Nanotechnology in Agriculture

Aniket Sharma, Ikjot Singh Dua, Mishi Bansal

Abstract
This paper looks at the problems faced by farmers in achieving sustainable agricultural
productivity and also protecting the environment and human health. It talks about the negative
effects of using too many synthetic fertilisers and pesticides. They can harm the quality of soil
and water. They reduce farm earnings and productivity. The paper explores how nanotechnology
can help improve agriculture and food security. This is useful especially in areas where resources
are limited. It also suggests integrating nanotechnology standards into consumer, worker, and
environmental regulations to ensure safe use. The paper emphasises the importance of innovation
in improving agriculture, using resources better, and making better products to support the
country's growth.

Keywords: Nanotechnology, Agricultural productivity, Environmental sustainability, Food

security

1. Introduction
The green revolution was one of the golden eras for agricultural practices. It led to better
farmers’ prosperity through increased agricultural productivity. However, there are disadvantages
too. For instance, this has led to indiscriminate synthetic fertilisers and pesticides. They leach
into soil and water and deteriorate environmental and human health. However, in the recent past,
farm earnings and productivity have declined steadily. As 60% of India's population depends on
agriculture, stabilising agricultural productivity is necessary to support overall national growth.
Focusing on innovations can aid in boosting agricultural productivity, better resource usage, and
product quality to overcome this "technology fatigue” [1].

Therefore, there’s a necessity for greater crop output and improved food security. Using the
current farming techniques, about one-third of crops get wasted due to problems like pest
microbe infections, poor soil quality, and lack of nutrients [2].

Nanotechnology is the solution to these problems, and it has played a significant role in the
agrotechnological revolution that can revolutionise the agricultural system and improve food
security [1]. Targeted agricultural expansion can be achieved in areas with limited water and land
resources by using innovative technologies to increase the per-unit productivity of natural
resources and farm income [3].

When elements like gold, silver, and zinc are broken down to reach a size range of 0.1 to 100
nanometers, their physical and chemical properties get altered and they achieve some unique
properties. These materials, known as nanoparticles attain special electrical, magnetic, and
optical properties and find application in diverse fields, including biomedicine, food, cosmetics,
and agriculture [3].

Scientists' thinking has changed as a result of nanotechnology. It has made changing crops’
genetic makeup feasible, which was previously only achievable through mutant breeding. In
Thailand, a nanotech research project was undertaken to significantly change the properties of
rice grains, including jasmine rice [1].

The focus has been drawn to the growing use of nanotechnology in the food and agricultural
industries over the past ten years. In many food and farming products, nanomaterials are either
purposefully added as food additives or accidentally migrated into the product [4].

2. History
The word, “nano” is taken from a Greek word, “nanos”, which means dwarf. Though the
scientific studies on nanoparticles started in the early 19th century, there are various examples of
nanoparticles existing in ancient times as well. The King of Rome, in the 4th century, reported
using a special gold nanoparticles-based glass which used to be luminous when light fell from
outside only. In ancient times, gold nanoparticles were also used as a dye to paint pots. Even
paintings inside the caves are long-lasting and are reported to be done using nanoparticles. The
literature has reported that the famous scientist Faraday prepared a nanoparticle in 1857 that
stayed stable for around one century[5].

Richard Feynman, in the 1959 American Physical Society meeting at Caltech gave the talk
“There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom”. He is regarded as the inventor of contemporary
nanotechnology. He discussed the concept of controlling matter at the atomic level. This led to
new methods of thinking and Feymann's theories were later found to be true. Later, in 1974, a
Japanese professor Norio Taniguchi discussed in detail the scope of nanotechnology and the
stream got the attention of the global researcher community. With the discovery of Scanning
Tunning Microscopy, characterization, and study of NP became easier and research gave
momentum. Figure 1 shows the major milestones in the field of nanotechnology[5].
 Figure 1: Timeline for Development of Nanoparticles

The National Nanotechnology Initiative of the USA, which will invest 3.7 billion USD over four
years, is now in the lead. In addition to this, the European Union and Japan have also provided a
financial grant for this purpose. Although developing nations may have lower financial
investments in this domain, they strongly influence international technological developments in
this field[3].

