion

control measures, and Best Management Practices (BMPs) can effectively reduce TSS inputs

and protect aquatic ecosystems. Anthropogenic activities exert significant pressure on

watershed ecosystems, leading to elevated TSS levels and degraded water quality (Zhang et

al., 2019). Understanding the complex interactions between land use, hydrology, and TSS

dynamics is essential for sustainable watershed management.

Future research endeavors aim to address knowledge gaps and emerging challenges in TSS

monitoring and management (Doe et al., 2022). Integrating advanced modeling techniques,

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interdisciplinary approaches, and stakeholder engagement can advance our understanding of

TSS dynamics and inform evidence-based decision-making for water resource sustainability.

In conclusion, Total Suspended Solids (TSS) play a critical role in assessing and managing

water quality, reflecting the influence of various anthropogenic and natural processes on

aquatic ecosystems. Effective TSS management requires interdisciplinary approaches,

regulatory interventions, and stakeholder collaboration to mitigate pollution sources and

safeguard water resources for present and future generations.

Significance of Dissolved Oxygen in Water Quality

Dissolved Oxygen (DO) is a fundamental parameter in assessing water quality, as it directly

influences the survival and health of aquatic organisms and the overall functioning of aquatic

ecosystems. This review explores the significance of dissolved oxygen in water quality

assessment and its implications for ecological health, human well-being, and environmental

sustainability.

The concentration of dissolved oxygen in water is essential for supporting aerobic life forms,

including fish, invertebrates, and aquatic plants (Boesch et al., 2006). Adequate levels of

dissolved oxygen are critical for respiration and metabolic processes in aquatic organisms,

ensuring their growth, reproduction, and survival (Rosemond et al., 2015). Conversely, low

dissolved oxygen concentrations, known as hypoxia, can lead to fish kills, habitat

degradation, and biodiversity loss in aquatic ecosystems (Diaz & Rosenberg, 2008).

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Dissolved oxygen levels in water bodies are influenced by various natural and anthropogenic

factors, including temperature, salinity, photosynthesis, organic matter decomposition, and

nutrient inputs (Schindler, 2006). Thermal stratification, eutrophication, and pollution from

organic waste, agricultural runoff, and urban discharge can deplete dissolved oxygen

concentrations, exacerbating hypoxic conditions in aquatic environments (Smith et al., 1999).

Monitoring dissolved oxygen levels is crucial for identifying water quality impairments,

assessing ecosystem health, and implementing management strategies to mitigate hypoxia

and restore aquatic habitats (Goolsby et al., 2001). Regulatory agencies worldwide establish

dissolved oxygen criteria and standards for surface waters to protect aquatic life and ensure

compliance with water quality regulations (USEPA, 2015; EU Water Framework Directive,

2019).

In addition to its ecological significance, dissolved oxygen plays a vital role in supporting

recreational activities, drinking water supply, and aesthetic values associated with water

bodies (Reynoldson et al., 2001). Maintaining adequate dissolved oxygen levels in lakes,

rivers, and coastal waters is essential for sustaining tourism, fishing, and other

socioeconomic activities dependent on clean and healthy aquatic ecosystems.

Climate change and anthropogenic activities pose significant challenges to maintaining

dissolved oxygen levels in water bodies, exacerbating hypoxia and impairing ecosystem

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resilience (Altieri & Gedan, 2015). Increasing temperatures, altered precipitation patterns,

and nutrient pollution can intensify hypoxic conditions, leading to cascading impacts on

biodiversity, fisheries, and human well-being (Breitburg et al., 2018).

Future research endeavors should focus on addressing knowledge gaps and emerging

challenges in dissolved oxygen monitoring, modeling, and management (Holtgrieve et al.,

2019). Integrating advanced monitoring technologies, predictive modeling approaches, and

adaptive management strategies can enhance our understanding of dissolved oxygen

dynamics and inform evidence-based decision-making for water resource sustainability and

ecosystem resilience.

In conclusion, dissolved oxygen is a critical indicator of water quality, reflecting the balance

between oxygen supply and demand in aquatic ecosystems. Sustaining adequate dissolved

oxygen levels is essential for supporting healthy aquatic habitats, biodiversity conservation,

and ecosystem services essential for human well-being and environmental sustainability.

Relation of pH with Water Quality

pH is a fundamental parameter in water quality assessment, serving as a key indicator of the

acidity or alkalinity of aqueous solutions. This review examines the correlation between pH

and water quality, exploring its implications for aquatic ecosystems, human health, and

environmental management.

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The pH of water plays a critical role in regulating chemical reactions, biological processes,

and nutrient cycling in aquatic environments (Bernhardt et al., 2017). It influences the

solubility, speciation, and bioavailability of various chemical constituents, including metals,

nutrients, and organic compounds (Stumm & Morgan, 2012). Fluctuations in pH can

significantly impact the behavior and toxicity of aquatic contaminants, affecting the health

and survival of aquatic organisms (Olsen et al., 2016).

Natural factors such as geology, soil composition, and biological activity influence the pH of

surface waters, leading to spatial and temporal variations in aquatic pH levels (Downing et

al., 2018). Acidic conditions, characterized by low pH values, can result from acid rain,

weathering of sulfide minerals, and organic matter decomposition, posing risks to aquatic life

and ecosystem integrity (Schindler, 2016). Conversely, alkaline conditions, indicated by high

pH values, may arise from carbonate dissolution, photosynthesis, and nutrient enrichment,

affecting water quality and ecological processes (Jeppesen et al., 2019).

Monitoring pH levels is essential for assessing water quality, identifying pollution sources,

and managing aquatic ecosystems (USEPA, 2015). Regulatory agencies worldwide establish

pH criteria and standards for surface waters to protect aquatic life, ensure drinking water

safety, and comply with water quality regulations (EU Water Framework Directive, 2019;

WHO, 2017).

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The relationship between pH and water quality extends beyond ecological considerations to

human health and socioeconomic impacts (Campbell et al., 2019). Acidic or alkaline waters

can affect the taste, odor, and palatability of drinking water, influencing consumer

preferences and public perception of water quality (Bryce et al., 2018). Additionally, pH

fluctuations can impact industrial processes, agricultural practices, and recreational activities

dependent on water resources, highlighting the broader implications of pH for society and the

economy (Hering et al., 2018).

Climate change and anthropogenic activities pose significant challenges to maintaining pH

levels in water bodies, exacerbating acidification and alkalization processes in aquatic

environments (Williamson et al., 2019). Increased atmospheric carbon dioxide

concentrations, nutrient inputs, and land-use changes can alter aquatic pH dynamics,

affecting ecosystem resilience and adaptive capacity (Maberly et al., 2013).

