fermentation
Article
Bioethanol Production from Food Waste Applying the
Multienzyme System Produced On-Site by
Fusarium oxysporum F3 and Mixed Microbial Cultures
George Prasoulas 1 , Aggelos Gentikis 1 , Aikaterini Konti 2 , Styliani Kalantzi 1 , Dimitris Kekos 1
and Diomi Mamma 1, *
1 Biotechnology Laboratory, School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens,
Zografou Campus, 15780 Athens, Greece; geo.prasoulas@gmail.com (G.P.); gentangelos@gmail.com (A.G.);
stykalan@chemeng.ntua.gr (S.K.); kekos@chemeng.ntua.gr (D.K.)
2 Joint Research Centre (JRC), European Commission, 21027 Ispra, Italy; Aikaterini.KONTI@ec.europa.eu
* Correspondence: dmamma@chemeng.ntua.gr; Tel.: +30-210-772-3160
Received: 27 February 2020; Accepted: 24 March 2020; Published: 26 March 2020
Abstract: Waste management and production of clean and affordable energy are two main challenges
that our societies face. Food waste (FW), in particular, can be used as a feedstock for the production
of ethanol because of its composition which is rich in cellulose, hemicellulose and starch. However,
the cost of the necessary enzymes used to convert FW to ethanol remains an obstacle. The on-site
production of the necessary enzymes could be a possible solution. In the present study, the
multienzyme production by the fungus Fusarium oxysporum F3 under solid state cultivation using
different agroindustrial residues was explored. Maximum amylase, glucoamylase, endoglucanase,
b-glucosidase, cellobiohydrolase, xylanase, b-xylosidase and total cellulase titers on wheat bran
(WB) were 17.8, 0.1, 65.2, 27.4, 3.5, 221.5, 0.7, 0.052 and 1.5 U/g WB respectively. F. oxysporum was
used for the hydrolysis of FW and the subsequent ethanol production. To boost ethanol production,
mixed F. oxysporum and S. cerevisiae cultures were also used. Bioethanol production by F. oxysporum
monoculture reached 16.3 g/L (productivity 0.17 g/L/h), while that of the mixed culture was 20.6 g/L
(productivity 1.0 g/L/h). Supplementation of the mixed culture with glucoamylase resulted in 30.3 g/L
ethanol with a volumetric productivity of 1.4 g/L/h.
Keywords: bioethanol; food waste; on-site enzyme production; Fusarium oxysporum F3;
Saccharomyces cerevisiae; mixed culture
1. Introduction
Food waste has been identified as a big economic, social and environmental problem nowadays.
According to the official statistics published by Eurostat, each year, more than 240,000 t of waste is
produced in the EU [1]. Bio-waste, the organic fraction of municipal solid waste, i.e., garden, kitchen
and food waste, accounts for one third of the total waste and is considered to be a valuable resource
that could be used as raw material for the production of high value-added products. This fact is
also reflected in the updated Bioeconomy Strategy of the EU. A sustainable bioeconomy can turn
bio-waste, residues and discards into valuable resources and can create innovations and incentives to
help retailers and consumers cut food waste by 50% by 2030 [2]. However, the use of food by-products
and the conversion of food waste is still limited. This is due to current limitations in its quantification
along the food supply chain, limited data on its quality and level of homogeneity, and differences in
national implementations of the waste legislation [2].
The composition of food waste, as already said, is not stable. It presents significant variations
related to the season, the area, and the dietary habits of the population. Despite the inevitable variation
Fermentation 2020, 6, 39; doi:10.3390/fermentation6020039 www.mdpi.com/journal/fermentation
Fermentation 2020, 6, 39 2 of 11
in the composition of food waste, it can indisputably be said that it is rich in carbohydrates, proteins,
lipids and minerals which make it an ideal raw material for the production of biofuels through microbial
conversion [3,4]. The exploitation of food waste for the production of biofuels is also in line with the
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development set by the UN in 2015 [5]. More precisely, it is directly
related to the Sustainable Development Goals: 7. Affordable and Clean Energy, 12. Responsible
Consumption and Production and 13. Climate Action. At the EU level, the importance of producing
biofuels from bio-waste is reflected in the Renewable Energy Directive 2009/28/EC [6] and the recently
adopted recast of the Renewable Energy Directive a.k.a. RED II [7]. The aforementioned legislation
defines as advanced biofuels the ‘biofuels that are produced from the feedstocks listed in Part A of
Annex IX’ that includes among others, the biomass fraction of municipal solid waste, the biomass
fraction of industrial waste as well as bio-waste from households. The directive sets a sub-target of
3.5% for advanced biofuels within the 14% target for renewable energy in transport in 2030. Moreover,
those biofuels will continue to count double towards the targets.