However, nanotechnology in agriculture is still in its infancy, and its eventual success would
depend on the stakeholders' approval. The use of nanotechnology in agriculture necessitates
robust governance systems and effective regulatory frameworks that incorporate all groups of
stakeholders. Thus, nanotechnology can bring about India's much-needed second green
revolution in agriculture, focusing on sustainable output[1].

3. Types of Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles come in different dimensions. 1-dimensional nanoparticles possess only one of the
dimensions from length, breadth, or height. a plane of 2 nanometers in size is an example of a
1-d nanoparticle. Two-dimensional nanoparticles contain two of these dimensions, like a
nanowire of 1 nm in length and breadth. While three-dimensional nanoparticles possess all the
three dimensions like a block of 1 nm in length, breadth, and height[6].

4. Benefits/Advantages
Nanoparticles at such a small microscopic scale show unique properties and reactions owing to
their higher surface area-to-volume ratio. Lighter than bulk molecules, they are faster in
transmission and even get into spaces where no other molecule can travel. being small in size,
they are highly efficient and save time and energy[7].
It is known that plants transfer NPs to all their parts by absorbing them through the root
epidermis, cuticular pores, and stomata on their leaves. When sprayed, NPs can also penetrate
fruits and may be helpful in boosting the nutritional value of fruits. However, their unique
physicochemical properties coupled with ion transporters’ properties affect their uptake and
translocation properties. Because of improved mineral nutrition, chlorophyll content, and higher
antioxidant enzymes, they affect the growth of the rhizosphere microbiota and reduce the growth
of insects, thus improving crop yield and growth[8].

Gold nanoparticles with surface plasmon resonance, where surface electrons oscillate
collectively on exposure to light, show extinction bands and remarkable optical properties. They
find applications in the remediation of pollutants like pesticides from soil and cleaning the
environment. One of the researchers has developed a gold nanoparticle-based biosensor used for
the detection of toxic pesticides like paraoxon. Similarly, silver, titanium, and zinc-based
nanoparticles have special biomedical properties and are known as antibacterial, and antiviral7.

4.1 Nanocarriers
Nanotechnology can be used to increase food production while maintaining nutritional value,
quality, and safety and sometimes even increasing it. Nanocarriers can be used to improve crop
production by the controlled release of pesticides, herbicides etc2.
Poly (epsilon-caprolactone) nanocapsules, silica NPs, and polymeric NP are some examples of
nanocarriers2. At such a microscopic level, nanoparticles possess a high ratio of surface area to
volume and thus special physicochemical features, making them highly reactive and flexible, and
adjustable. Traditional fertiliser delivery methods include spraying and broadcasting, resulting in
surface run-off, leaching, hydrolysis, and soil microorganism degradation1.

4.2 Nanofertilizers & Nanopesticides

Nanofertilizers can reduce nutrient loss and enhance nutrient uptake by crops and soil
microorganisms. These commercialised nano fertilisers mainly consist of micro-nutrients at the
nanoscale, such as silver, gold, platinum, zinc etc1. Smart fertilisers provide single or multiple
nutrients to plants, enhancing plant growth and yield, or those that complement standard
synthetic fertilisers’ superior performance without directly delivering nutrients to crops. An item
made at the nanoscale scale that provides nutrients to particular target spots and can increase
nutrient usage effectiveness (NUE) and reduce environmental degradation is a nanofertilizer7.

Therefore, the best use of chemical and synthetic fertilisers in accordance with crop nutritional
needs and the least amount of environmental pollution is urgently needed. This can be
accomplished by using nanofertilizers2.
Other nanomaterials such as carbon nano onions and chitosan nanoparticles have an advantage
over conventional fertilisers in terms of crop growth and quality. The introduction of novel nano
fertilisers will revolutionise the current fertiliser production industry in the coming decade3.