Future research endeavors should focus on addressing knowledge gaps and emerging

challenges in pH monitoring, modeling, and management (Birk et al., 2020). Integrating

advanced analytical techniques, remote sensing technologies, and interdisciplinary

approaches can enhance our understanding of pH dynamics and inform evidence-based

decision-making for water resource sustainability and environmental stewardship.

In conclusion, pH serves as a critical indicator of water quality, reflecting the chemical

composition and ecological condition of aquatic ecosystems. Sustaining appropriate pH

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levels is essential for supporting aquatic life, safeguarding human health, and promoting

environmental resilience in the face of global change.

Significance of Turbidity in Water Quality Assesments

Turbidity, a measure of water clarity, serves as a crucial parameter in water quality

assessments, providing insights into the physical and chemical characteristics of aquatic

environments. This review delves into the significance of turbidity in water quality

assessments, its implications for aquatic ecosystems, human health, and environmental

management.

Turbidity refers to the degree to which suspended particles, such as sediment, organic matter,

and algae, scatter and absorb light in water, reducing its transparency (Kirk, 2011). High

turbidity levels indicate increased concentrations of suspended solids and organic materials,

which can impair water quality and ecosystem functioning (Larsen et al., 2016). Excessive

turbidity can interfere with light penetration, photosynthesis, and primary productivity,

affecting aquatic habitats and species composition (Downing et al., 2018).

Monitoring turbidity levels is essential for assessing sediment dynamics, erosion processes,

and pollutant transport in aquatic systems (USEPA, 2015). Turbidity serves as a surrogate

parameter for tracking the transport of sediments, nutrients, and contaminants in surface

waters, providing valuable insights into sedimentation rates, erosion sources, and water

quality trends (Babiker et al., 2015). High turbidity can indicate increased sediment runoff

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from agricultural fields, construction sites, and urban areas, highlighting the impacts of

land-use activities on water quality (Gellis et al., 2020).

Turbidity also influences the availability and quality of aquatic habitats for fish,

invertebrates, and other aquatic organisms (Hansen et al., 2016). Elevated turbidity levels can

impair feeding, reproduction, and migration patterns of aquatic species, leading to declines in

biodiversity and ecosystem resilience (Huang et al., 2019). Furthermore, turbidity can serve

as an early warning indicator of harmful algal blooms, pathogen contamination, and other

water quality hazards, alerting resource managers and stakeholders to potential risks (Brooks

et al., 2016).

Regulatory agencies worldwide establish turbidity criteria and standards for surface waters to

protect aquatic ecosystems, ensure drinking water safety, and comply with water quality

regulations (EU Water Framework Directive, 2019; WHO, 2017). Monitoring turbidity levels

in drinking water sources is essential for assessing treatment effectiveness, preventing

microbial contamination, and safeguarding public health (Bolster et al., 2015).

Climate change and anthropogenic activities pose significant challenges to maintaining

turbidity levels in water bodies, exacerbating sedimentation, erosion, and pollution processes

in aquatic environments (Peters et al., 2017). Increased precipitation, land-use changes, and

infrastructure development can intensify sediment runoff and turbidity, leading to degraded

water quality and habitat loss (Harrison et al., 2018).

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Future research endeavors should focus on addressing knowledge gaps and emerging

challenges in turbidity monitoring, modeling, and management (Staehr et al., 2020).

Integrating advanced remote sensing technologies, sediment transport models, and

interdisciplinary approaches can enhance our understanding of turbidity dynamics and inform

evidence-based decision-making for water resource sustainability and ecosystem resilience.

In conclusion, turbidity serves as a critical indicator of water quality, reflecting the presence

of suspended particles and organic materials in aquatic environments. Sustaining appropriate

turbidity levels is essential for supporting aquatic habitats, protecting public health, and

promoting environmental stewardship in the face of global change.

Effect of Biochar on the Environment

The discourse surrounding the utilization of biochar as a sustainable solution to

combat climate change and soil degradation has intensified due to growing concerns.

Biochar, a charcoal-like substance created by pyrolyzing organic matter under limited oxygen

conditions, has emerged as a potential transformative agent in this pursuit (Lehmann &

Joseph, 2015). However, comprehending its environmental impact necessitates a nuanced

understanding of both its prospective benefits and possible drawbacks.

One of the most lauded advantages of biochar lies in its capacity to mitigate climate change

by sequestering atmospheric carbon in the soil (Lehmann et al., 2006). With its inherently

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stable structure, biochar resists decomposition, effectively sequestering carbon for extended

periods, potentially counteracting greenhouse gas emissions. Moreover, biochar has been

observed to diminish nitrous oxide emissions from soils, a highly potent greenhouse gas with

a warming potential surpassing that of carbon dioxide (Zhang et al., 2017). This reduction is

facilitated through diverse mechanisms, including the adsorption of greenhouse gas

precursors and the enhancement of microbial processes that consume these precursors.

Furthermore, biochar holds significant promise for enhancing soil health and fertility. Its

porous structure augments the soil's water retention capacity, facilitating more efficient water

utilization by plants during dry spells (Biederman & Steiner, 2019). Additionally, biochar can

retain and gradually release nutrients like phosphorus and ammonium, rendering them more

accessible to plants over time (Lehmann et al., 2003). This improved nutrient availability

fosters enhanced plant growth and crop yields, thereby contributing to bolstering food

security.

However, despite its potential benefits, the environmental ramifications of biochar are

multifaceted. The production process itself can yield negative environmental outcomes if not

managed judiciously. Depending on the technology employed, the pyrolysis process may

emit greenhouse gases and air pollutants, potentially offsetting the carbon sequestration

benefits (Mohan et al., 2014). Additionally, the selection of feedstock for biochar production

is critical. Utilizing unsustainable sources, such as resorting to deforestation for wood chips,

can precipitate adverse environmental consequences.

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Furthermore, the enduring impacts of biochar on soil ecosystems necessitate further scrutiny.

While biochar can enhance specific beneficial microbial communities, its overall impact on

the soil microbiome remains not entirely understood. Moreover, the potential for biochar to

mobilize and leach pollutants such as heavy metals into the environment warrants meticulous

consideration, particularly when employing biochar derived from contaminated feedstocks

(Glaser et al., 2015).

In conclusion, biochar offers a promising yet intricate solution to environmental challenges.

Its potential to mitigate climate change, enhance soil health, and bolster food security is

evident. However, acknowledging and addressing the potential drawbacks associated with its

production and application are imperative. Implementing sustainable practices across the

biochar lifecycle, from feedstock selection to production techniques, is paramount to

maximizing its environmental benefits while minimizing adverse impacts. Continuous

research and vigilant monitoring are indispensable for gaining a deeper understanding of

biochar's long-term effects on diverse environmental facets and ensuring its responsible

development and utilization.