From a technical point of view, bioethanol production from lignocellulosic materials is a well-
studied process and has been recently reviewed [8]. It includes the following processes: pretreatment,
enzymatic hydrolysis, fermentation and ethanol recovery. The pretreatment phase aims at modifying
the structural characteristics of the raw material facilitating the enzymes’ access and maximizing sugar
monomers production. The enzymatic hydrolysis targets the structural carbohydrates starch, cellulose
and hemicellulose. During this step, pentoses and hexoses that can be further used in the fermentation
step are liberated. In the subsequent fermentation step, microorganisms metabolize those readily
available sugars, producing ethanol, which is subsequently recovered through distillation.
In terms of cost, the most demanding step, which significantly increases the total cost of the
production of bioethanol and is identified as a barrier in the further deployment of ethanol production,
is enzymatic hydrolysis [9]. A possible solution to this problem is the on-site production of the relevant
enzymes instead of using commercially available enzymes [10]. Few organisms are able to produce the
necessary enzymes; most of them belong to the species Aspergillus sp., Penicillium sp., Trichoderma sp.
Neurospora sp. [11].
The filamentous fungus Fusarium oxysporum could be used both for cellulolytic enzyme production
and for ethanol production because of its ability to ferment both hexoses and pentoses [12,13]. The
main aim of the present work is, on the one hand, the induction of the metabolic system of F. oxysporum
to produce the relevant enzymes by using different raw materials (namely wheat straw, wheat bran,
corn cob), and on the other hand, to exploit those enzymes for the hydrolysis of food waste (FW) in
order to produce ethanol. Focusing on increasing ethanol production, the addition of a glucoamylase
was studied, as well as the use of mixed F. oxysporum and Saccharomyces cerevisiae cultures.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Raw Materials, Reagents, Microorganism
The food waste (FW) used in the present study was provided by Professor Gerasimos Lyberatos
(Organic Chemical Technology Laboratory, School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical
University of Athens), in dry form and with an average particle size of approximately 3 mm. FW were
household food wastes from the Municipality of Halandri, Greece. The concept of drying focuses
on the dehydration of the material resulting in a significant reduction of its mass and volume, thus
facilitating its storage and protecting the readily fermentable sugars by inhibiting microbial activity
due to low moisture content.
Wheat straw (WS), wheat bran (WB), and corn cobs (CC) were chopped into particles of less than
3 mm in diameter.
All chemicals were of analytical grade. Commercial glucoamylase (Spirizyme® Fuel) was kindly
provided by Novozymes Corporation (Denmark).
Fermentation 2020, 6, 39 3 of 11
The laboratory strain F3 of F. oxysporum, isolated from cumin [14], was used in the present study.
The stock culture was maintained on potato-dextrose agar (PDA).
2.2. Chemical Analysis of FW
Moisture, ash, crude fat, crude protein (Kjeldhal method) and total starch content were
determined according to standard methods [15]. Pectic polysaccharides were determined according
to Phatak et al. [16], while water-soluble materials, cellulose, hemicellulose and acid insoluble lignin
content as described by Sluiter et al. [17]. Analysis was carried out in triplicate.
2.3. Pretreatment of FW
Dry FW were pretreated as described elsewhere [18]. Briefly, FW at concentration of 30% w/v
was pretreated at 100 ◦ C for 1 h in the presence of 1 g sulfuric acid/100 g of dry FW. Following pH
adjustment to 6.0, the pretreated material (the whole slurry) was used in fermentation experiments.