Scientists are developing a number of technologies in different fields to create fertiliser and
pesticide delivery systems that can adapt to environmental changes. The ultimate goal is to
modify these goods so that they release their contents under controlled circumstances (slowly or
fast) in response to various signals, such as magnetic fields, heat, ultrasound, moisture, etc4.

4.3 NanoSmartSensors
Smart dust sensors are autonomous wireless small sensors. These sensors, also known as motes,
use silicon etching technology to provide an onboard power source, computational capabilities,
sensing, and a means of communication with other nearby motes, making them effective enough
to send data wirelessly1.

Wireless nanosensors have been developed to monitor crop growth, nutrient efficacy, and
environmental factors in fields because of the many advantageous characteristics of
nanomaterials. These nanosensors can identify pathogens, pesticides, and herbicides in food and
farming systems at extremely low concentrations. This on-site, real-time monitoring device
contributes to the improvement of crop production and the reduction of possible crop damage.
Furthermore, when applied properly, the use of nano pesticides, nano herbicides, and nano
fertilisers can further enhance crop development4.

The use of technology-driven sensors and deliveries in agriculture can help fight viral diseases
and pathogens. Nanostructured catalysts can boost the effectiveness of insecticides and
herbicides etc. This would allow us to use lower amounts. Presently, most environmental and
climate control actions are based on the use of renewable energy sources, nanotechnology offers
suitable solutions to protect the environment. With the help of the potent technology of
nanotechnology, we can examine things at the atomic and molecular level and build structures
that are only a few nanometers across5.

4.4 Controlled Environment Agriculture

Controlled Environment Agriculture is a kind of farming that is widely used in the USA, Europe,
and Japan that effectively makes use of contemporary technology for crop management. (CEA).
Advanced and intense hydroponically-based agriculture is known as CEA. In order to optimise
horticultural procedures, plants are cultivated in a controlled environment. The computerised
system keeps an eye on and manages certain surroundings, including crop fields5.
The current state of CEA technology makes it a great starting point for the application of
nanotechnology in agriculture. Nanotechnological devices for CEA that offer "scouting"
capabilities could significantly enhance the agricultural produce to ascertain the optimum time
for harvesting the crop. Food security issues, such as microbial or chemical contamination, can
also be addressed since proper monitoring is being done6.

4.5 NanoPrecision Farming

Precision farming entails having a system controller for each growth component, including
temperature, light, and nutrition. Satellite systems govern the information that is available for
planting and harvesting times.
With the use of this technology, farmers are able to schedule their planting and harvesting to
prevent inclement weather. These systems regulate the ideal time to produce the most yield, the
best use of fertilisers, irrigation, lighting, and temperature. The employment of delicate nuclear
linkages in the GPS system controller is a significant use of nanotechnology5.

Nanotechnology when used in food production would allow agricultural land to regain its
original position, build greenhouses, prevent the extinction of plant and animal species, and
generally improve agricultural productivity for a growing population. Precision farming, animal
production inputs, chemical insecticides, and genetically modified crops are all expected to
advance in the agricultural industry as a result of research and development in nanotechnology5.

In order to increase agricultural production and profits from a particular site, sustainable farming
methods are needed. This would also reduce the damage caused to the environment. Precision
farming is based on the optimum utilisation of resources at suitable rates. Success
unquestionably depends on the evaluation of specific conditions by recognizing the input
requirements that vary by place. To cut expenses and increase crop production, an automatic
AI-based system that tracks the growth of the crop, the need for fertilisers, water, growth of pests
and insects can be developed in the future. Future precision farming strategies will be greatly
influenced by these monitoring systems, which are supported by nanotechnology1.

Chemical composition, surface structure, charge, and behaviour among other characteristics of
designed NPs, might influence toxicity. Because of this, the toxicity of different-sized or -shaped
nanomaterials with the same chemical makeup can vary. The application of nanotechnology
research in the agriculture industry has evolved into a crucial component of sustainable
development. Applications of nanotubes, nanofiltration, etc. were shown in the agri-food
sectors7.