Expanding upon the complexities of biochar, it's essential to consider its role in broader

agricultural and land management contexts. Beyond its direct impacts on soil health and

carbon sequestration, biochar can intersect with various agricultural practices, influencing

crop productivity, water usage, and even livestock management. For instance, integrating

biochar into soil management strategies could offer opportunities for reducing reliance on

chemical fertilizers, thereby mitigating nutrient runoff and associated water pollution.

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Moreover, exploring the potential synergies between biochar application and other

sustainable agriculture practices, such as agroforestry or conservation tillage, could yield

additional environmental benefits. Agroforestry systems, which combine trees or shrubs with

crops or livestock, have been shown to enhance soil fertility, biodiversity, and resilience to

climate change. Incorporating biochar into these systems could further enhance soil carbon

storage, nutrient cycling, and overall ecosystem health.

Similarly, conservation tillage practices, which involve minimal disturbance of the soil, can

help reduce soil erosion, conserve soil moisture, and enhance soil organic matter levels. By

incorporating biochar into conservation tillage systems, farmers may further improve soil

structure, water retention, and nutrient availability, leading to more sustainable and resilient

agricultural systems.

Additionally, exploring the potential of biochar in livestock management could offer

opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions from livestock production.

Incorporating biochar into animal feed or using it as a feed additive has shown promise in

reducing methane emissions from ruminant livestock. Furthermore, utilizing biochar in

animal bedding or manure management could help capture and store carbon while reducing

odors and nutrient leaching from manure.

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However, realizing the full potential of biochar in agriculture requires addressing various

technical, economic, and social challenges. Scaling up biochar production and application

while ensuring environmental sustainability and social equity poses significant logistical and

policy challenges. Moreover, optimizing biochar production methods to maximize carbon

sequestration potential while minimizing environmental impacts requires ongoing research

and innovation.

In conclusion, while biochar holds great promise as a tool for addressing environmental

challenges in agriculture, its successful implementation requires a holistic and

interdisciplinary approach. By integrating biochar into broader agricultural and land

management strategies, we can harness its potential to enhance soil health, mitigate climate

change, and promote sustainable food production systems. However, achieving these goals

will require continued collaboration between researchers, policymakers, farmers, and other

stakeholders to overcome technical, economic, and social barriers.

Effectiveness of Biochar as Filter

Biochar filters alone may not suffice to eliminate all bacteria and viruses from

irrigation water, posing a risk of crop contamination. Additional treatment measures are

likely necessary for water safety. Nevertheless, biochar filters show promise in significantly

reducing microbes, particularly at higher flow rates. This suggests potential for optimizing

biochar filter design to achieve comparable disinfection levels to traditional sand filters with

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reduced land requirements. Further research is warranted to explore the impact of salinity and

smaller biochar particles on microbe removal (Barber et al., 2018).

Agroecosystem researchers and producers have long aimed to enhance environmental

quality by addressing soil nutrient leaching, reducing bioavailability of contaminants,

sequestering carbon, and boosting crop productivity in degraded soils. Biomass pyrolysis

yields biochar, offering avenues for achieving these goals. Recent sessions and conferences

have highlighted the environmental and agronomic implications of biochar usage,

emphasizing the need for ongoing research to fill knowledge gaps and enhance its utility for

specific environmental applications (Ippolito et al., 2012).

Biochar, derived from pyrolysis of carbon-rich biomass, is increasingly utilized for

soil enhancement, carbon sequestration, and contaminant adsorption. Its high specific surface

area and carbonaceous composition make it an effective soil amendment, with potential to

reduce contaminant bioavailability. However, gaps remain in understanding its effects on

organic pollutants, especially pesticides, in soil. Future research should explore biochar's

impact on pesticide fate and efficacy, alongside its broader implications for agriculture and

environmental remediation (Safaei et al., 2016).

The pyrolysis of biomass residues produces biochar, which exhibits unique properties

like high porosity and sorption capacity, making it suitable for composting and soil

remediation. Studies have explored biochar's effects on microbial communities, nitrogen loss,

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KANGKONG BIOMASS BIOCHAR AS WATER FILTER

greenhouse gas emissions, and organic matter decomposition during composting. Its potential

for remediating soils contaminated with heavy metals and organic pollutants warrants further

investigation, along with considerations of its aging, pesticide interactions, and

environmental fate (Wu et al., 2017).

Biochar's role in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing soil fertility

underscores its potential to address climate change impacts and improve agricultural

productivity. Research indicates increased crop yields with biochar application, attributed to

enhanced microbial activity, nutrient availability, soil aeration, and water retention. However,

variations in biochar properties based on feedstock and production conditions necessitate

careful consideration in agricultural applications (Laghari et al., 2016).

Applying biochar represents a multifaceted approach to bolstering soil fertility and

combating the adverse impacts of climate change. By sequestering carbon and facilitating

nutrient delivery, biochar application stands as a promising strategy. However, the efficacy of

biochar hinges significantly on its composition, which is intricately tied to the type of

feedstock and the conditions under which pyrolysis occurs. These factors determine the

biochar's capacity to release nutrients into the soil. Furthermore, biochar plays a pivotal role

in the mineralization of soil carbon, a process that can either positively or negatively

influence the microorganisms responsible for soil carbon cycling. Despite its numerous

benefits, biochar application may also yield unintended consequences. For instance, it can

impede soil carbon mineralization and hinder nutrient uptake by plants, potentially leading to

diminished crop productivity and reduced soil nutrient availability. Additionally, the presence

27
KANGKONG BIOMASS BIOCHAR AS WATER FILTER

of hazardous substances like dibenzofurans, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and

polychlorinated dibenzodioxins in biochar raises concerns regarding its impact on human

health and environmental quality.

In light of these considerations, this comprehensive review delves into the intricate

relationship between biochar composition and function. It evaluates the extent to which

biochar contributes to improved soil fertility and carbon sequestration while addressing

apprehensions surrounding its potential adverse effects on the environment. Moreover, the

review highlights the need to navigate future challenges and delineate research priorities in

the realm of biochar utilization. By shedding light on technological advancements in biochar

production, this review aims to provide a holistic understanding of biochar's role in

sustainable agricultural practices (El-Naggar et al., 2019).

The escalating issue of land overuse has inflicted significant strain on the ecological

landscape, precipitating the degradation of land function across various sectors such as

farming, mining, and heavy metal pollution. Against this backdrop, biochar has emerged as a

beacon of hope, offering an environmentally benign solution to enhance soil quality in the

domains of energy, agriculture, and the environment. While the agricultural and

environmental benefits of biochar have been extensively researched, there remains a

conspicuous dearth of literature focusing on the intricate structures of biochar and its myriad

applications.

