Chapter 1: Introduction to contemporary issues and trends in education

1.1 Meaning, Definition and Concept of Trend and Issue

Definition of Trend:

 A general direction in which something is developing or changing: an upward trend in sales and
profit margins.
 A general direction of change: a way of behaving, proceeding, etc. that is developing and
becoming more common.
 A general development or change in a situation or in the way that people are behaving.
 Something that is currently popular or fashionable.
 A new development in clothing, make-up, etc.
 A trend is what's hip or popular at a certain point in time. While a trend usually refers to a certain
style in fashion or entertainment, there could be a trend toward warmer temperatures (if people
are following trends associated with global warming).
A trend simply reflects what seems to be going around at any given time. A trend can be in any area and
doesn't only reflect fashion, pop culture and entertainment. There can also be a trend in the stock
market to be bullish or bearish, depending on economic indicators, or a political trend reflecting a
nation’s current mood. Some trends are fun, some fabulous, some appalling, but however long they last,
you can be sure there will always be a new trend coming along to replace the old.

A trend is the latest style of popular culture including but not limited to: clothing, music, vernacular
(common speech), and the latest TV shows. This form of culture is usually expressed by preps and other
kids trying desperately to be accepted by peers despite obvious out casements

The following are examples of current trend:

 Clothing: jeans with tears, rips, or holes; anything vintage washed; wearing 3 different style shirts
at the same time - i.e. polo with tee shirt and button down.
 Music: pop on the radio consisting mostly of the latest rock band; currently R&B is quite popular
among all.
Definition of Issue

 An issue is concerned with one or a few persons of an organization or an institution.

 An issue could be lengthened or made serious.
 An issue can be complicated, but a problem cannot be complicated.
 An issue does not remain the same in the course of time. It can either grow serious or can get
light.
 An issue is organizational in character. Issues can be handled privately.
 An issue can have the potential to cause harm, unlike a problem.
 Issues can be recognizable solved. Issues if not solved can grow in their impact.

Characteristics of Issue

 An issue is used in the sense of controversy.

 Controversy: An issue is all about the controversy.
  Scope: An issue is concerned with one or a few persons of an organization or an institution.
 Character: An issue is organizational in character.
 Harm: An issue can have the potential to cause harm.

2.2 Difference between Trends and issue

Strictly speaking, a trend is a historical change over time. A trend describes history. At some point we
decided that, for any particular issue, certain variables or changes were important and we decided to
collect data on that variable over time. The rising price of a barrel of oil, the growing number of
individuals with an iPhone, and the diminishing number of individuals with a middle class income are all
examples of trends.

Now, many of us have a tendency to talk about trends as if they actually saying something about the
future rather than merely describing the past. While trends do imply something about the future –
which is way they often are very important in discussions about the future – they don’t actually say
anything about it. That would come from a trend prediction.

If a trend is a historical change up until the present, then an emerging issue is a possible new
technology, a potential public policy issue, or a new concept or idea that, while perhaps outlying
thinking today, could mature and develop into a critical mainstream issue in the future or become a
major trend in its own right. Standing in the present right now and casting our gaze into the futures,
examples of emerging issues include autonomous corporations that have software and robots instead of
human management or staff, the emergence of digital bodyguards for children to combat cyber bullying,
and the transformation of traditional education institutions as the Millennial generation takes
leadership positions.

https://www.slideshare.net/13023901-016/educational-trends-issues-problems

Chapter 2: Education as a Complex Enterprise

2.1 Diversity of aims and approaches in education.
Diversity refers to the range of identities that exist in a group of people. Common identity categories
referenced when discussing diversity include race, class, gender, religion and sexual orientation.
Diversity in education represents a broad range of ideas and initiatives to create learning environments
that are safe, inclusive and equitable for as many identities as possible. Recognizing, fostering and
developing sensitivity to the needs of people in various identity categories are primary aims of
educational diversity.

Though multiculturalism and diversity are used synonymously, these terms have different meanings.
Multiculturalism concerns the understanding and acceptance of ethnic cultures, while diversity deals
with a wide range of identity categories, including ethnic cultures.

2.2 Variety of philosophical approaches to education.

ESSENTIALISM

The essentialism approach to education has been noted throughout history. It started back in the days
of the Greek Philosophers, and has continued throughout American history.

Educators of the essentialism approach teach the basic skills of math, natural science, history, foreign
language (ex. Latin & Greek), and literature. The teacher is responsible for installing moral values that
will help the student on the road to becoming an ideal citizen. The students are taught factual
information and are not offered any vocational training. The classroom setting is very rigid and
disciplined. Students are rated academically by testing. Both the teacher and the administrators decide
what is best for the student. This creates an atmosphere where students do not expand their minds
creatively. Schools that use the essentialism philosophy encourage academic competition. This type of
educational approach tends to create longer academic days, school years, and the need for challenging
textbooks.

PERENNIALISM

The influence of Greek Philosophers Plato, and Aristotle still appear in education today. These two
philosophers taught their students by influencing them to question the facts.

In Perennialism the belief was that you taught “everlasting” information to the students. The main idea
was to stimulate thought provoking discussions from different topics presented to the student. As in
essentialism the teacher is the center of the instruction. The educator was responsible for teaching
principals not facts. Their goal was to open the students mind to scientific reasoning, and that factual
information may be proven false. A major difference between the two philosophies is in perinnialism the
student input is important. Using this approach helps the individual thinker in each student blossom.
Nowadays you can find this philosophical approach in boarding schools, and very elite private schools.

PROGRESSIVISM

In the 1920’s with the founding of the Laboratory School, John Dewey created the foundations of the
progressive education movement.

This is the first philosophical approach that takes into consideration the three learning types (auditory,
visual and kinesthetic learners) of students. In a progressive approach classroom you will see thought
provoking games, books, manipulative objects, experimentation and social interaction between the
students. This approach also uses field trips outside of the classroom for educational purposes.
Progressive philosophy isn’t center around the main goal of educating students for adulthood. Instead
this approach was meant to enrich the educational growth process. This educational philosophy can still
be found in our public school systems today.

EXISTENTIALISM

A.S. Neill is perhaps the most noted influence when it comes to the existentialism philosophy being
applied in a school environment

An existentialism school didn’t enforce formal education. Instead it nurtured the creativity, and
individuality of the student. It was felt that in time a student would mature by themselves, and decide
what direction was suitable to pursue. In an existentialist school children would be given a variety of
subjects to choose from. Vocational courses were to teach the student about themselves, and not to
prepare them for a future occupation. The student pursued the subject of their choice, learning method,
and worked at their own pace. They received one-on-one guidance from their teacher. Existentialism
was an independent study program rather than a traditional class. In today’s society we would find this
approached used to some degree with home schooling.

BEHAVIORISM

John Watson is known as the founder of the behavioral movement. His belief was that any human being
could be reprogrammed to acquire any skill.

According to behaviorism we can teach our students by reprogramming them. It is possible to change
students’ behavior by reconditioning them. This may be done by taking the negative stimuli away from
the student. In time the student learns to control the behavior. The behaviorism approach also states
that the student can be condition to learn or perform anything taught to them. This can be done by
using rewards for an appropriate response. Both of these methods can be effective when used over a
long period of time. In today’s society behaviorism approaches can be found in all forms of education. It
may be used to change negative behavior.

2.3 Education in different periods and societies

 Chapter 3 Madrassah Education
3.1 Madrassah: Origin, aims and objectives

Madrasa is the Arabic word for any type of educational institution, whether secular or religious (of any
religion).

The word is variously transliterated

  Madrasah
 medresa
 madrassa
 medrese etc.

In the West, the word usually refers to a specific type of religious school or college for the study of the
Islamic religion. People of all ages attend, and many often move on to becoming imams. The certificate
of anʻālim. A good number of the ḥuffāẓ(plural of ḥāfiẓ) are the product of the madaris.

An important function of the madaris is to admit orphans and poor children in order to provide them
with education and training. Madaris may enroll female students; however, they study separately from
the men.

Origin: Dar-e-Arqam is a first place which was used by the Holy Prophet (PBUH) as a hidden location
where he could quietly carry on his divine mission. He used the place for few years during the initial
period of Islam to preach teachings of Islamic faith, establish contacts and devise strategy

After Hijrah (migration) the madrasa of "Suffa" was established in Madina on the east side of the Al-
Masjid an-Nabawi mosque. Where Hazrat Muhammad was the teacher and the students were some of
his followers.

Ubadai-bin-as-Samit was appointed there by Hazrat Muhammad as teacher and among the students.
The curriculum of the madrasa, there were teachings of The Qur'an, The Hadith, fara'iz, tajweed,
treatises of first aid, etc. There were also trainings of horse-riding, art of war, handwriting and
calligraphy, athletics and martial arts.