2.4. Media and Growth Conditions for the in Situ Production of Enzymes
Solid-state cultivation (SSC) was carried out in 100-mL Erlenmeyer flasks containing 3.0 g of dry
carbon source (WB, WS or CC) moistened with Toyama’s mineral medium (in g·L−1 : (NH4 )2 SO4 , 10;
KH2 PO4 , 3; MgSO4 ·7H2 O, 0.5; CaCl2 , 0.5) [19]. The initial culture pH was adjusted to 6.0 and the
moisture level at 75%. Following heat sterilization (121◦ C) for 20 min, each flask was inoculated with
1 mL spore suspension (approximately 107 conidia) and incubated at 30 ◦ C under static conditions.
Experiments were carried out in duplicate.
2.5. Enzyme Extraction
After suitable periods of time, enzymes were extracted from the SSC with 10-fold (v/w) 50 mM
citrate-phosphate buffer pH 6.0 by shaking (250 rpm) at 25 ◦ C for 60 min. The suspended materials
and fungal biomass were separated by centrifugation (12,000 x g at 4 ◦ C for 15 min) and the clarified
supernatant was used for enzyme activity measurements.
2.6. Enzymatic Hydrolysis of FW
SSC at maximum enzyme production was supplemented with the pretreated FW (SSC to FW ratio,
1/10 w/w) and the appropriate amount of the commercial glucoamylase (Spirizyme® Fuel) in order
to achieve 20 and 40 Units of glucoamylase per g starch. Microbial contamination was prevented by
the addition of sodium azide (0.02% w/v). Hydrolysis was performed at 50 ± 1 ◦ C in a rotary shaker
(250 rpm). Samples were withdrawn periodically, centrifuged (10,000 x g for 10 min), and analyzed
for glucose.
2.7. Conversion of FW into Bioethanol
Food waste was converted into ethanol applying of a two-phases process where enzymes
production under SSC was combined with simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) of
FW by the mesophilic fungus F. oxysporum F3 or by a mixed culture of the latter with the yeast S.
cerevisiae. Initially F. oxysporum F3 was grown under SSC, as described above for the production of
the cellulolytic, hemicellulolytic and amylolytic enzymes. Whole SSC (fungal mycelia and the in situ
produced enzymes) was transferred to the pretreated FW (SSC to FW ratio, 1/10 w/w). Fermentation
was carried out in a rotary shaker operating at 30 ± 1 ◦ C and 80 rpm in Erlenmeyer flasks provided
with special rubber stoppers, which ensured anaerobic conditions and allowed release of produced
carbon dioxide.
In the case of mixed microbial culture compressed baker’s yeast (Yiotis, Athens, Greece)
corresponding to 15 mg yeast per gram of initial dry FW was added.
Fermentation 2020, 6, 39 4 of 11
2.8. Analytical Methods
Endoglucanase (EG), exoglucanase (EXG), xylanase (XYL), total cellulase (FPU) and amylase
(AMYL) activities were assayed on carboxymethyl cellulose, Avicel, birchwood xylan filter paper
and starch respectively, as described [18,20]. The activities of β-glucosidase (β-GLU) β-xylosidase
(β-XYL) and glucoamylase (GLAMYL) were determined spectrophotometrically using the respective
p-nitrophenyl glycosides as substrates [18,20]. All assays were carried out at 50 ◦ C and pH 5.0. Blanks
with inactivated enzyme (after boiling for 15 min) were used as a reference.
One unit (U) of enzyme activity was defined as the amount of enzyme liberating 1 µmole of
product per min.
Glucose concentration was determined using a commercially available kit (Biosis S.A., Athens,
Greece) that employed the Glucose Oxidase–Peroxidase (GOX–PER) method.
Ethanol analysis was conducted in an Aminex HPX-87H (Bio-Rad, 300 x 7.8 mm, particle size
9 µm) chromatography column. Mobile phase was 5 mM H2 SO4 in degassed HPLC- water at a flow
rate of 0.6 mL/min and column temperature was 40 ◦ C [21].
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Food Waste Composition
In general, the composition of food waste is complex and includes oil and water, as well as spoiled
and leftover foods from kitchen wastes and markets. These substances are mainly composed of soluble
sugars, carbohydrate polymers (pectin, starch, cellulose and hemicelluloses), lignin, proteins, lipids
and a remaining, smaller inorganic part. High moisture content leads to rapid decomposition of the
organic wastes and the production of unpleasant odors, which can attract flies and bugs, which are
vectors for various diseases [22]. The feedstock used in the present study was provided in dry form as
mentioned above. Compositional analysis of FW is presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Chemical analysis of dried FW.