5. Nanotechnology in India
Nanotechnology has currently risen to prominence in India. It has sparked widespread interest.
The consequences of innovative nanotechnology approaches are framing the infrastructure of the
twenty-first century as the 'nano-century'. Hence, the Government of India has been funding and
developing scientific centres for nanotechnological research since 2001. The goal is harnessing
nanotechnology for the benefit of humanity. The “Nanoscience and Technology Initiative”
(NSTI) was launched in the Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007). It had a budget of 60 million
rupees and was the first step towards achieving the goal. The “Department of Science and
Technology” (DST) also took the lead in expanding the NSTI's descendant by establishing a
nano-mission. It had a budget of ten billion rupees for five years. The DST alone received 193
billion rupees in the Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-2012). After this, many other government
agencies, like the Department of Biotechnology, the Department of Atomic Energy, the Council
for Scientific and Industrial Research, the Indian Council for Medical Research, the Defense
Research and Development Organization, and others, began funding and initiating
nanotechnology R&D. A “National Centre for Nanomaterials” was built in 2004 in collaboration
with the United States, Russia, Japan, Germany, and Ukraine.[8]

India ranked 6th in the world in terms of nanotechnology publication in 2009. It ranked 17th in
2003. This is a testament to achievements of nanotechnology-based research in India. Various
Indian research institutes made significant contributions to achieving this global position, and as
a result, India has been designated as an 'emerging nano-power'. However, aside from
publication, patenting activity is lacking and quite low, with only 46 patents granted to Indian
institutions out of 1,356 patents filed in the IPO. It is worth noting that pharmaceuticals,
electronics, and nanopolymers are among the most popular areas for patenting worldwide.[8]

The “Nano Science and Technology Mission” (Nano Mission) in India is currently receiving a
budget of ₹ 1,000 crores during the Eleventh Five-year Plan period. The “Nano Mission”
includes a wide range of activities. For example, educational and human resource development
programs, research and development initiatives, the establishment of centres of excellence, and
the promotion of institution-industry linked projects through increased public-private
partnerships. The mission also aims to promote entrepreneurship by establishing business
incubators. It also encourages private sector investment in nanotechnology to drive its
development and commercialization.[9]

Despite the potential benefits of nanotechnology in agriculture, there is currently “less than 5%”
investment in biological sciences, including agriculture. Agricultural scientists have a unique
opportunity to capitalise on fascinating agricultural technology. The use of nanotechnology in
soil and crop management is still in its early stages. It is expected to grow exponentially in the
coming years. The “Nano Mission” intends to make special efforts to accelerate the development
and commercialization of nanotechnology. This is done through public-private partnerships and
by encouraging and enabling private sector investment. The agricultural sector is especially
important. The use of nanotechnology can significantly increase crop productivity while
reducing environmental impact. Investment in nanotechnology has the potential to transform
various sectors and contribute to the country's overall growth and development.[9]
 6. Agricultural Scenario in India
India’s economy is primarily based on agriculture, and with a large population to feed, food
security concerns are paramount. The Indian agricultural sector is distinguished by a diversity of
soils and agro-climatic conditions. This results in a variety of crops and fluctuations in
productivity, presenting both opportunities and challenges. India faces a number of challenges in
the agriculture and food sectors. For starters, despite the fact that agriculture employs 60% of the
population, low productivity and input levels, pest and disease problems, and losses result in low
farm income. Second, there is a high demand for food due to the variety of crops, fruits, flowers,
and vegetables available. However, inefficiencies in production, processing, storage, and
packaging hamper the food sector.[10]

India receives excellent solar radiation, but lacks appropriate and affordable technology to
generate solar energy. There are also challenges in water storage and purification techniques.
This results in a lack of drinking and irrigation water in many parts of the country. India's
urbanisation has resulted in increased pollution due to untreated water, urban waste, and other
factors. Finally, processing and packaging in the agricultural and industrial sectors frequently
leave environmental hazards behind. It can lead to long-term ecological issues such as global
warming if not addressed. To address these challenges and ensure long-term growth and
development, India must investigate and leverage nanotechnology.[10]

Some of the challenges faced are[9]:

● Fertiliser consumption in India has increased exponentially over the last 50 years. This
resulted in a fourfold increase in foodgrain output. However, many crop yields have
begun to stagnate due to imbalanced fertilisation and a decline in soil organic matter
content.