Omar bin Abdul Aziz was a scholar of the first rank and surrounded himself with great scholars like
Muhammed bin Kaab and Maimun bin Mehran. He offered stipends to teachers and encouraged
education.

Aims: Mosques were places of education, where both religious and the so-called worldly sciences were
taught. They played a key role in the lives of Muslims. From the start, the mosque was the center of the
Islamic community, a place for prayer, meditation, religious instruction, political discussion, and a
school.

Once established, such mosques could develop into well-known places of learning, often with hundreds,
sometimes with thousands of students, and frequently contained important libraries. Notable examples
are the Mosques in Madina, Cairo (Al-Azhar) and Damascus

The primary schooling also included lessons in writing of Arabic along with reading. Along with the
primary studies, the students were also taught the basic arithmetic which would enable them to carry
out calculations related to the Zakat and the inheritance. For more advanced learning one could avail
the schooling in the bigger mosques. This would cover instruction in Arabic grammar and poetry, logic,
algebra, biology, history, law, and theology

The first school connected with a mosque, was set up In Medina every mosque had an elementary
school for the education of both boys and girls. Children usually started their schooling around the age
of five. The very first thing they learnt was how to perform Salah and the recitation of the Qur’an.
Some of the Madrasas attached to the mosques were world-class centers of learning at their time. The
world-renowned Al-Azhar University is the oldest university in the world. Now, one can find over a
hundred thousand students studying in it. Throughout the history of Islam, the mosque has always
played an important social role. It has been a place of prayer, a center of political activities, an
educational institution, and a focal point of communal life.

Al-Ghazali, Al-Farabi, and Ibn Sina (Avicenna), among many others, after teaching in public schools,
retired to their private libraries and studies, but continued to teach

To form each of our students to appreciate Qur’anic texts with confidence, reciting in the correct
manner and with insight and providing every opportunity to memories the Qu’ran. To teach the basic
and necessary Islamic injunctions. To prepare our students to acquire a moral attitude to live as
Muslims, taking guidance from the Qur’an and the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon
Him) in line with the principles and practices.

To impart Islamic Education for future generations. Provide leadership courses and teacher training
enabling an effective delivery of Islamic Education. Provide guidance and further facilitate advance
studies in the Islamic Sciences. Provide Islamic academic research and development opportunities.

Ensure that girls and boys have equal access to all areas of the Islamic syllabus and all students are
treated fairly and equally. To establish a caring and secure environment that facilitates excellence in
Islamic education with values of discipline and respect.

Work for curriculum reform by introducing like COMPUTER, Mathematics, Science, Urdu, English and
Arabic for the betterment of Madarssa education. To ensure students enjoy their study at the Madrasa
and develop a love of learning and a strong desire to continue their education as a lifelong experience.

3.3 System of education in Madrass

Most Madrasas teach mostly Islamic subjects such as memorization of
the Quran, Tafseer (Interpretation of the Quran), Hadith (thousands of sayings of Muhammad), usul ul
hadith (rules of hadith), Fiqh and Usul ul fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence and principles of Islamic
Jurisprudence), Sarf and Nahw (branches of Arabic grammar), Arabic Language, Islamic
Finance, Mantiq (Logic), Philosophy, classic Arabic literature and eloquence. Mastery of these subjects
qualifies a student to become an Islamic scholar or cleric (maulvi or maulana).

In terms of religious doctrine, many of the madrasas are funded by Saudis groups and combine
Deobandi ideology with "Wahhabism as reflected in the education imparted to students in Saudi Arabia
government." Critics complain on intolerance in teachings as reflected in the line that "Muslim pupils in
radical madrassas chant at the morning assembly: `When people deny our faith, ask them to convert
and if they don't destroy them utterly.`" Other Saudi madrassas, particularly schools in Afghan refugee
camps, may provide an interpretation of Islam that "blends Pushtun ideals and Deobandi views,
precisely the hallmark of the Taliban." The vast expansion of madrasas during the 1980s meant a
shortage of qualified teachers such that "quite a few teachers did not discern between tribal values of
their ethnic group, the Pushtuns and the religious ideals."

3.4 Madrasa Reforms in Pakistan

Problems with Madrass Education.
1- Absence of definite aims & objectives.

2- Lack of basic facilities like proper building, classroom & especially furniture, black board & teaching
equipment and resources in some of the Madrasas.

3- Outdated traditional methods & technique of teaching & learning.

4- Isolation from modern development in the area of natural sciences & social sciences, over emphasis
on traditional subjects, with a negative outlook towards modern subjects.

5- Lack of coordination among various Madrasas & Maktabs.

6- Defective system of examination & evaluation.

7- Poor quality of planning & administration.

8- Poor financial condition & management.

Finally, a few suggestions that can be incorporated for the improvement of Madarsa education in India
are given below:-

1) Enlarge the scope of Madrsas beyond religious education to subjects, like Science, Mathematics,
English and Computers.

2) Make an arrangement whereby Muslim students may be able to access both religious and school
education to ensure the completion of education till at least eighth grade.

3) Infrastructure development is very important for the Maktabs and Madrasas which includes
classrooms, furniture, and blackboards. Toilets, etc

4) There should be a provision of teacher’s training program for those teachers who wish to associate
with Madrasa education. They should be accommodated in existing training institutes affiliated with the
universities or there should be a separate system of training for them.

Chapter 4: Universal Literacy

4.1 Literacy and individual rights
4.1.1 Literacy

Literacy means the ability to read and write at a level that enables a person to develop and function
effectively in their day-to-day activities.

According to Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary literacy is "the quality or state of being literate."
Literate, according to this same source, derives from Latin terms meaning "marked with letters" and
"letters, literature." Two definitions are provided:

 Able to read and write.

 Versed in literature or creative writing...having knowledge or competence.
Importance of Literacy

 It can able the individual the acquiring knowledge and understanding of themselves and the
world.
 Literacy is helpful to student’s success in education institutions.
 Social and economic development in a country.

Literacy in Isalm

 Battle of BADR
 “Read! In the Name of your Lord, Who has created (all that exists). He has created man from a
clot (a piece of thick coagulated blood). Read! And your Lord is the Most Generous, Who has
taught by the pen, He has taught man that which he knew not.” (Quran 96:1-5)
 And Say: Can You Put On Equal Footing Those Who Are Learned With Those Who Are Not
Learned? (Surah 39: Ayah 9)
 Seeking Of Knowledge Is An Obligation Upon Every Muslim, Be It A Man Or A Woman.
Literacy as social practice

 Literacy practices are used by us in the practices of our everyday lives.

 When we buy a car, do the shopping, visit the doctor, or pay a bill, we engaged in social practices
in which literacy give us help.
 There are culturally accepted ways of engaging in social practice and these can vary across
cultures and over time greeting people etc.
4.1.2 Literacy as Individual right

Literacy should be understood within a rights-based approach and among principles of inclusion for
human development. The rationale for recognizing literacy as a right is the set of benefits it confers on
individuals, families, communities and nations. Literacy is a right. It is implicit in the right to education. It
is recognized as a right, explicitly for both children and adults, in certain international conventions.

Literacy has been recognized not only as a right in itself but also as a mechanism for the pursuit of other
human rights, just as human rights education is a tool for combating illiteracy.

Literacy, besides being a fundamental human right, is a foundation not only for achieving Education for
All but, more broadly, for achieving the overarching goal of reducing human poverty. And yet, 140
million adults in sub-Saharan Africa lack the basic learning tools to make informed decisions and
participate fully in the development of their societies.

In addition to being a right in itself, literacy allows the tracking down of other human rights. It confers a
wide set of benefits and strengthens the capabilities of individuals, families and communities to access
health, educational, economic, political and cultural opportunities.

4.2 Factors affecting program for universal literacy

Pakistan is a country with too many languages with some being state. English has now become sort of
our official language, a connecting language for the whole India. On the other hand we have our Mother
tongue languages which teach about our culture, about our past. Our founding fathers wanted the
children to have the knowledge about the mother tongue at least till the primarily level but knowing the
complexity of cultural, regional, social and geographical situation of India they made sufficient
relaxations in the constitution for English. It is an undeniable fact that without English as a common
language it will be very difficult to deal with our countrymen in other parts of our country.

Medium of instruction: A medium of instruction is a language used in teaching. It may or may not be the
official language of the country or territory. Where the first language of students is different from the
official language, it may be used as the medium of instruction for part or all of schooling. Bilingual or
multilingual education may involve the use of more than one language of instruction. UNESCO considers
that "providing education in a child's mother tongue is indeed a critical issue".