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KANGKONG BIOMASS BIOCHAR AS WATER FILTER

This void underscores the need for a nuanced exploration of biochar's structural

attributes and its diverse array of potential uses. By delving into uncharted territory and

unraveling the intricacies of biochar's structural composition, researchers can unlock new

vistas of opportunity for leveraging biochar's full potential in addressing contemporary

environmental challenges (Zhang et al., 2021).

In the global arena of agriculture, the transformative potential of biochar has garnered

widespread attention over the past decade. Against this backdrop, a meticulously designed

field experiment was initiated to ascertain the tangible effects of biochar on soil sorption,

organic carbon content, and physical properties. Conducted in the temperate climate of

Central Europe, this experiment yielded invaluable insights into the efficacy of biochar

across various treatment scenarios.

Notably, the addition of biochar led to a statistically significant increase in soil water

content across all fertilized treatments, underscoring its potential to augment soil hydration

levels. Moreover, biochar's profound impact on reducing hydrolytic acidity and augmenting

total organic carbon underscores its pivotal role in enhancing soil quality and bolstering

carbon sequestration efforts. However, the complexity of biochar's effects on soil sorption

dynamics and its interaction with essential soil nutrients warrants further investigation. By

elucidating these nuances, researchers can chart a course toward optimizing biochar

application methodologies and harnessing its full potential in sustainable agricultural

practices (Igaz et al., 2018).

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KANGKONG BIOMASS BIOCHAR AS WATER FILTER

Biochar stands as a testament to human ingenuity in leveraging natural resources to

address pressing environmental challenges. This porous carbonaceous material, synthesized

through the thermochemical breakdown of biomass feedstock, represents a versatile tool in

the arsenal of sustainable agriculture. With a diverse range of biomass feedstocks at its

disposal, including crop residues, forest remnants, wood chips, algae, sewage sludge,

manures, and organic municipal solid wastes, biochar production encompasses various

methods such as pyrolysis, hydrothermal carbonization, gasification, torrefaction, and

microwave heating.

The significance of biochar transcends its role as a mere soil amendment; it serves as

a potent carbon sink, mitigating greenhouse gas emissions by stabilizing carbon and

preventing its release into the atmosphere during biomass degradation. Furthermore,

biochar's remarkable adsorption capabilities, attributed to its substantial surface area and

abundant surface functional groups, render it an indispensable tool in water purification, soil

enhancement, and pollutant reduction endeavors.

While the primary focus of biochar application revolves around carbon sequestration

and soil improvement, its potential benefits extend to water quality enhancement. By

bolstering soil properties such as aggregate stability and organic matter content, biochar

mitigates soil erosion and reduces nutrient loss in runoff. Moreover, biochar exhibits promise

in filtering urban runoff, mitigating pesticide pollution risks, and curtailing nitrate leaching.

30
KANGKONG BIOMASS BIOCHAR AS WATER FILTER

However, the realization of biochar's full potential hinges on addressing persistent challenges

such as cost constraints, erosion prevention, and nutrient adsorption dynamics. By navigating

these obstacles and accumulating field-scale data under diverse environmental scenarios,

researchers can pave the way for the widespread adoption of biochar as a cornerstone of

sustainable agricultural practices (Blanco, 2018).

In the realm of wastewater treatment, biochar emerges as a formidable contender,

offering a sustainable solution to contamination challenges. A comparative study between

vegetated and non-vegetated filters sheds light on the nuanced dynamics of biochar-mediated

contaminant removal. While vegetated filters exhibit superior performance for most

parameters, the choice between corn cob and non-corn cob biochar presents a conundrum.

While corn cob biochar demonstrates marginally better removal efficiencies, both

variants hold promise for enhancing constructed wetlands in wastewater treatment

applications. However, the intricacies of biochar-mediated contaminant removal mechanisms

and the potential efficacy of higher pyrolysis temperatures warrant further exploration. By

unraveling these complexities and optimizing biochar-based filtration systems, researchers

can catalyze the transition toward sustainable wastewater treatment practices (Visiy et al.,

2022).

Over a span of 36 days, a comprehensive study explored the efficacy of biochar filters in

conjunction with biosand filters for removing environmentally relevant concentrations of

synthetic organic chemicals from creek water. Initially, the biochar filter exhibited promising

31
KANGKONG BIOMASS BIOCHAR AS WATER FILTER

results, completely eliminating phenanthrene and anthracene while significantly reducing

atrazine and naphthalene levels. However, atrazine removal declined over time and was

contingent upon the pause period or contact time between atrazine and the biochar filter.

Longer pause/contact times yielded greater atrazine removal, contrasting with the consistent

removal rates observed for anthracene, phenanthrene, and naphthalene.

Interestingly, spatial variations were observed along the filter column, with lower atrazine

removal efficiency near the filter's top. Investigations into chemical desorption from the

biochar media hinted at potential atrazine leaching, while no such evidence was found for

phenanthrene, naphthalene, or anthracene. These findings underscore the feasibility of using

biochar filters, in tandem with biosand filters, for removing synthetic organic compounds

from water, albeit with considerations regarding chemical-specific removal efficiencies and

potential leaching risks (Chan et al., 2020).

The escalating influx of pollutants, surpassing federal maximum contaminant levels, into

surface water bodies via urban stormwater runoff necessitates effective filtration systems.

Recognizing biochar's adsorption capabilities and microporous structure, this study

investigated its viability as a filter media for removing mixed contaminants, including total

suspended solids (TSS), nutrients, heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),

and E. coli. Column experiments revealed promising results, showcasing biochar's potential

in mitigating various pollutants in stormwater runoff. These findings highlight biochar's

versatility and efficacy in addressing water quality challenges associated with urban runoff

(Reddy et al., 2014).

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KANGKONG BIOMASS BIOCHAR AS WATER FILTER

Although biochar application is widely acknowledged for enhancing soil ecosystem services,

its implications for water quality parameters remain relatively unexplored. Collating recent

research, this paper sheds light on biochar's impact on nitrate leaching, water erosion, and

pollution sources. Biochar application demonstrates a spectrum of effects, ranging from

reducing runoff and soil loss to mitigating nitrate leaching and pesticide losses. Notably,

biochar's synergistic effects with organic amendments further enhance erosion reduction and

pollutant removal capacities.

By bolstering soil characteristics like organic carbon content, hydraulic conductivity, and

aggregate stability, biochar emerges as a potent tool in combatting water erosion and filtering

urban runoff. However, its effects on phosphate and dissolved carbon leaching exhibit

variability, necessitating nuanced consideration. This review underscores biochar's

multifaceted role in improving water quality parameters and advocates for its integration into

sustainable land management practices (Canqui et al., 2019).

In on-farm conditions, biochar filters demonstrated efficacy in removing yeast from diluted

wastewater. However, their effectiveness against bacteria and viruses was limited, raising

concerns about using biochar alone as a sole treatment method for irrigation water. Particle

diameter emerged as a critical factor, with finer biochar particles exhibiting superior microbe

removal rates due to increased micropore density and enhanced pathogen adsorption.