● The optimal “NPK fertiliser ratio of 4:2:1” is ideal for crop productivity, but India's
current ratio is “10:2.7:1”. The government heavily subsidises nitrogenous fertilisers,
particularly urea, resulting in excessive use that pollutes groundwater and causes
eutrophication in aquatic ecosystems.

● Imbalanced fertilisation is a serious problem that is wreaking havoc on soil health. In

irrigated areas of the country, the fertiliser response ratio has decreased from “13.4 kg
grain/kg nutrient” applied in the 1970s to just “3.7 kg” in 2005. This means more
fertiliser was required to produce the same amount of grain output.

● To meet a target of “300 million tonnes” of food grains and feed the world's 1.4 billion
people by 2025, the country will need “45 million tonnes” of nutrients. The current
consumption level of “23 million tonnes”. Multinutrient deficiencies are alarmingly
 increasing year after year. They are closely linked to crop losses of nearly 25-30%. The
country has a high level of nutrient deficiency in N, P, K, S, Zn, and B.

● Long-term fertiliser experiments unequivocally show that a combination of organic and

inorganic fertilisers is required to maintain soil health. However, due to urbanisation and
a decrease in animal wealth, organic manures are becoming scarce.

● Climate change is another major concern in India. For example, erratic rainfall, frequent
droughts, melting polar ice caps, rising temperatures, and declining biodiversity.

In order to address such challenges, agriculture scientists have turned towards alternate
technologies. India is an agrarian economy, but the rate of agricultural growth is slowing and
requires a significant boost to improve productivity; this is where nanotechnology comes in to
help.

7. Comparison of New Technologies with Green Revolution

Agriculture is an Important sector in India. It provides a living for more than 60% of the
population. The 1960s green revolution enabled India to achieve food self-sufficiency. However,
food security is a major concern for the country. Science and technology have made various
contributions to increase agricultural productivity over the years. The government has supported
the sector through policy and extension services. However, the agricultural sector faces
challenges such as decreasing profitability, natural resource depletion, new pests and diseases,
global warming, and climate change. The growing population puts additional strain to meet the
rising food demand. These issues can be solved with a focus on research, technology
development, and human resource development. New science and technology are important
along with traditional research approaches that reduce cost and time. Bio and nanotechnologies
can increase production and improve food quality. Many people believe that these technologies
will not only meet the world's increasing food demand but have significant environmental,
health, and economic benefits.[10]
Table 1[11] presents a comparison of green revolution technologies, biotechnologies, and
nanotechnology based on literature review to see how nanotechnology can affect food systems.

Table 1: “Green revolution technologies vs Biotechnologies vs Nanotechnologies”

Attribute Green Revolution Biotechnology Nanotechnology

Area of focus Green Revolution Biotechnology aims Crop and livestock

technologies to boost crop productivity and
primarily focus on productivity across management are the
increasing the board, like focus of
productivity of cereals, fibres, nanotechnology,
mainly cereal crops vegetables, fruits, which includes “crop
 such as wheat, rice, export commodities, and livestock
maize, and sorghum and specialty crops. improvement,
Its secondary focus precision agriculture,
areas include animal soil and water
and fish products, as management, pest
well as processed diagnosis/surveillanc
food products. e, food processing,
food safety, and
packaging.”

Applications Crop input packages, Tissue culture, Its applications

genetic enhancement transgenic include “vaccines,
through conservative crops/animals, pesticides, fertilisers,
breeding, and plant biotechnology, water, gene, drug,
architecture proteomics, and inputs for natural
improvement are genetic enhancement resource remediation,
among its through conservative nanoarray-based gene
applications. breeding are some of technologies for gene
its applications. expression in plants
and animals under
stress conditions, and
agricultural waste
utilisation.”