Importance of teaching mother-tongue to a child: Mother-tongue is the language that a child learns in
his mother's lap. It is the language which the child learns almost without any conscious effort on his
part. It is a language which the child acquires while living in his own social group.

Importance of Mother Tongue in Education: Mother-tongue plays a tremendously useful role in the
education of a child. It has a great importance in the field of education. Therefore, mother tongue must
be given an important and prominent place in the school curriculum. Specifically, the importance of
mother tongue is due to the following reasons:

 Medium of Expression and Communication. Mother tongue is the best medium for the
expression of one's ideas and feelings. Thus, it is the most potent agent for mutual communication
and exchange of ideas.
 Formation of a Social Group: It is through language, and especially through the mother-tongue,
that individuals form themselves into a social organization.
 Easy to Learn: Of all the languages, the mother-tongue is most easy to learn. Full proficiency or
mastery can be achieved in one's own mother tongue.
 Best Medium for Acquiring Knowledge: Thinking is an instrument of acquiring knowledge,
and thinking is impossible without language. It is therefore of the greatest importance for our
pupils to get a firm grounding in their mother-tongue.
 It brings about Intellectual Development: Intellectual development is impossible without
language. Reading, expressing oneself, acquisition of knowledge and reasoning are the
instruments for bringing about intellectual development; and all of these are possible only
through language, or the mother-tongue of the child.
 Instrument of Creative Self-Expression: We may be able to communicate in any language, but
creative self-expression is possible only in one's own mother tongue. This is clear from the fact
that all great writers could produce great literature only in their own language.
 Instrument of Emotional Development: Mother-tongue is the most important instrument for
bringing about emotional development of the individual. The emotional effect of literature and
poetry is something which is of vital importance in the development and refinement of emotions.
 Instrument of Growth of the Pupils: The teaching of the mother tongue is important because on
it depends the growth of our pupils. Growth in their intellectual life ; growth in knowledge ;
growth in ability to express themselves; growth in creative and productive ability-all stem from
the mother-tongue.
 Source of Original Ideas: Original ideas are the product of one's own mother tongue. On
account of the facility of thought and expression, new and original ideas take birth and get shape
only in one's own mother tongue. Thus, mother tongue has tremendous importance in education
and in the curriculum
4.3 Formal and Non formal education
4.3.1 Formal Education

Formal education or formal learning usually takes place in the premises of the school, where a person
may learn basic, academic, or trade skills. Small children often attend a nursery or kindergarten but
often formal education begins in elementary school and continues with secondary school.

Post-secondary education (or higher education) is usually at a college or university which may grant an
academic degree. It is associated with a specific or stage and is provided under a certain set of rules and
regulations.

The formal education is given by specially qualified teachers they are supposed to be efficient in the art
of instruction. It also observes strict discipline. The student and the teacher both are aware of the facts
and engage themselves in the process of education.

Examples of Formal Education

 Learning in a classroom
 School grading/certification, college, and university degrees
 Planned education of different subjects having a proper syllabus acquired by attending the
institution.
Characteristics of formal education

 Formal education is structured hierarchically.

 It is planned and deliberate.
 Scheduled fees are paid regularly.
 It has a chronological grading system.
 It has a syllabus and subject-oriented. The syllabus has to be covered within a specific time
period.
 The child is taught by the teachers
Advantages of Formal education:

 An organized educational model and up to date course contents.

 Students acquire knowledge from trained and professional teachers.
 Structured and systematic learning process.
 Intermediate and final assessments are ensured to advance students to the next learning phase.
 Institutions are managerially and physically organized.
 Leads to a formally recognized certificate.
 Easy access to jobs.

Disadvantages of Formal education:

 Sometimes, brilliant students are bored due to the long wait for the expiry of the academic session
to promote to the next stage.
 Chance of bad habits’ adoption may be alarming due to the presence of both good and bad
students in the classroom
  Wastage of time as some lazy students may fail to learn properly in spite of motivation by the
professional trainers.
 Some unprofessional and non-standard education system may cause the wastage of time and
money of the students which leads to the disappointment from formal education and argue them
to go for non-formal education.
 Costly and rigid education as compare to other forms of learning.
4.3.2 Non-formal Education

Non-formal education includes adult basic education, adult literacy education or school equivalency
preparation.

In non-formal education, someone (who is not in school) can learn literacy, other basic skills or job skills.

Home education, individualized instruction (such as programmed learning), distance learning and
computer-assisted instruction are other possibilities.

Non-formal education is imparted consciously and deliberately and systematically implemented. It

should be organized for a homogeneous group. Non-formal, education should be programmed to serve
the needs of the identified group. This will necessitate flexibility in the design of the curriculum and the
scheme of evaluation.

Examples of Non-formal Education

 Boy Scouts and Girls Guides develop some sports program such as swimming comes under non
formal education.
 Fitness programs.
 Community-based adult education courses.
 Free courses for adult education developed by some organization.

Characteristics of Non-formal Education

 The non-formal education is planned and takes place apart from the school system.
 The timetable and syllabus can be adjustable.
 Unlike theoretical formal education, it is practical and vocational education.
 Non formal education has no age limit.
 Fees or certificates may or may not be necessary.
 It may be full time or part-time learning and one can earn and learn together.
 It involves learning of professional skills.

Advantages of Non-formal Education

 Practiced and vocational training.

 Naturally growing minds that do not wait for the system to amend.
 Literacy with skillfulness growth in which self-learning is appreciated.
 Flexibility in age, curriculum and time.
 Open-ended educational system in which both the public and private sector are involved in the
process.
 No need to conduct regular exams.
 Diploma, certificates, and award are not essential to be awarded.
Disadvantages of Non-formal Education

 Attendance of participants is unsteady.

 Sometimes, it’s just wastage of time as there is no need to conduct the exam on regular basis and
no degree/diploma is awarded at the end of the training session.
 Basic reading and writing skills are crucial to learn.
 No professional and trained teachers.
 Students may not enjoy full confidence as the regular students enjoy.
 Some institutes provide fake certification through online courses just for the sake of earning.

Chapter 5: Gender Disparity

5.1 Gender equality
Gender equality is achieved when women and men enjoy the same rights and opportunities across all
sectors of society, including economic participation and decision-making, and when the different
behaviors, aspirations and needs of women and men are equally valued and favored. Gender equality is
measured by looking at the representation of men and of women in a range of roles.

Equality of women and men is a fundamental human right, an essential element of democracy and an
imperative of social justice. However, in present-day societies inequalities between women and men
continue de jure and de facto, in the educational field as in the political, economic, social, cultural and
any other fields.

The Education 2030 agenda by UNESCO recognizes that gender equality requires an approach that
‘ensures that girls and boys, women and men not only gain access to and complete education cycles, but
are empowered equally in and through education.’

Large gender gaps exist in access, learning achievement and continuation in education in many settings,
most often at the expense of girls, although in some regions boys are at a disadvantage. Despite
progress, more girls than boys still remain out of school - 16 million girls will never set foot in a
classroom (UNESCO Institute for Statistics) - and women account for two thirds of the 750 million adults
without basic literacy skills.

5.2 Factors affecting the status and role of women

1. Access to Education

A 2013 report by UNESCO found that 31 million girls of primary school age were not in school, and about
one out of every four young women in developing countries had never completed their primary school
education. That number represents a huge pool of untapped girl power: that same report suggests that
educated women are more likely to get married later, survive childbirth, raise healthy kids, find work,
and earn more money, among other positives.

2. Employment Opportunities

Even in a country as wealthy and developed as the US, women still experience major inequality in the
workforce: By some estimates, women earn only $0.77 for every $1 earned by men. Globally, the gender
gap is even wider: women earn only one tenth of the world’s income despite working two thirds of the
total work hours. Empowering women to earn their fair share could benefit their entire communities in
a big way: women are likely to invest more of their money back into their families and communities than
men typically do.

3. Reproductive Health & Rights

225 million women in developing countries have an unmet need for family planning, contributing to 74
million unplanned pregnancies and 36 million abortions every year, according to figures cited by Women
Deliver, a women’s advocacy group. Helping women take charge of their baby-making reduces unsafe
abortions and maternal deaths by over 70% each, and conserves precious resources that would
otherwise have gone toward pregnancy-related costs.

4. Maternal Health

The World Health Organization estimates that 800 women die every day from preventable, pregnancy-
related causes. That’s nearly 300,000 lives per year needlessly lost during what is fundamentally a life-
creating event. What more is there to say?