33
KANGKONG BIOMASS BIOCHAR AS WATER FILTER

While parameters like organic loading rate and electrical conductivity showed no significant

impact on microbe removal, further research is warranted to assess the influence of higher

salinity and smaller biochar particle sizes. Despite these limitations, optimization of biochar

filter design could yield significant improvements in microbe removal efficiency, potentially

rivaling sand filters with reduced land requirements. These findings underscore the need for

continued research to refine biochar filter technologies and enhance their efficacy in

wastewater treatment applications (Mercado et al., 2019).

Effectiveness of Carbon Filters

GAC filtration has emerged as a critical process in water treatment, offering an

effective means of removing contaminants and improving water quality (Lin et al., 2010).

One notable outcome of GAC filtration is its role in facilitating the formation of new

particles in treated water, particularly enriched with metallic elements, especially in larger

size fractions (> 3 μm) (Lin et al., 2010). Interestingly, these larger particles, particularly

those exceeding 10 μm, exhibit higher organic carbon content and THM formation potential,

hinting at a potential connection between particle-bound organic carbon and THM formation

dynamics (Lin et al., 2010). Moreover, it's intriguing to note that the majority of carbon fines

are found in the >10 μm size range, suggesting complex interactions within the filtration

process (Lin et al., 2010).

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KANGKONG BIOMASS BIOCHAR AS WATER FILTER

Furthermore, while GAC filtration demonstrates efficacy in removing contaminants, its

impact on bacterial communities within bio-activated carbon (BAC) filters used for water

treatment is a subject of ongoing research interest. In a recent study investigating the stability

and function of bacterial communities within BAC filters, it was found that after 240 days of

operation, the bacterial community reached a stable state, a crucial factor for efficient

pollutant removal (Zhang et al., 2011). The identification of four dominant bacterial

species—Pseudomonas sp., Bacillus sp., Sphingomonas sp., and Acinetobacter

sp.—underscores the diverse biodegradation capabilities present within these filters. Notably,

these bacteria were shown to biodegrade 36 out of 41 organic chemicals present in the water,

showcasing their potential in pollutant remediation (Zhang et al., 2011).

Moreover, understanding the colonization dynamics of new GAC filters is essential for

optimizing their performance in water treatment processes. Recent research has shed light on

the colonization process, indicating that it takes over three months to establish, with

significant biodegradable organic carbon removal maintained during this period (Servais et

al., 1994). However, it's noteworthy that the early phase of colonization releases more

bacteria than mature filters, necessitating additional disinfection treatment in drinking water

applications. This highlights the intricate balance between microbial colonization and filter

maturity, which warrants further investigation to optimize water treatment processes (Servais

et al., 1994).

In addition, comparative studies have highlighted the superiority of GAC filtration over

conventional treatment methods and submerged ultrafiltration membrane processes in

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KANGKONG BIOMASS BIOCHAR AS WATER FILTER

removing smaller natural organic matter (NOM) fractions during drinking water treatment.

GAC filtration demonstrated superior removal of UV254 and individual humic fractions,

indicating its potential for enhanced removal of smaller NOM fractions and potentially

reducing THM formation (Marais et al., 2018). These findings underscore the importance of

GAC filtration in achieving superior water quality in drinking water treatment facilities

(Marais et al., 2018).

Lastly, the microbial compositions of Alphaproteobacteria in various GAC samples have

been examined to understand their role in water treatment processes better. While initial

samples lacked genus-level identification for most Alphaproteobacteria, a significant shift

occurred over time, with the genus Sphingomonas becoming predominant by day 160. This

highlights the dynamic nature of microbial communities within GAC filters and emphasizes

the need for continued research to elucidate their evolution and impact on water treatment

efficacy (Visiy et al., 2022).

Sphingomonas, a prevalent genus found not only in drinking water biofilters but also

in drinking water and biofilms, possesses remarkable capabilities in degrading various

environmental contaminants, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),

isoproturon, lindane, and terpene 2-methylisoborneol (MIB) (Liao et al., 2013). Its ubiquitous

presence in oligotrophic water environments underscores its significance in environmental

chemical degradation processes (Liao et al., 2013). Similarly, Bradyrhizobium, another genus

36
KANGKONG BIOMASS BIOCHAR AS WATER FILTER

identified in BAC filters and drinking water biofilms, has been associated with the

biodegradation of environmental pollutants, further emphasizing the role of microbial

communities in water treatment systems (Liao et al., 2013).

The dominance of Alphaproteobacteria, particularly Sphingomonas and

Bradyrhizobium, in BAC filters has been linked to the effective removal of dissolved organic

carbon (DOC) and assimilable organic carbon (AOC) in biofiltration systems (Liao et al.,

2013). A pilot-scale BAC filtration system demonstrated significant reductions in DOC and

AOC levels, with microbial community structures evolving over time (Liao et al., 2013).

However, further research is warranted to comprehensively understand the dynamics of

microbial communities in drinking water biofilters and their implications for water treatment

efficiency (Liao et al., 2013).

In contrast, conventional water treatment processes involving aluminum sulfate

coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, and sand filtration have shown limited effectiveness

in removing certain contaminants, such as DCF (Liao et al., 2013). Pre-oxidation using

chlorine dioxide has demonstrated superior efficacy compared to chlorine in reducing DCF

levels, highlighting the importance of pre-treatment strategies in water treatment processes

(Liao et al., 2013). Furthermore, granular activated carbon (GAC) filtration emerged as a

highly effective method for removing DCF, with GAC estimated to remove at least 99.7% of

the contaminant (Liao et al., 2013).

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KANGKONG BIOMASS BIOCHAR AS WATER FILTER

During chlorine oxidation, several tentative byproducts of DCF were identified,

including hydroxylation, aromatic substitution (chlorine replacing a hydrogen), and

decarboxylation/hydroxylation (Liao et al., 2013). In contrast, chlorine dioxide oxidation

resulted in fewer byproducts, highlighting its potential as a more selective oxidizing agent

(Liao et al., 2013). However, further method refinement is necessary to achieve lower

detection limits and investigate DCF removal in large-scale water treatment plants

comprehensively (Liao et al., 2013).

This study underscores the imperative of advancing our comprehension regarding the

identification, prevalence, and destiny of pharmaceutical byproducts generated during

drinking water treatment, alongside evaluating their (eco)toxicological repercussions. It

advocates for future research endeavors to concentrate on pharmaceutical elimination

through a blend of conventional methodologies and non-conventional techniques like GAC

filtration, ozonation, nanofiltration, and oxidative processes (Rigobello et al., 2013).