Component %(w/w, Dry Basis)
Water Soluble Materials a 27.29 ± 1.71
Starch 10.68 ± 0.07
Cellulose 10.31 ± 0.07
Hemicellulose 11.32 ± 0.02
Pectin 3.27 ± 0.82
Protein 13.70 ± 3.31
Lipids 12.26 ± 0.11
Lignin 6.75 ± 0.16
Ash 5.16 ± 0.20
a Total reducing sugars: 4.96 ± 0.94 % (w/w, dry basis), sucrose: 0.51 ± 0.04 % (w/w, dry basis), protein: 0.33 ± 0.02
(w/w, dry basis) and soluble starch: 1.15 ± 0.09 (w/w, dry basis).
The composition of FW, carbohydrates, protein, makes it an excellent feedstock for the production
of biofuels and bio-based chemicals through microbial conversion. The polysaccharide content of
FW is difficult to be used by ethanol producing microorganisms such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
Different commercial enzymes (amylase, glucoamylase, carbohydrase, cellulase) have been used to
improve the saccharification of FW [23].
3.2. Multienzyme Production under Solid-State Cultivation
To make the enzymatic hydrolysis of FW more cost-effective, the enzymes should be produced
on-site from a cheap feedstock [11]. SSC has several biotechnological advantages such as higher
fermentation capacity, higher end-product stability, lower catabolic repression and cost-effective
technology [24,25]. SSC is an attractive process for filamentous fungus cultivation because the solid
Fermentation 2020, 6, 39 5 of 11
substrates have characteristics similar to the natural habitat of the fungi, resulting in improved growth
and secretion of a wide range of enzymes. Selecting the appropriate substrate is an extremely important
aspect of SSC, as the solid material will act as a physical support and nutrient source [26]. In the
present study three different agroindustrial residues, wheat straw (WS), wheat bran (WB) and corn
cobs (CC) were evaluated for the production of cellulolytic, hemicellulolytic and amylolytic enzymes
by the mesophilic fungus F. oxysporum F3. Wheat bran (WB), a nutrient-richer intermediate of the
wheat processing industry, was the most effective carbon source for multi-enzyme production by
F. oxysporum F3 (Figure 1). Implementation of corn cobs (CC) and wheat straw (WS) particles as
substrates was associated with lower enzyme titres. Maximum enzyme activities were recorded in the
5th day of fermentation. Amylase activity was found 5- fold higher, than that produced on WS and CC,
while traces of glucoamylase was produced on WS and CC. Maximum endoglucanase, b-glucosidase
cellobiohydrolase, xylanase and b-xylosidase titers on WB were 65.2, 27.4, 3.5, 221.5, 0.7, 0.052 U/g WB,
respectively, while total cellulase activity was 1.5 FPU/g WB.
Figure 1. Production of cellulolytic, hemicellulolytic and amylolytic enzymes by F. oxysporum F3 grown
under solid state cultivation on wheat straw, wheat bran and corn cobs as carbon sources.
For comparison, F. oxysporum F3 grown under SSC on corn stover as carbon source resulted in
final endoglucanase, b-glucosidase, cellobiohydrolase, xylanase, b-xylosidase titers of 211, 0.088, 3.9,
1216, 0.052 U/g, respectively [27]. Futhermore, Trichoderma virens grown on alkali-treated WS under
SSC produced 123.26 and 348 U/g endoglucase and xylanase, respectively [28].
It is well documented that the type and composition of the carbohydrates present in WB are suitable
for induction of cellulases, hemicellulases and amylases from filamentous fungi under SSC [24,25].
Since the target of the present study is the production of a multi-enzyme system capable of hydrolysing
the main polysaccharides present in FW, WB was chosen for further experiments.
3.3. Hydrolysis of FW by the On-Site Produced Multienzyme System of F. Oxysporum F3
Multienzyme system of F. oxyporum F3 produced under SSC on WB as carbon source was
evaluated in FW hydrolysis. Furthermore, due to low glucoamylase titer produced the hydrolysis
mixture was supplemented with 20 and 40 Units/g FW. The concentration of glucose increased gradually
with time and reached a constant value at 69 h (Figure 2a). Glucose release applying F. oxysporum
enzyme system was found 33.7 g/L corresponding to a hydrolysis yield of 47.4% (based on cellulose
and starch content of FW). It should be mentioned that glucose release due to pretreatment of FW
accounted for 11.2 g/L. Supplementation of hydrolysis mixture with glucoamylase (Spirizyme® Fuel)
increased glucose release by approximately 25%.