5. Gender-based Violence

1 in 3 women experience physical or sexual violence in their lifetimes, according to WHO. Whether it’s
domestic abuse, rape, or sexual trafficking, gender-based violence denies far too many women the
opportunity to live happy, healthy, and fulfilling lives.

6. Child Marriage

An estimated 140 million girls will become child brides between 2011 and 2020. Girls who marry before
age 18 are typically denied an education, at risk of complications related to premature childbearing, and
more vulnerable to intimate partner violence.

7. Female Genital Mutilation

Female Genital Mutilation (or FGM), defined by WHO as including “procedures that intentionally alter or
cause injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons,” is a complex issue with religious and
cultural implications for the groups who practice it. That said, the general consensus in the international
community is that FGM imposes real health consequences, violates a child’s rights, and promotes
inequality between the sexes.

8. Water & Sanitation

When clean drinking water and hygienic sanitation facilities are in short supply, women and girls suffer
most. Case in point: Girls whose schools lack proper bathrooms will often skip school during their
menstrual periods for fear of embarrassment or stigma. It’s also true that women in developing
countries are frequently tasked with fetching water, which can be a time-consuming process. As my
colleague Christina pointed out, the girls and women of the world have much better things to do with
their time than shuttle buckets around.

9. Gender Equality
Equality (or the lack thereof) is a recurring issue when it comes to women and girls, whether it’s unequal
access to schooling for girls in developing countries, or unequal pay for women in the workplace. In a
world where 95% of countries are led by a male head of state, it’s clear that we as a global community
have a long way to go before women are given a fair shake.

5.3 Steps towards reducing gender disparity

1. Talk to women and girls: A fundamental reason we have not yet achieved gender equality in every
realm is that women and girls’ voices are too often excluded from global and national decision-making.
When programmes and policies are designed without women’s needs central to their foundation, we’re
setting ourselves up to fail. If grassroots women had been sufficiently consulted in designing the
decision-makers would have been able to do ahead that girls would still be held responsible for many
home chores, caring for younger siblings and fetching water, and have known that a major obstacle for
girls’ education is that girls are at risk of physical and sexual assaults when they have to walk long
distances to school.

2. Stop child marriage and sexual harassment: Child marriage is a major impediment to girls’ education.
In Bangladesh more than 50% of girls are married before the age of 18, and about 30% of girls 15 to 19
already have one child. If we want girls to be able to complete education we have to end child marriage.
We also have to seriously address sexual harassment of girls.

3. Make education gender sensitive: There has been much progress in increasing access to education,
but progress has been slow in improving the gender sensitivity of the education system, including
ensuring textbooks promote positive categorizes. This is critically important for girls to come out of
schools as citizens who can shape a more equal society.

4. Empower mothers: In Afghanistan, there have been great moves to increase number of girls going
through formal education through providing schools for girls in every district. We have learned that
through empowering women on the community level you will also enhance girls education. When
mothers are educated and empowered to make choices in their lives, they enable their daughters to go
to school.

5. Give proper value to ‘women’s work’: The unpaid work women and girls do provide the foundation
for the global economy. This fact needs to be highlighted more in the media, with the private sector and
in communities. More research and data for messaging on this point could be useful in promoting the
key role and contributions women and girls make to the economy and the need for proper recognition
and compensation

6. Encourage women into non-traditional vocations: Supporting women in non-traditional jobs is

crucial in not only making long-lasting change in their lives but also help break social taboos. Brac is
skilling women in professions such as motorcycle fixing, driving, hospitality, mobile-phone fixing

7. Work together: Alarmingly, gender gaps in sub-Saharan Africa have widened at higher levels of
schooling. This is a reverse of the global trend towards greater parity. Between 1999 and 2010, the ratio
of girls in secondary school fell from 83 to 82 girls for every 100 boys at the secondary level and from 67
to 63 girls for every 100 boys at the tertiary level. This is stalled progress and a reversion to the deep
gender equalities that characterized previous eras.
8. Stop the violence: Gender inequality allows for violence against women to continue unabated. The
UN has found that globally, one in three women will experience violence in her lifetime, with most
violence against women perpetrated by a current or former intimate partner. The World Health
Organization, London School of Health and Tropical Medicine, and the World Bank Group have done a
lot to consolidate and expand on what we know about the prevalence of violence against women, and
effective prevention and response strategies.

Chapter 6: Population Education

6.1 Concept of Population Education
It is a factual knowledge about population dynamic. Population education is an educational process,
which helps individual to learn about population and particularly the effect of population dynamic and
the related problem on the individuals, family, community, nation and the world.

According to UNESCO an Education program which provides for a study of the population situation of
the family, community, nation and world with the purposes of developing it and students’ rational and
responsible attitudes and behavior towards that situation.

General objectives of population education programmes maybe as follows:

 To develop awareness and understanding about population related problems in the local,
provincial/state, national and world context.
 To highlight and explain the demographic concepts and theories relating to population
education.
 To disseminate the phenomena of population change and identify its determinants.
 To understand the concept of quality of life in different socio-cultural settings.
 To comprehend the inter-relationship between population change and different aspects of
quality of life at micro and macro levels.
 To understand the relationship between resources and population and the concept of
consumption and depletion of resources.
 To understand the reproductive system of human race and family welfare.
 To appreciate, develop and review the population policies and plans.

6.2 Factors affecting Population Education.

Economic development: Countries who are in the early stages of economic development tend to have
higher rates of population growth. In agriculturally based societies, children are seen as potential
income earners. From an early age, they can help with household tasks and collecting the harvest. Also,
in societies without state pensions, parents often want more children to act as an insurance for their old
age. It is expected children will look after parents in old age. Because child mortality rates are often
higher, therefore there is a need to have more children to ensure the parents have sufficient children to
look after them in old age.

Education: In developed countries, education is usually compulsory until the age of 16. As education
becomes compulsory, children are no longer economic assets – but economic costs. In the US, it is
estimated a child can cost approx $230,000 by the time they leave college. Therefore, the cost of
bringing up children provides an incentive to reduce family size.

Quality of children: Gary Becker produced a paper in 1973 with H.Gregg Lewis which stated that parents
choose the number of children based on a marginal cost and marginal benefit analysis. In developed
countries with high rates of return from education, parents have an incentive to have a lower number of
children and spend more on their education – to give their children not just standard education but a
relatively better education than others. To be able to give children the best start in life, it necessitates
smaller families. Becker noted rising real GDP per capita was generally consistent with smaller families.

Welfare payments/State pensions: A generous state pension scheme means couples don’t need to have
children to provide an effective retirement support when they are old. Family sizes in developing
countries are higher because children are viewed as ‘insurance’ to look after them in old age. In modern
societies, this is not necessary and birth rates fall as a result.

Social and cultural factors: India and China (before one family policy) had strong social attachments to
having large families. In the developed world, smaller families are the norm.

Availability of family planning: Increased availability of contraception can enable women to limit family
size closer to the desired level. In the developing world, the availability of contraception is more limited,
and this can lead to unplanned pregnancies and more rapid population growth. In Africa in 2015, it was
estimated that only 33% of women had access to contraception. Increasing rates would play a role in
limiting population growth.

Female labour market participation: In developing economies, female education and social mobility are
often lower. In societies where women gain a better education, there is a greater desire to put work
over starting a family. In the developed world, women have often chosen to get married later and delay
having children (or not at all) because they prefer to work and concentrate on their career.

Death rates – Level of medical provision: Often death rates are reduced before a slowdown in birth
rates, causing a boom in the population size at a certain point in a country’s economic development. In
the nineteenth and early twentieth century, there was a rapid improvement in medical treatments
which helped to deal with many fatal diseases. Death rates fell and life expectancy increased.

Immigration levels: Some countries biggest drivers of population growth come from net migration. In
the UK from 2000 to 2013, around 50% of net population growth came from net international migration.
Countries like Japan with very strict immigration laws have seen a stagnation in the population.

6.3 Impact of Population Growth on National Development

Low per Capital Income: The population growth reduces per capita income of the people because
national income is divided by a big size of population. Per capital income of Pakistan is $ 1254 during
2010-11.

Unemployment, Under-employment and Disguised-unemployment: It is impossible to provide jobs to

such highly growing population in Pakistan. • It results in unemployment, under-employment and
disguised- unemployment. • Rate of unemployment in Pakistan is 5.6%.
Low Growth of Agriculture Sector: Very fast growth rate of population is a pressure on land. • It caused
to use of agricultural products at domestic level, increase in the landless workers and shortage of food. •
Growth rate of agriculture sector is 1.2%

Low Saving and Low Investment: The rapidly increasing population increases the expenditure of
government. It reduces the saving and investment. • Low level of saving & investment means economic
backwardness.