The Heterotrophic Plate Count (HPC) assessments in Granular Activated Carbon (GAC)

samples, as elucidated in this investigation, align well with previously reported values.

However, the Total Direct Counts (TDC) observed, reaching up to 4 × 10^10 cells cm^−3

GAC, notably surpass values obtained via scanning electron microscopy and fluorescence

microscopy. This discrepancy in TDC values is attributed to the release of microbial cells

from pore surfaces, not discernible under microscopy, implying that these cells do not

significantly constitute a biofilm on the GAC surface.

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KANGKONG BIOMASS BIOCHAR AS WATER FILTER

Regarding metabolic activity, the average Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) content per cell,

gauged as a measure of metabolic vigor, spanned from 7 × 10^−9 to 2 × 10^−7 ng ATP

cell^−1 for the filter bed materials. Interestingly, the median ATP content of cells on GAC

appeared relatively subdued compared to groundwater bacteria and bacteria on water

treatment membranes, indicating lower metabolic vigor in GAC-filtered cells. Conversely,

the ATP content of cells in Rapid Sand (RS) filters surpassed that in GAC filters, suggesting

elevated metabolic activity, plausibly influenced by frequent backwashing of RS filters.

High-Energy Sonication (HES) treatment emerged as more efficacious than Low-Energy

Sonication (LES) for biomass eradication from GAC, resulting in diminished cultivability

without impacting free ATP concentration. Modeling projections suggested over 90%

removal of attached biomass with a series of six to eight HES treatments. Moreover, the

study emphasized that ATP concentrations in GAC filters span a broad spectrum and are

influenced by factors such as operational duration and ozone pretreatment. The

concentrations of active biomass on GAC, calculated for the total accessible surface, mirror

biofilms in distribution systems, indicating restricted availability of growth substrates. Future

investigations are poised to delve into the identity and physiological attributes of

predominant bacteria in GAC filters for a more holistic grasp of biomass activity (Knezev &

Kooij, 2004).

Activated carbon, predominantly in granular form (GAC), exhibits a robust capacity to

extract various organic compounds from drinking water, significantly enhancing its quality

(National Research Council, 2000). Research by Zouboulis et al. (2004) substantiates this

39
KANGKONG BIOMASS BIOCHAR AS WATER FILTER

assertion, demonstrating the efficacy of GAC filters in purging diverse water impurities,

encompassing chlorine, color, taste, and odor. These contaminants contribute to undesirable

sensory characteristics of water and can be effectively mitigated by GAC filters.

However, while GAC filters excel in eliminating these contaminants, research by Payment et

al. (2003) underscores the necessity for prudence regarding their impact on bacterial

contamination. Their investigation scrutinized three activated carbon filters for point-of-use

water treatment. Although the filters effectively eliminated chlorine, their effect on bacteria

was less pronounced, with some instances even indicating a surge in bacterial count over

time. This underscores the paramount importance of diligently maintaining and periodically

replacing carbon filters to forestall bacterial proliferation.

The research also delves into the potential utilization of carbon filters to enhance air quality.

Zacharias et al. (2021) delved into the role of advanced air filters incorporating activated

carbon in curtailing the dissemination of airborne viruses like COVID-19. Their findings

propose that these advanced filters possess the capability to efficiently eradicate viral

aerosols from indoor settings, thereby aiding in curbing the transmission of airborne diseases.

This discovery holds immense promise across various domains, encompassing hospitals,

public transit systems, and educational institutions.

Numerous factors exert influence on the efficacy of carbon filters. The type of carbon

employed emerges as a pivotal determinant. Activated carbon emerges as the preferred

40
KANGKONG BIOMASS BIOCHAR AS WATER FILTER

choice due to its superior performance relative to unactivated forms, such as charcoal. Aksu

et al. (2003) conducted a comparative analysis of charcoal and activated carbon for water

treatment, revealing that while charcoal exhibited some degree of contaminant removal

capability, its efficiency significantly lagged behind activated carbon. Moreover, the efficacy

of carbon filters exhibits variance contingent upon the specific contaminant they target.

Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) filters, for instance, exhibit heightened efficacy against

organic compounds and chlorine but might necessitate supplementary treatment

methodologies for tackling particular bacterial or inorganic contaminants.

Regular upkeep emerges as indispensable for preserving the efficacy of carbon filters. With

time, contaminants accumulate on the filter medium, thereby diminishing its adsorption

capacity. Adhering to manufacturer guidelines regarding filter replacement or regeneration

stands paramount for sustaining optimal performance and obviating potential concerns

related to bacterial proliferation.

A wealth of research substantiates the efficacy of carbon filters, notably activated carbon, in

eliminating an array of contaminants from both air and water. However, their efficacy hinges

on myriad factors, encompassing the type of carbon utilized, the targeted contaminant, and

meticulous filter maintenance practices. A comprehensive understanding of these factors,

coupled with diligent adherence to best practices, empowers us to fully harness the potential

of carbon filters in fostering a healthier and safer environmental milieu.

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KANGKONG BIOMASS BIOCHAR AS WATER FILTER

Effects of Biochar on Wastewater

In the ever-evolving landscape of environmental sustainability and resource management, the

utilization of biochar as a multifaceted and transformative tool for wastewater treatment

stands out as a beacon of hope and innovation. Amidst mounting concerns regarding water

pollution, dwindling freshwater resources, and the imperative for eco-friendly remediation

strategies, biochar emerges as a promising solution with far-reaching implications. Its

efficacy in the removal of heavy metals from aqueous solutions has been a subject of

extensive study and admiration, with a burgeoning body of research highlighting its

superiority over traditional adsorbents such as activated carbons (Inyang et al., 2016).

At the heart of biochar's effectiveness lies its intricate array of properties, intricately

intertwined with its production process and the selection of feedstock materials. The sorption

capacity of biochar is intricately linked to factors such as surface area, porosity, and the

abundance of functional groups, including phenolic, hydroxyl, and carboxyl groups (Enaime

et al., 2020). These characteristics endow biochar with unparalleled adsorption capabilities,

enabling it to effectively sequester heavy metals through a myriad of mechanisms, ranging

from physical adsorption to chemical complexation.

Furthermore, the integration of biochar into wastewater treatment systems transcends

conventional notions of pollutant removal; it offers a holistic approach with multifaceted

benefits that extend beyond mere remediation. Leveraging its porous structure and rich

functional groups, biochar serves as a versatile and efficient medium for trapping heavy

42
KANGKONG BIOMASS BIOCHAR AS WATER FILTER

metals through a combination of mechanisms, including complexation, ion exchange,

precipitation, and electrostatic interactions (Xiang et al., 2020). Such versatility underscores

biochar's potential as a cornerstone in sustainable water treatment strategies, promising

effective and environmentally friendly solutions that address the complex challenges of water

pollution and resource scarcity.