Fermentation 2020, 6, 39 6 of 11
Figure 2. (a) Time course of glucose release during FW hydrolysis by F. oxysporum F3 multienzyme
system (•), supplemented with 20 (#), 40 (N) Units/g starch Spirizyme® Fuel. (b) Initial rate of
glucose release.
The amount of added glucoamylase affects the initial rate of glucose release (Figure 2b) during
hydrolysis. Addition of 20 U/g starch glucoamylase resulted in a 66% improvement in the rate of
glucose release while further increase in glucoamylase load did not improve the result.
3.4. Bioethanol Production by Mixed Microbial Culture of F. Oxysporum F3 with the Yeast S. Cerevisiae
The processes generally used in bioethanol production are simultaneous saccharification and
fermentation (SSF) and separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF). Performing hydrolysis and
fermentation in a single step, the SSF process, has several advantages over SHF. In SSF, end-product
inhibition of b-glucosidase is avoided, and the need for separate reactors is eliminated [29]. In
the present study FW were converted to bioethanol applying SSF process in batch mode. Ethanol
production from FW by mono-culture of F. oxysporum F3 reached 16.3 g/L after 94 h of fermentation
(Figure 3a) corresponding to 31.8% of the maximum theoretical based on the soluble fraction and the
carbohydrate content (cellulose, starch and hemicellulose) of FW (Figure 4).
Figure 3. Bioethanol production from FW by (a) mono-culture of F. oxysporum F3 (•), supplemented
with 20 (#) and 40 (N) Units/g starch Spirizyme® Fuel; and (b) mixed microbial culture of F. oxysporum
F3 with the yeast S. cerevisiae (•), supplemented with 20 (#) and 40 (N) Units/g starch Spirizyme® Fuel.
Fermentation 2020, 6, 39 7 of 11
Figure 4. Maximum values of bioethanol production (g/L) (), bioethanol yield (g/100 g FW) (),
theoretical yield (%) ().
When the fermentation medium was supplemented with 20 U/g starch glucoamylase, ethanol
titer was 23.9 g/L (corresponding to 46.8.0% of the maximum theoretical). Increase in glucoamylase
supplementation did not improve bioethanol production (Figure 3a). Maximum ethanol production
was recorded at 139 h of fermentation, and no further increase in ethanol concentration was found
when fermentation was extended to 163 h. Bioethanol volumetric productivities were in the range of
0.17 to 0.23 g/L/h (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Bioethanol volumetric productivities.
To improve the sugar assimilation rate, mixed culture of F. oxysporum F3 with the yeast S. cerevisiae
were applied with the same bioconversion setup. The results are presented in Figure 3b. As can be
seen, ethanol concentration at 18 h of process was about 18.3 g/L in the mixed culture of F. oxysporum
F3 with S. cerevisiae approximately 7.5 times higher than the corresponding value achieved with the
mono-culture of F. oxysporum F3. Fermentation was completed after 42 h using mixed microbial
culture and ethanol production reached 20.6 g/L (corresponding to 40.1% of the maximum theoretical)
(Figure 4). Ethanol concentrations of about 26.8 and 25.1 g/L were reached at 18 h when the mixed
cultures were supplemented with 20 and 40 U/g starch of glucoamylase, while the corresponding values
in mono-cultures were in the range of 1 g/L. Maximum ethanol production of 29.9 and 30.8 g/L was
achieved at 69 h (Figure 3b). At the end of all fermentations, glucose concentration in the fermentation
Fermentation 2020, 6, 39 8 of 11
broth was lower than 2.0 g/L. Volumetric productivities ranged from 1.0 g/L/h (mixed microbial culture)
to 1.5 g/L/h (mixed microbial culture supplemented with 20 U/g glucoamylase) (Figure 5).