High Rate of Inflation: There is more demand for goods due to more population. • More demand
results in more prices and inflation in the country. • Rate of inflation is 14.1 % in Pakistan.

Pollution: There is not any effective system to control the pollution. • Capitalists install industries with
billion dollars of resources but do not install treatment plants of million rupees. • The rapid growth of
population creates pollution, unplanned colonies and environment problems.

Backward Social Infrastructure: Rapidly growing population creates economic and social problems such
as

• Housing
• Education
• health
• Transport
• water
• power
Vicious Circle of Poverty: Very high rate of population growth lowers the per capita income, which
caused in low saving and low investment that result in low rate of capital formation. • All this forms the
vicious circle of poverty.

Low Living Standard: Rising population cannot be provided the basic facilities of life in developing
countries like Pakistan. • So, rising population means low living standard. About 21 % population is living
below poverty line.

6.4 Roles & responsibilities of family, school, mosque, & community in population Education.
Formal population education is designed to teach children in school about basic population issues and,
in many cases, to encourage them eventually to have smaller families. Some programs include specific
units on human reproduction and family planning, while others do not. National population education
programs began during the 1970s in about a dozen countries, mainly in Asia. These include Bangladesh,
India, Indonesia, South Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines, Sierra Leone, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Thailand,
Egypt, Tunisia, and El Salvador. A strong case can be made for including an important contemporary
issue like population in the school curriculum. Nevertheless, educational innovation is a difficult and
long-term process. As a rule, it takes 5 to 10 years before new material can be fully incorporated in a
school curriculum. Curriculum changes must be carefully planned, thousands of teachers trained, and
appropriate materials prepared for classroom use. Moreover, differences of opinion over the need,
acceptability, goals, content, methods, and other aspects of population education have held back
programs in some countries. Where population education programs have been implemented, student
knowledge of population issues increases, but it is not yet clear whether in-school education has a
measurable impact on fertility-related attitudes or behavior.
6.5 Steps towards population planning and welfare
Development: Why the enormous population and the increasing rate of it is the biggest challenge faced
by the developing nations of Africa and Asia while the same is a little or no threat in countries like
America, Europe or Japan. Lack of Development implies high poverty, high illiteracy, high discrimination,
lack of awareness, lack of medical facilities and thus in turn increased population growth. Any economy
is termed developed is its population is non-discriminated and just. By reducing discrimination between
gender and class and ensuring development of the whole population instead of a given segment of
society would eliminate the challenge of population growth for once.

Easy and cheap availability of contraceptives ensuring that people have easy and cheap access to
contraception tools will help avoiding cases of unwanted pregnancies and births. Every state owned
hospital should be made to provide cheaply efficient birth control medicines or surgeries since poor
people have neither the means not awareness to use contraception. Use of condoms and contraceptives
must be advertised and promoted along with ensuring cheap and ready access to these. Contraceptives
do not only prove to be an important population control measure but also prevents spreading of
sexually transmitted diseases like AIDS thus ensuring small healthy families.

More literacy rate and education: Education forms the backbone of an individual and economy. Once
educated people know and understand the harms which a high population growth rate possesses.
Education, especially women education, can work wonders in controlling population. An educated man
and woman can readily understand the benefits of a small family. Without sufficient education most
measures like awareness campaigns and women empowerment will prove to be insufficient and
pointless.

Eradicate poverty: Why most poor countries have highest population growth instead of rich ones.
Poverty has a direct relation to the population growth. In developing countries of Asia and Africa, child
labor, slave trading and human trafficking is highly prevalent. African countries for example still have
maximum reporting of slave trading though trading of humans is legally banned everywhere in the
world. People give birth to kids and sell them to rich people who in turn employ these kids in various
laborious and unethical tasks. If not sell, these parents force their kids to beg or work at a very tender so
as to earn some extra money for the family. These people believe that more kids mean more hands for
begging and work and thus more money. Without concrete measures for growth and poverty
eradication, other methods of population control may prove to be ineffective.

Women empowerment: In most developing countries, the women folks are not considered equivalent
to men in terms of force and might. Such opinions are extremely common in Islamic countries and even
India and Bangladesh. Gender discrimination is a major reason for population growth. People keep
giving birth to kids in order to have more sons than daughters. Empowering woman with a say in
matters concerning them like child birth and educating them to fight against discrimination will ensure a
healthy and aware society.

Spread awareness: People need to be told and made to understand the consequences of having too
many children. Government and non-government institutions can carry awareness campaigns informing
people how they will be unable to provide good nutrition, education or medical facilities to their
children if they have too many. Population is also a reason for illiteracy and diseases and malnutrition
and the negative effects of it are required to be communicated to the general public to expand their
reasoning and understanding. Education programs are needed to dispel common myths and
misconceptions about modern contraceptives.

Providing incentives: Incentives have proved to be an efficient policy measure in combating most
development issues including population. Providing a health, educational or even financial incentive can
be a highly effective population measure. There are certain incentive policies like paying certain some of
money to people with not more than two kids or free or discounted education for single child etc. which
are in place in most developing countries facing population related challenges and has also proved to be
a useful measure.

Legislative actions: Not much result can be achieved from these if family planning and use of
contraception remains optional instead of mandatory. Strict legal steps are required for child marriage,
education, abolition of child labor and beggary and family planning to reap significant benefits from it.
Proper enforcement of laws related to child labor, slavery and beggary will ensure that parents don’t sell
their children or send them out to work thus forcing them to raise lesser number of kids.

Provision of Medical facilities: One big drawback of developing countries is that of limited and highly
centric medical facilities. Because of the high rural-urban divide in developing countries, availability of
good hospitals and doctors is limited to urban centers thus resulting in high infant mortality rate in rural
areas. Rural people, in order to ensure that at least some of their kids survive, give birth to more and
more kids thus contributing to the population growth. If provided with optimum medical facilities
population rate will almost certainly decline.

Restriction on child marriages: The problem of child marriage is highly prominent in certain countries
with high population like India, Pakistan or Bangladesh. A marriage at a tender age leads to a long span
for giving birth. Also young age marriage devoid people of the education and awareness required to be
sensitive towards and understand the consequences of raising too many children. A UN report has
suggested that there would be a significant decline in world population if the legal for marriage is made
20 years.

Chapter 7: Environmental Awareness

Pollution is something introduced into the environment that is dirty, unclean or has a harmful effect.

The contamination of air, water, or soil by substances that are harmful to living organisms. Pollution can
occur naturally, for example through volcanic eruptions, or as the result of human activities, such as the
spilling of oil or disposal of industrial waste.

A pollutant is a waste material that pollutes air, water, or soil. Three factors determine the severity of a
pollutant: its chemical nature, the concentration and the persistence.

7.1 Types of pollution

The term "pollution" refers to any substance that negatively impacts the environment or organisms that
live within the affected environment. The five major types of pollution include: air pollution, water
pollution, soil pollution, light pollution, and noise pollution.

Air Pollution
A major source of air pollution results from the burning of fossil fuels. Vehicle and factory emissions are
common sources of this type of air pollution. The burning of fossil fuels contributes to the formation of
smog, a dense layer of particulate matter that hangs like a cloud over many major cities and industrial
zones. Air pollution contributes to respiratory problems such as asthma, lung cancer, chronic bronchitis,
and other lung ailments. Nitrogen and sulfur oxides in the air contribute to acid rain, which is a form of
precipitation with a lower (more acidic) pH than normal. Acid rain harms forests, species that live in
water bodies, and degrades outdoor statues, monuments, and buildings.

Water Pollution

A major source of water pollution is runoff from agricultural fields, industrial sites, or urban areas.
Runoff disrupts the water body's natural balance. For example, agricultural runoff typically includes
fertilizer or toxic chemicals. Fertilizer can cause algal blooms (an explosive growth of algae), choking out
other plants and decreasing the amount of available oxygen necessary for the survival of other species.
Raw sewage is another type of water pollutant. When sewage gets into the drinking water supply,
serious stomach and digestive issues may result, including the spread of diseases such as typhoid or
dysentery. A third source of water pollution is trash. Improperly disposed of items, such as plastic bags,
fishing line, and other materials may accumulate in the water and lead to the premature death of
animals that get tangled within the garbage.

Soil Pollution

Soil can become polluted by industrial sources or the improper disposal of toxic chemical substances.
Common sources of soil pollution include asbestos, lead, PCBs, and overuse of pesticides/herbicides. In
the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is in charge of cleaning up uncontrolled
hazardous waste sites, which are referred to as "Superfund" sites. Many of these sites are abandoned or
improperly-managed industrial zones.