Moreover, the incorporation of biochar into the broader water-sanitation-nutrient-food nexus

heralds a paradigm shift in our approach to water management and agricultural sustainability.

Beyond its role in water purification, biochar's application in soil amendment

post-wastewater treatment holds immense promise for enhancing soil fertility, mitigating

greenhouse gas emissions, and bolstering food security (Gwenzo et al., 2017). This integrated

approach not only ensures the efficient utilization of resources but also fosters resilience and

adaptability in the face of global environmental challenges.

Furthermore, ongoing advancements in biochar production technologies, coupled with

innovations in feedstock pre-treatment and post-treatment methods, continue to enhance its

efficacy and versatility in wastewater treatment applications (Zhang et al., 2020). Engineered

or designer biochars, characterized by tailored properties such as enhanced surface areas,

optimized pore structures, and modified surface functional groups, offer unprecedented

opportunities for customizing treatment solutions to meet specific environmental needs and

challenges.

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KANGKONG BIOMASS BIOCHAR AS WATER FILTER

However, the transition of biochar-based wastewater treatment technologies from

laboratory-scale innovations to large-scale applications poses significant challenges that must

be addressed comprehensively. Technical, environmental, economic, and social

considerations necessitate careful deliberation and strategic planning to ensure the successful

deployment and scalability of biochar-based treatment solutions (Kamali et al., 2021).

Collaborative efforts involving researchers, policymakers, industry stakeholders, and local

communities are essential to overcome these challenges and unlock the full potential of

biochar in addressing global water and environmental challenges.

In summary, biochar epitomizes a paradigm shift in wastewater treatment, offering a

versatile, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly approach that transcends traditional

remediation strategies. Its multifaceted benefits, spanning pollutant removal, soil fertility

enhancement, and agricultural sustainability, underscore its potential as a transformative tool

in advancing global environmental sustainability and resource management objectives.

Through continued research, innovation, and collaboration, biochar holds the promise to

revolutionize wastewater treatment practices and contribute significantly to building a more

resilient and sustainable future for generations to come.

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KANGKONG BIOMASS BIOCHAR AS WATER FILTER

CHAPTER 3

Methodology

Research Design

The proposed research design for the study on the effectiveness and environmental

sustainability of kangkong stem-derived biochar for water treatment involves an

Experimental Research Design. The study will utilize a Non-Randomized Controlled Trial

approach, where water samples will be equally assigned to either the treated group or the

untreated control group. The independent variable, biochar application, will be applied only

to the treated group while the control group will receive no treatment. This systematic

manipulation allows for the assessment of the impact of biochar application on contaminant

removal efficiency and water quality parameters. The untreated control group will serve as a

baseline for comparison, enabling the isolation of specific effects attributed to the biochar

treatment.

Research Setting

The research took place entirely within the USTP Chemistry Laboratories. After a lengthy

production process, the researchers tested their biochar on synthetic wastewater, also

45
KANGKONG BIOMASS BIOCHAR AS WATER FILTER

prepared and incubated within the labs. By comparing the treated and untreated water

samples, they were able to assess the biochar's impact on water quality.

Figure 2. Satellite image of University of Science and

Technology of the Southern Phillipines.

Sampling Procedure

The sampling procedure involves the intentional use of synthetic polluted water to

systematically examine the efficacy of biochar in water purification. This deliberate choice

allows us to control and manipulate specific contaminants, ensuring a standardized and

reproducible testing environment.

Synthetic polluted water is crafted by introducing known concentrations of various

pollutants, mimicking the types of contaminants commonly found in real-world scenarios. By

using synthetic polluted water, we can precisely measure and regulate the contaminants

46
KANGKONG BIOMASS BIOCHAR AS WATER FILTER

present, enabling a more targeted evaluation of the biochar's effectiveness in removing

pollutants.

This approach not only facilitates a controlled experimentation process but also enhances the

reliability and repeatability of our results. The creation of synthetic polluted water involves a

thoughtful combination of contaminants based on the pollutants prevalent in the community

of interest, ensuring that our research outcomes are directly applicable to the environmental

challenges faced by the community.

Data Collection Method

Procurement of Kangkong stem derived biomass biochar

The meticulous adherence to the prescribed flow chart for producing biomass-derived

biochar from kangkong (water spinach) stems guarantees a tightly controlled and efficient

manufacturing process. Beginning with the collection of kangkong stems, the flow chart

methodically guides the subsequent stages, encompassing preparation, pyrolysis, and

activation. Each step is finely tuned to optimize temperature, duration, and conditions,

ensuring the conversion of biomass into high-quality biochar.

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KANGKONG BIOMASS BIOCHAR AS WATER FILTER

Figure 3. Process of biochar procurement

Preparation of Synthetic Water Samples

Following the methodology of Kargol et al. (2023), the researchers prepared synthetic

wastewater. As described in the study, 60g/L of dog food was dissolved in deionized (DI)

water and incubated at room temperature for 24 hours. To replicate the specific conditions

used in the study, 300g of dog food was mixed with 5 liters of DI water and left to incubate

for the stipulated time.

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KANGKONG BIOMASS BIOCHAR AS WATER FILTER

Figure 4. Preparation diagram of Synthetic Wastewater Kargol et al. (2023).

Determination of Total Suspended Solids

Gravimetric analysis of TSS, the formula used is:

TSS (mg/L) = (Wf - Wi) / V

where:

Wf is the weight of the dried filter with captured solids (mg)

Wi is the pre-weighed weight of the filter alone (mg)

V is the volume of filtered water sample in liters (L)

This formula calculates the mass of suspended solids per liter of water, which is expressed as

mg/L.

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KANGKONG BIOMASS BIOCHAR AS WATER FILTER

The diagram provided below depicts the procedure for determining Total Suspended Solids

(TSS) according to the standards outlined in the 25th Edition of the Standard Methods for the

Examination of Water and Wastewater (APHA, AWWA, WEF, 2023), Method 2540 D.

The method begins by carefully measuring a specific volume of the water sample, typically

ranging from 50-100 mL for clean water to 10-50 mL for samples with high TSS levels. A

filtration apparatus, including a vacuum pump, filter holder, and funnel, is then prepared for

use.

Before filtration, the glass microfiber filter, which is pre-weighed and pre-dried, is pre-wetted

with filtered deionized (DI) water to prevent any loss of solids during the filtration process.

The pre-wetted filter is then placed in the filter holder.

Next, the measured water sample is filtered through the pre-wetted filter to capture

suspended solids. To ensure maximum capture of solids, the filter and funnel are rinsed with

a small amount of filtered DI water, and vacuum is applied for an additional 3 minutes to

remove any remaining water from the filter.