It is evident that mixed microbial culture decreases significantly the time needed for the
fermentation to be completed therefore increasing volumetric productivity. Mixed cultures of
mesophilic fungi, such as F. oxysporum F3 and N. crassa, with the yeast S. cerevisiae, have been
successfully implemented for the bioconversion of sweet sorghum and sweet sorghum baggasse to
bioethanol [30,31]. Table 2 summarizes results obtained from the bioconversion of different kinds
of FW.
Table 2. Production of bioethanol from FW applying different processes.
Microorganism Type of Process Enzymes Used Ethanol (g/L) Productivity (g/L/h) Reference
S.cerevisiae SHF amylase, glucoamylase 8.0 0.33 [32]
S. cerevisiae
SHF on-site produced enzymes 1 19.7 0.92 [33]
(dry baker’s yeast)
S. cerevisiae SSF Carbohydrase 2 20.0 0.8 [34]
amylase glucoamylase
S. cerevisiae
SHF cellulase 23.3 0.49 [35]
(dry baker’s yeast)
b-glucosidase
S. cerevisiae SSF glucoamylase 33.0 0.49 [36]
S. cerevisiae
SHF on-site produced enzymes 2 58.0 1.8 [37]
(dry baker’s yeast)
on-site produced enzymes +
F. oxysporum- S. cerevisiae SSF 30.8 1.4 Present study
glucoamylase
1Cellulolytic enzymes produced from the thermophillic fungus Myceliophthora thermophila, 2 cellulolytic enzyme
system 3 amylolytic, cellulolytic and hemicellulolytic enzymes produced by Aspergillus awamori.
Bioethanol production of the present sudy was 30.8 g/L which is higher than that reported
by Matsakas and Christakopoulos [33] using the on-site produced cellulolytic enzymes from the
thermophillic fungus Myceliophthora thermophila. On the other hand, Kiran and Liu [37] achieved
much higher ethanol production (58.0 g/L) using the multienzyme system produced on-site by the
fugus Aspergillus awamori. Wang et al. [36] used response surface methodology to optimize the
conditions of SSF for ethanol production from kitchen garbage. Maximum ethanol concentration of
33.0 g/L was reported with the optimum conditions of time of 67.60 h, pH= 4.18 and T = 35 ◦ C using
glucoamylase in the saccharification step. Kitchen wastes were treated with a mixture of amylolytic
and cellulolytic enzymes, the hydrolyzate was converted to bioethanol using commercial dry baker’s
yeast, and resulted in 23.3 g/L bioethanol production [35].
Bioethanol volumetric productivities ranged from 0.33 to 1.8 g/L/h and that of the present study
is among the higher (Table 2). It is evident that the variability in FW content from region to region,
the substrate concentration, the type and dosage of used enzymes and processes applied affect
bioethanol production.
Enzyme cost still remains high, and this is identified as a major challenge in the deployment of
lignocellulosic ethanol [9]. If the necessary enzymes could be efficiently produced on-site, the cost could
be significantly reduced. A recent study has estimated that this cellulase cost can be reduced, from 0.78
to 0.58 $/gallon, by shifting from the off-site to the on-site approach of cellulase production [38].
4. Conclusions
In the present study, the feasibility of producing bioethanol from FW applying the on-site produced
multienzyme system was demonstrated. The mesophilic fungus F. oxysporum F3 grown under SSC in
wheat bran as carbon source produced a mixture of hydrolytic enzymes capable of hydrolyzing the
polysaccharides in FW. Mixed-microbial cultures of F. oxysporum with the yeast S. cerevisiae increased
bioethanol volumetric productivity compared to mono-culture of the fungus. Bioethanol production
increased by approximately 23% when the mixed microbial culture was supplemented with commercial
glucoamylase. The results of the study demonstrated that non-commercial enzyme products obtained
Fermentation 2020, 6, 39 9 of 11
from fungi could be an efficient alternative to commercial preparations in technologies which use
elevated substrate loadings or where an accurate loading is impossible due to practical limitations.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.K., D.K. and D.M.; Methodology, A.K. and D.M.; Investigation, G.P.,
A.G., S.K.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, D.M.; Writing—Review & Editing, all authors. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank Gerasimos Lyberatos of Organic Chemical Technology
Laboratory, School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens for providing the dry FW. The
authors would also like to thank Novozymes Corporation for generously providing the cellulose enzyme samples.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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