Light Pollution

Light pollution refers to the large amount of light produced by most urban and other heavily-populated
areas. Light pollution prevents citizens from seeing features of the night sky and has also been shown to
impede the migration patterns of birds and the activities of nocturnal animals.

Noise Pollution

Noise pollution typically refers to human-made noises that are either very loud or disruptive in manner.
This type of pollution has been shown to impact the movement of sea mammals, such as dolphins and
whales and also impacts the nesting success of birds.

Thermal pollution

Thermal pollution, is a temperature change in natural water bodies caused by human influence, such as
use of water as coolant in a power plant.

7.2 Causes of pollution

Air Pollution
There are two types of air pollutants, primary and secondary. Primary pollutants are emitted directly
from their source, while secondary pollutants are formed when primary pollutants react in the
atmosphere.

The burning of fossil fuels for transportation and electricity produces both primary and secondary
pollutants and is one of the biggest sources of air pollution.

The fumes from car exhausts contain dangerous gases and particulates including hydrocarbons, nitrogen
oxides, and carbon monoxide. These gases rise into the atmosphere and react with other atmospheric
gases creating even more toxic gases.

According to The Earth Institute, the heavy use of fertilizer for agriculture is a major contributor of fine-
particulate air pollution, with most of Europe, Russia, China, and the United States being affected. The
level of pollution caused by agricultural activities is thought to outweigh all other sources of fine-
particulate air pollution in these countries.

Ammonia is the primary air pollutant that comes from agricultural activities. Ammonia enters the air as
a gas from concentrated livestock waste and fields that are over fertilized.

This gaseous ammonia then combines with other pollutants such as nitrogen oxides and sulfates created
by vehicles and industrial processes, to create aerosols. Aerosols are tiny particles that can penetrate
deep into the lungs and cause heart and pulmonary disease.

Other agricultural air pollutants include pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides. All of which also
contribute to water pollution.

Water Pollution

Nutrient pollution is caused by wastewater, sewage, and fertilizers. The high levels of nutrients in these
sources end up in bodies of water and promote algae and weed growth, which can make the water
undrinkable and depleted oxygen causing aquatic organisms to die.

Pesticides and herbicides applied to crops and residential areas concentrate in the soil and are carried to
the groundwater by rainwater and runoff. For these reasons anytime someone drills a well for water it
must be checked for pollutants.

Industrial waste is one of the main causes of water pollution, by creating primary and secondary
pollutants including sulphur, lead and mercury, nitrates and phosphates, and oil spills.

In developing countries around 70% of their solid waste is dumped directly into the ocean or sea. This
causes serious problems including the harming and killing of sea creatures, which ultimately affects
humans.

Land & Soil Pollution

Land pollution is the destruction of land as a result of human’s activities and the misuse of land
resources. This occurs when humans apply chemicals such as pesticides and herbicides to the soil,
dispose of waste improperly, and irresponsibly exploit minerals through mining.

Soil is also polluted through leaking underground septic tanks, sewage systems, the leaching of harmful
substances from landfill, and direct discharge of waste water by industrial plants into rivers and oceans.
Rain and flooding can bring pollutants from other already polluted lands to soil at other locations.

Over-farming and over-grazing by agricultural activities causes the soil to lose its nutrient value and
structure causing soil degradation, another type of soil pollution.

Landfills can leach harmful substances into the soil and water ways and create very bad smells, and
breeding grounds for rodents that transmit diseases.

Noise & Light Pollution

Noise is considered an environmental pollutant caused by household sources, social events, commercial
and industrial activities, and transportation.

Light pollution is caused by the prolonged and excessive use of artificial lights at night that can cause
health problems in humans and disrupt natural cycles, including wildlife activities. Sources of light
pollution include electronic billboards, night sports grounds, street and car lights, city parks, public
places, airports, and residential areas.

7.3 Environmental education

Environmental education is a process that allows individuals to explore environmental issues, engage in
problem solving, and take action to improve the environment. As a result, individuals develop a deeper
understanding of environmental issues and have the skills to make informed and responsible decisions.

The components of environmental education are:

 Awareness and sensitivity to the environment and environmental challenges

 Knowledge and understanding of the environment and environmental challenges
 Attitudes of concern for the environment and motivation to improve or maintain environmental
quality
 Skills to identify and help resolve environmental challenges
 Participation in activities that lead to the resolution of environmental challenges
Environmental Education (EE) is a methodology in which people pick up familiarity with their
surroundings and secure learning, abilities, values, experiences, and passion, all of which will empower
them to act – separately and aggregately – to take care of present and future environmental issues. It is
the study of relationship and interactions between natural and human systems.

Features of Environmental Education (EE)

 Environmental Education Is a learning process that expands individuals’ information and

mindfulness about nature’s domain and related difficulties, creates the vital abilities and
mastery to address the difficulties, instilled confidence and stewardship and cultivates
demeanor, inspirations, and responsibilities to settle on educated choices and make dependable
moves in the field that they are working with.
 Environmental Education Is a inter-disciplinary field that integrates fields such as biology,
ecology, earth science, geography, atmospheric science and mathematics because
understanding how environment works and keeping it healthy require knowledge and skills
from many disciplines.
  Environmental Education Includes all efforts to make general public aware of the knowledge of
the environment and environmental challenges through print materials, media, brochures,
bulletins, videos, or other media techniques.
 Environmental Education Leads to responsible individual and group actions.
 Environmental Education Provides information about specific environmental concerns or
problems to the general public instead of specific group, religion or community.
 Environmental Education Works to help you think critically, so that you aren’t sitting there
trying to fit everything into a neat little box.
 Environmental Education Involves students in different data-gathering techniques that help
them to discuss, analyze, predict and interpret data about environmental issues.
 Environmental Education Is study centered, promotes higher level thinking skills and relevant to
student’s everyday lives.
 Environmental Education Allows people to discuss about complex environment problems that
has no simple answers.
 Environmental Education Is a process in which individuals gain information environmental
awareness and acquire knowledge, skills, values, experiences, and determination which can help
them to solve different environmental problems

Benefits of Environmental Education

Imagination and enthusiasm are heightened: EE is hands-on, interactive learning that sparks the
imagination and unlocks creativity. When EE is integrated into the curriculum, students are more
enthusiastic and engaged in learning, which raises student achievement in core academic areas.

Learning transcends the classroom: Not only does EE offer opportunities for experiential learning
outside of the classroom, it enables students to make connections and apply their learning in the real
world. EE helps learners see the interconnectedness of social, ecological, economic, cultural, and
political issues.

Critical and creative thinking skills are enhanced: EE encourages students to research, investigate how
and why things happen, and make their own decisions about complex environmental issues. By
developing and enhancing critical and creative thinking skills, EE helps foster a new generation of
informed consumers, workers, as well as policy or decision makers.

Tolerance and understanding are supported: EE encourages students to investigate varying sides of
issues to understand the full picture. It promotes tolerance of different points of view and different
cultures.

Healthy lifestyles are encouraged: EE gets students outside and active, and helps address some of the
health issues we are seeing in children today, such as obesity, attention deficit disorders, and
depression. Good nutrition is often emphasized through EE and stress is reduced due to increased time
spent in nature.

Communities are strengthened: EE promotes a sense of place and connection through community
involvement. When students decide to learn more or take action to improve their environment, they
reach out to community experts, donors, volunteers, and local facilities to help bring the community
together to understand and address environmental issues impacting their neighborhood.
 Chapter 8: Privatization of Education
8.1 Government resources and multiple demands
 The expansion and establishment of education institution is increasingly high and the same has
been shouldered mainly by the state. A stage has now come when the state is finding it very
difficult to meet the democratic aspirations of the people for further expansion of education
system due to paucity of resources. It is therefore felt that the private sector be inducted in
education so that it can share the burdens in funding education.
 Knowledge explosion is taking place in the world and underdeveloped economies must keep
pace with this knowledge explosion. Education or knowledge industry is becoming the key factor
in the process of development. This being so education is no longer viewed as a social service
rather it is considered as a necessary economic input. In this effort the private sector is also
considered to play its part since it is a major beneficiary of the knowledge industry.
 The world is passing through fourth industrial revolution. This consists of information
technology, bio-technology, nano-technology, robotics, application of lasers and new industrial
materials. The growth of satellite TV has further strengthened information – Revolution in the
world along with development in computer technology. These technological developments have
increased the requirements of educated and technical manpower at a much higher level. Since
the public sector due to limitedness of resources allocated to education cannot meet the needs
of industry and other sectors of the economy, it is vital that private sector is initiated in the
programmes of skilled manpower to take advantage of growing technologies.
 Privatization can respond to market signals or market demand for labor in the more efficient
and prompt manner than the public sector, which finds it very difficult to introduce flexibility in
operations of human resource development.
 Over years, the public sector has failed to generate resources from the recipients of education,
it has become more or less free public good and this has devalued the education in the eyes of
recipients. Privatization may lead to changing for the service provided which is likely to generate
great responsibility among the recipients of education. This results in greater efficiency in
teaching learning and improvement in its quality.
 Privatization by generating more resources from students’ fees will help to reduce fiscal burdens
of the government.
8.2 Need for Privatization
Need for competitive efficiency: Main justification for privatization rests heavily on the grounds of
efficiency to promote a more competitive economic environment. Operation of public sector enterprises
is considered inefficient. It is believed that private ownership and control are more efficient in terms of
resource allocation and work.