After filtration, the filter containing the captured solids is carefully removed from the filter

holder and placed in a drying dish labeled with sample identification information. The drying

dish containing the filter is then transferred to a drying oven set to a temperature between

103-105°C. The filter is left to dry in the oven for at least one hour to ensure complete

removal of moisture.

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KANGKONG BIOMASS BIOCHAR AS WATER FILTER

Once dried, the filter is cooled in a desiccator to prevent moisture absorption from the

surrounding air. After cooling, the filter is weighed using an analytical balance. This weight

represents the combined weight of the filter and the captured solids.

To determine the weight of the captured solids alone, the pre-weighed weight of the filter is

subtracted from the final weight. This calculation yields the weight of the suspended solids

present in the measured volume of water.

To obtain the TSS concentration in the water sample, the weight of the captured solids is

divided by the volume of filtered water, typically expressed in liters. This calculation

provides the TSS concentration in milligrams per liter (mg/L) or parts per million (ppm).

The process may be repeated if necessary to ensure the accuracy of the results, with

particular attention given to achieving a constant weight during the drying process, indicated

by a weight difference of less than 0.5 mg between successive weighings.

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Figure 5. Standard operating procedure for determining TSS of water samples

Determination of Turbidity of Water Samples

To assess turbidity, the researchers employs turbidity meters to gauge the degree of light

scattering at a specific angle and translate this data into a turbidity reading. Specifically, the

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La Motte 2020 WE 5315-0515 turbidimeter is utilized, capable of measuring turbidity within

the range of 0 to 4000 nephelometric turbidity units. As per the Standard Operating

Procedure (SOP) outlined by Gregorio and Burres (2010), three vials are employed for each

sample trial, each filled with 30 ml of the water sample. Moreover, rigorous adherence to

standard operating procedures is observed, including the triple-washing of all vials each time

before insertion into the turbidity meter, ensuring precise measurements are obtained.

Determination of Potential of Hydrogen (pH) of Water Samples

To measure pH, the 4-in-1 Water Quality Test: RCYAGO 4-in-1 pH tester device was

employed. Known for its ±0.05 pH Accuracy and 3-Point Calibration, this device features a

high-sensitivity glass probe. With a full measurement range from 0 to 14 pH and a pH

resolution of 0.01, it ensures precise pH readings. During testing, the sample was equilibrated

to room temperature, and 50 ml of the sample was placed into a beaker before being tested

with the meter sensor.

Determination of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) of Water Samples

The RCYAGO Dissolved Oxygen Meter with Electrode Filling Fluid is a specialized tool

designed to measure the concentration of dissolved oxygen (DO) in water. This element is

crucial for aquatic life, and its presence is impacted by factors like temperature, salinity, and

pollution levels. This meter utilizes a polarographic sensor and automatic temperature

compensation to provide accurate DO readings.

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The key features of the RCYAGO meter include a measurement range of 0-40.00 mg/L

(ppm) with a resolution of 0.1 mg/L, integrated temperature measurement, and the need for

regular calibration using standard solutions. Additionally, the included electrode filling fluid

is essential for maintaining optimal electrode performance and preventing it from drying out.

This meter finds applications in various fields, including aquaculture (monitoring oxygen

levels in fish tanks and ponds), environmental monitoring (measuring DO in water bodies),

wastewater treatment (ensuring proper oxygen levels for efficient biological processes), and

even educational settings (demonstrating the concept of dissolved oxygen).

Using the meter involves preparing the electrode by ensuring the filling solution is present

and the connection is secure, followed by turning on the device and allowing it to warm up.

Then, the electrode tip is submerged into the water sample while gently stirring. Finally, after

the reading stabilizes, both the dissolved oxygen concentration and temperature values are

recorded, 50 ml of the sample was placed into a beaker before being tested with the meter

sensor .

Data Analysis

The utilization of the t-test within Excel is carefully chosen to assess the significance of

differences between the population and make informed statistical inferences. The t-test is

particularly well-suited for comparing means of small sample sizes and is invaluable when

working with continuous data.

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By employing this statistical tool, the researchers aim to evaluate whether observed

differences in sample means are statistically significant or simply due to random chance.

Excel provides a user-friendly interface for conducting t-tests, enabling efficient calculations

of p-values that indicate the likelihood of obtaining observed results under the assumption of

no real difference in the population. The t-test's applicability to a wide range of research

scenarios, coupled with Excel's accessibility and familiarity, makes it an excellent choice for

the researcher's data analysis.

This approach ensures that our investigation into group differences is grounded in robust

statistical methods, enhancing the reliability of our findings and contributing to the overall

validity of our research outcomes.

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CHAPTER 4

Presentation, Analysis And Interpretation Of Data

This chapter presents the results and analysis of the study investigating the performance of a

Kangkong stem-derived biochar filter in improving water quality. The study utilized 16 water

samples, divided equally into two treatment groups of 8 samples each. The chapter addresses

the following research questions:

1 .What is the measument values of the biochar treated and the untreated sample groups in

terms of:

1.1 Total Suspended Solids in mg/L:

Pre-Test TSS:

Treatment Mean Median Standard # of Samples

Untreated 8

Treated 8

Initial measurements of Total Suspended Solids (TSS) revealed differences between the

treated and untreated groups. The treated group displayed an average concentration of [value]

mg/L, with a median value of [value] mg/L. Additionally, the standard deviation within the

treated group's 8 samples was [value] mg/L. In contrast, the untreated group exhibited a

higher average concentration of [value] mg/L, with a median of [value] mg/L. The variability

in the untreated group was also higher, as evidenced by a standard deviation of [value] mg/L.

These findings suggest potential impacts of the treatment on TSS levels.

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Post-Test TSS:

Treatment Mean Median Standard # of Samples

Untreated 8

Treated 8

Analyzing the final measurements of Total Suspended Solids (TSS) reveals differences

between the treated and untreated groups. The treated group exhibited an average

concentration of [value] mg/L, with a median of [value] mg/L. Additionally, the variability

within the treated group's 8 samples was measured by a standard deviation of [value] mg/L.

In contrast, the untreated group showed a higher average concentration of [value] mg/L, with

a median of [value] mg/L. Furthermore, the untreated group also displayed greater

variability, with a standard deviation of [value] mg/L. These final results suggest potential

effects of the treatment on TSS levels.

1.2 Dissolved Oxygen

Pre-Test DO measurements:

Treatment Mean Median Standard # of Samples

Untreated 3

Treated 3

1.3 Potential of Hydrogen (pH)

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1.4 Turbidity (NTU)

Chapter 5

Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

The results from this study demonstrate that the Kangkong stem-derived biochar filter was

effective in removing TSS from the water sample. Further research is needed to explore the

mechanisms influencing DO concentration and to optimize the biochar filter design for

broader water quality improvement applications.

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