Growth in population: India has a population of nearly one hundred and seven cores. In order to
provide to a large number of people more private institutions are needed. To fulfill the demand for
higher education of young people in the country privatization of higher education is needed.

Financial burden on government: Higher education in India is in financial stress. The state/government
can no longer bear the financial burden of public enterprises. Current spending on education in India is
not more than 3.5% of GDP. The center itself concedes that the minimum should be 6%. Very little is
being spent on higher education. This compares unfavorably with the international level, especially
when compared with countries such as South Africa, which invests eight per cent of GNP on education.
Therefore there is a need to evolve policy through which private resources are mobilized.

Education is an Economic good: Education is no more being as a social service but as a necessary
economic input. Investment in education is treated as a factor contributing to the development of
human resources. In this effort private initiative can help since the private sector is the beneficiary of
the knowledge industry.

Quest for Quality: Private institutions do not require long procedures for procurement of human as well
as material resources. In order to purchase and maintain good qualitative infrastructure and equipment
like furniture, buildings, different types of laboratories and qualified and competent academic staff, who
can be paid as per the demand, there is a need for privatization.

Rapid growth of school education: Growing number of schools naturally pushed the demand higher
education which the 204 government is not able to provide, therefore demand for privatization of
higher education is the need of the hour.

Fulfilling the need for skilled manpower: There is very little initiative from the public sector due to
limited freedom. Private institutions are free to initiate modern and advanced courses in order to fulfill
the demand for subjects which facilitate economic development of the nation. The demands of the
market and the times can be fulfilled. For this privatization is needed.

8.3 Challenges of quality education

1. A lack of funding for education

Developing countries can’t rely solely on their own financing for education — there’s also a need for
more foreign aid.

Only 20% of aid for education goes to low-income countries, according to the Global Partnership for
Education (GPE). But it costs an average of $1.25 a day per child in developing countries to provide 13
years of education.

If each developing country invested just 15 cents more per child, it could make all the difference. There
is currently a $39 billion gap to providing quality education to all children by 2030.
GPE encourages developing countries to contribute 20% of their national budget to education, and
allocate 45% of it to primary education.

2. Having no teacher, or having an untrained teacher

Teacher effectiveness has been found to be the most important predictor of student learning. GPE is
determined to fight the global teacher crisis at hand.

There aren't enough teachers to achieve universal primary or secondary education, and many of the
teachers that are currently working are untrained. As a result, children aren’t receiving a proper
education. There are 130 million children in school who are not learning basic skills like reading, writing
and math.

Globally, the UN estimates that 69 million new teachers are required to achieve universal primary and
secondary education by 2030. To offer every child primary education, 25.8 million school teachers need
to be recruited. Meanwhile, in 1 out of every 3 countries, less than three-quarters of teachers are
trained to national standards.

3. No classroom

A child cannot learn without the right environment. Children in many countries in sub-Saharan Africa are
often squeezed into overcrowded classrooms, classrooms that are falling apart, or are learning
outside. They also lack textbooks, school supplies, and other tools they need to excel.

In Malawi, for example, there are an average of 130 children per classroom in first grade. It’s not just a
lack of classrooms that’s the problem, but also all the basic facilities you would expect a school to have
— like running water and toilets.

In Chad, only 1 in 7 schools has potable water, and just 1 in 4 has a toilet; moreover, only one-third of
the toilets that do exist are for girls only — a real disincentive and barrier for girls to come to school.

When girls don’t have access to safe toilets, they are often harassed or attacked when looking for a
private place to go. Girls also miss or drop out of school when they begin menstruating if they don’t
have the sanitation facilities or sanitary products to manage their periods with pride and dignity.

4. A lack of learning materials

Outdated and worn-out textbooks are often shared by six or more students in many parts of the world.
In Tanzania, for example, only 3.5% of all sixth grade pupils had sole use of a reading textbook. In
Cameroon, there are 11 primary school students for every reading textbook and 13 for every
mathematics textbook in second grade. Workbooks, exercise sheets, readers, and other core materials
to help students learn their lessons are in short supply. Teachers also need materials to help prepare
their lessons, share with their students, and guide their lessons.

5. The exclusion of children with disabilities

Despite the fact that education is a universal human right, being denied access to school is common for
the world’s 93 to 150 million children with disabilities. In some of the world’s poorest countries, up to
95% of children with disabilities are out of school.

Students with disabilities have lower attendance rates and are more likely to be out of school or leave
school before completing primary education. They are suspended or expelled at a rate more than
double the rate of their non-special education peers.

A combination of discrimination, lack of training in inclusive teaching methods among teachers, and a
lack of accessible schools leave this group uniquely vulnerable to being denied their right to education.

6. Being the ‘wrong’ gender

Put simply, gender is one of the biggest reasons why children are denied an education. Despite recent
advances in girls’ education, a generation of young women has been left behind. Over 130 million young
women around the world are not currently enrolled in school. One in 3 girls in the developing
world marries before the age of 18, and usually leaves school if they do.

Keeping girls in school benefits them and their families, but poverty forces many families to choose
which of their children to send to school. Girls often miss out due to belief that there’s less value in
educating a girl than a boy. Instead, they are sent to work, forced into marriage, or made to stay at
home to look after siblings and work on household chores.

7. Living in a country in conflict or at risk of conflict

There are many casualties of any war, and education systems are often destroyed. Children exposed to
violence are more at risk of under-achieving and dropping out of school. The impact of conflict cannot
be overstated. Nearly 250 million children are living in countries affected by conflicts. More than 75
million children and young people aged 3 to 18 are currently in urgent need of educational support in 35
crisis-affected countries, with young girls 90% more likely to be out of secondary school in conflict areas
than elsewhere.

Conflict prevents governments from functioning, teachers and students often flee their homes, and
continuity of learning is greatly disrupted. In total, 75 million children have had their education
disrupted disrupted by conflict or crisis, including natural disasters that destroy schools and the
environment around them. Less than half of the world’s refugee children are enrolled in
school, according to the UN Refugee Agency. Worryingly, education has thus far been a very low priority
in humanitarian aid to countries in conflict — and less than 3% of global humanitarian assistance was
allocated to education in 2016.

Without support, conflict-affected children lose out on the chance to reach their full potential and
rebuild their communities.

8. Distance from home to school

For many children around the world, a walk to school of up to three hours in each direction is not
uncommon. This is just too much for many children, particularly children living with a disability, those
suffering from malnutrition or illness, or those who are required to work around the household. Imagine
having to set off for school, hungry, at 5 a.m. every day, not to return until 7 p.m. Many children,
especially girls, are also vulnerable to violence on their long and hazardous journeys to and from school.

9. Hunger and poor nutrition

The impact of hunger on education systems is gravely underreported. Being severely malnourished, to
the point it impacts on brain development, can be the same as losing four grades of schooling. It is
estimated that around 155 million children under the age of five are estimated to be stunted. Stunting –
– impaired growth and development that children experience from poor infection, and inadequate
stimulation –– can affect a child’s cognitive abilities as well as their focus and concentration in school. As
a result, stunted children are 19% less likely to be able to read by age eight. Conversely, good nutrition
can be crucial preparation for good learning.

10. The expense of education

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights makes clear that every child has the right to a free basic
education, so that poverty and lack of money should not be a barrier to schooling. In many developing
countries, over the last several, decades, governments have announced the abolition of school fees and
as a result, they have seen impressive increases in the number of children going to school.
 Chapter 9: Information Technology in Education
9.1 New concept of information explosion
Information explosion is a term used to describe the rapidly increasing amount of published information
and the effects of this abundance of data. As the amount of available data grows, managing the
information becomes more difficult, which can lead to information overload. Information
overload refers to the state of having too much information to make a decision or remain informed
about a topic. It is often referred to in conjunction with various forms of computer-mediated
communication such as e-mail and the web. The term was invented in 1970 by Alvin Toffler in his
book Future Shock.

The general causes of information overload include:

 A rapid increase in the production rate of new information

 The ease of duplication and transmission of data across the Internet
 An increase in the available channels of incoming information (e.g. telephone, e-mail, instant
messaging, rss)
 Large amounts of historical information
 Contradictions and inaccuracies in available information
 A low signal-to-noise ratio (informally, the ratio of useful information to false or irrelevant data)
 A lack of a method for comparing and processing different kinds of information
Psychological Effects

As people are faced with growing levels of information overload, the inability to make clear and accurate
decisions can increase their stress levels.

Part of the problem of information overload can be traced to interruptions in the workplace.
Interruptions include incoming e-mail messages, phone calls and instant messaging—all of which break
mental focus and redirect it to the source of the interruption. The person has to deal with the
interruption, then redirect their attention back to the original task.

Challenges

Even though the abundance of information can be beneficial in several levels, some problems may be of
concern such as privacy, legal and ethical guidelines, filtering and data accuracy. Filtering refers to
finding useful information in the middle of so much data, which relates to the job of data scientists. A
typical example of a necessity of data filtering (data mining) is in healthcare since in the next years is due
to have EHRs (Electronic Health Records) of patients available. With so much information available, the
doctors will need to be able to identify patterns and select important data for the diagnosis of the
patient. On the other hand, according to some experts, having so much public data available makes it
difficult to provide data that is actually anonymous.

Another point to take into account is the legal and ethical guidelines, which relates to who will be the
owner of the data and how frequently he/she is obliged to the release this and for how long. With so
many sources of data, another problem will be accuracy of such. An untrusted source may be challenged
by others, by ordering a new set of data, causing a repetition in the information.
Another concern is the accessibility and cost of such information. The accessibility rate could be
improved by either reducing the costs or increasing the utility of the information. The reduction of costs
according to the author, could be done by associations, which should assess which information was
relevant and gather it in a more organized fashion.

9.2 Expanding learning resources

Learning resources are texts, videos, software, and other materials that teachers use to assist students
to meet the expectations for learning defined by provincial or local curricula. Before a learning resource
is used in a classroom, it must be evaluated and approved at either the provincial or local level.
Evaluation criteria may include curriculum fit, social considerations, and age or developmental
appropriateness. Chalk, board, duster, charts, av-aids, educational software, library and instructional
material are the examples of learning resources. A resource center is a facility within a school, staffed by
a specialist, containing several information sources.

Library is also a learning resource because there are books in the library that helps you learn stuff like
math books and science books and lots other books.

9.3 Information and communication technology (ICT) literacy

Information and Communications Technology (ICT) can impact student learning when teachers are
digitally literate and understand how to integrate it into curriculum.

Schools use a diverse set of ICT tools to communicate, create, disseminate, store, and manage
information. In some contexts, ICT has also become integral to the teaching-learning interaction,
through such approaches as replacing chalkboards with interactive digital whiteboards, using students’
own smartphones or other devices for learning during class time, and the “flipped classroom” model
where students watch lectures at home on the computer and use classroom time for more interactive
exercises.

When teachers are digitally literate and trained to use ICT, these approaches can lead to higher order
thinking skills, provide creative and individualized options for students to express their understandings,
and leave students better prepared to deal with ongoing technological change in society and the
workplace.

ICT issues planners must consider include: considering the total cost-benefit equation, supplying and
maintaining the requisite infrastructure, and ensuring investments are matched with teacher support
and other policies aimed at effective ICT use.

ICT and Teacher Professional Development: Teachers need specific professional development
opportunities in order to increase their ability to use ICT for formative learning assessments,
individualized instruction, accessing online resources, and for fostering student interaction and
collaboration. Such training in ICT should positively impact teachers’ general attitudes towards ICT in the
classroom, but it should also provide specific guidance on ICT teaching and learning within each
discipline. Without this support, teachers tend to use ICT for skill-based applications, limiting student
academic thinking. To support teachers as they change their teaching, it is also essential for education
managers, supervisors, teacher educators, and decision makers to be trained in ICT use.
Ensuring benefits of ICT investments: To ensure the investments made in ICT benefit students,
additional conditions must be met. School policies need to provide schools with the minimum
acceptable infrastructure for ICT, including stable and affordable internet connectivity and security
measures such as filters and site blockers. Teacher policies need to target basic ICT literacy skills, ICT use
in pedagogical settings, and discipline-specific uses. Successful implementation of ICT requires
integration of ICT in the curriculum. Finally, digital content needs to be developed in local languages and
reflect local culture. Ongoing technical, human, and organizational supports on all of these issues are
needed to ensure access and effective use of ICT.

Resource Constrained Contexts: The total cost of ICT ownership is considerable: training of teachers and
administrators, connectivity, technical support, and software, amongst others. When bringing ICT into
classrooms, policies should use an incremental pathway, establishing infrastructure and bringing in
sustainable and easily upgradable ICT. Schools in some countries have begun allowing students to bring
their own mobile technology (such as laptop, tablet, or smartphone) into class rather than providing
such tools to all students—an approach called Bring Your Own Device. However, not all families can
afford devices or service plans for their children. Schools must ensure all students have equitable access
to ICT devices for learning

9.4 Technology in education

The term educational technology refers to the use of technology in educational settings, whether it be
elementary and secondary schools, colleges and universities, corporate training sites, or independent
study at home. This discussion, however, will focus on educational technology in grades K—12.

Educational technology has both general and specialized meanings. To the lay public and to a majority of
educators, the term refers to the instructional use of computers, television, and other kinds of electronic
hardware and software. Specialists in educational technology, in particular college and university faculty
who conduct research and teach courses on educational technology, prefer the term instructional
technology because it draws attention to the instructional use of educational technology. This term
represents both a process and the particular devices that teachers employ in their classrooms.
According to the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, one of the principal
professional associations representing educational technologists, "Instructional Technology is a complex,
integrated process involving people, procedures, ideas, devices, and organization for analyzing
problems, and devising, implementing evaluating, and managing solutions to these problems, in
situations in which learning is purposive and controlled."(p. 4). Educational technologists often employ
the term instructional media to represent all of the devices that teachers and learners use to support
learning. However, for many educators the terms educational technology, instructional
media, and instructional technology are used interchangeably, and they are used so here. In addition,
the principal focus will be upon the most modern computational and communication devices used in
schools today.

What Is Blended Learning?

In its simplest terms, blended learning combines traditional, teacher-to-student lessons with
technology-based instruction.

Educational benefits of technology

  Seventy percent of students report higher grades and better attendance in active-learning
environments that use technology than traditional ones.
 Ninety-two percent of teachers say they would like to use more technology in their lessons than
they already do.
 Fifty-nine percent of students who use social media say they use it to discuss educational subjects
with their peers.
 Schools that use more software related to assessment reported higher student outcomes than those
that didn’t.
Examples of technology in the classroom

Tablets: Using handheld devices as digital textbooks can enable students to have greater interaction
with the material through mixed media. Students also can save money over the cost of printed books. As
digital natives, they are also more comfortable in using tablets so it just makes sense to use them
primarily for learning. In addition, they can easily access their school LMS anytime and anywhere,
making it the perfect solution for students of all ages.

Video conferencing: High-speed Internet can connect lecture halls in different parts of the world and
allow students in different locations to participate in the same lessons. This also can be an effective way
for learners to collaborate across large distances. In fact, video conferencing offers a wide range of
opportunities, from teaching a class while being out of town, to organizing meetings with parents who
cannot participate at face to face meetings.

Smart boards: Interactive, connected display boards can take the place of whiteboards in most
classroom environments. This type of boards offer a much better, engaging and interactive experience
for students. They can be used to display videos and photos alongside hand-written notes to create a
multimedia approach to presenting material. Since they are easy to use, they can also function as an aid
for students when delivering classroom presentations.

Augmented Reality (AR): AR devices allow students to experience their lessons as if they were right in
front of them. For example, medical students can see a 3D model of anatomy and interact with it in a
virtual environment. However, AR will surely become a staple in classrooms in the future, as students of
all ages can benefit from an interactive learning experience.

Cloud servers: Students are able to access all of the materials they need through the cloud. This could
eliminate the need for the traditional computer lab or expansive library facilities. Not to mention the
fact that schools save a lot of money by ditching on-premises servers, which are expensive and require
more personnel to run. Instead, they have time to focus more on professional development for
teachers.

3D printing: This technology has the potential to change the way students learn about engineering,
giving them the opportunity to design and produce prototypes easily. It also can be used to create
accurate 3D models for science classes or art projects.