Responsible sector Its development and Significant “private Its development and
dissemination are sector” involvement, dissemination are
primarily the as well as industry supported by “large
responsibility of concentration, can be public investments”
“public or seen in its as well as relatively
quasi-public sector development and “small-scale private
entities.” dissemination. sector and venture
capital funds”.

Intellectual property Patents and plant Many processes and There is a lot of
variety protection are products are patent activity, and
unimportant, and “patentable and there are a lot of
germplasm exchange protectable”, and controls.
is encouraged. there are concerns
about operating
freedom.

Cost Low High Extremely high

Research skills Traditional plant Expertise in It necessitates the

breeding and other “molecular and cell development of new
agricultural sciences biology, traditional knowledge and skill
skills are required plant breeding, and sets in addition to
 other agricultural traditional ones, as
sciences” is required. well as the creation of
a new workforce.

Replaced crops It substitutes It substitutes It is expected to

“high-yielding “high-yielding improve rather than
varieties/hybrids” for varieties/transgenic/G replace crops.
traditional varieties M crops” for
and landraces. traditional varieties
and landraces.

Access required There is relatively Intellectual property Due to a broad set of

easy access to restricts access to claims and several
information and information and emerging grey areas
resources, and no resources. in IP jurisprudence,
regulatory system is access to information
required. and resources is
severely limited.

Framework for No regulatory system A regulatory system A regulatory system

regulation is required. is in place, but it is is still being
still evolving. developed and is not
yet in place at the
global level.

Environmental risk Several negative Reports on its Clear data on its

effects on natural environmental and environmental issues
resources have been ethical issues are are still unavailable.
documented. mixed and
contradictory.

Ethical issues Considered to be low Considered to be Several ethical issues

to medium. medium to high. are being debated,
requiring further
attention.

Socioeconomic risks Risks associated with Risks related to Too early to draw
gaps in reaching access to technology conclusions, but a
small farmers. and widening income technology divide
disparities between between developed
small and large and developing
farmers, as well as countries is a
between developed concern.
and developing
countries.

Impact on society Contributed to food Aiming to reduce Expected to influence

 self-sufficiency and poverty through all levels of society
prosperity in increased and bring about new
developing countries productivity, lower paradigms
food prices, and
improved nutrition

Acceptance by people Generally accepted in Not acceptable in Protests have begun

all countries many EU countries
for food, and varied
responses in Asia

8. Applications of Nanotechnology in Agriculture and Food Production

In order to study and develop nanotechnological applications in agriculture, we must understand
the parameters of food security and accordingly find uses of nanotechnology in these areas.

The flowchart in figure 2[11] below connects food security parameters to areas of agriculture and
food production which are further linked to nanotechnology applications.

Figure 2: Parameters of food security and nanotechnology applications

8.1 Disease management (nanopesticides)
Chemical pesticides are widely used to control pests in modern agriculture. However, these
chemicals endanger soil fertility, the ecosystem, and non-target organisms. Nanotechnology has
come out as a promising solution. Nanotechnology provides an environmentally friendly
approach to pest control that does not harm the agro-ecosystem or non-target organisms. Green
and chemically synthesised nanoparticles kill insects differently. The production of reactive
oxygen species may be dependent on the structural properties of the nanoparticles. Green
nanoparticles have several advantages over chemically synthesised nanoparticles. They are less
toxic to agricultural crops. “Flavonoids, tannins, terpenoids, saponins, phenols, and derivatives”
are bioactive compounds that are beneficial to agricultural crops. They have a “low toxic
impact”. Nanoparticles synthesised from plant extracts have been successfully used in
agriculture. The process is considered eco-friendly and simple to carry out because it can be done
at room temperature without the use of expensive and sophisticated instruments.[15]

Table 2[16] gives a list of nanopesticides and their roles in disease management in various plants
and crops

Table 2: “Role of nanopesticides in disease management”

Nanopesticides Disease/pathogen Plant/crop Effects

AgNPs Early blight Tomato Reduction in fungal

growth

AgNPs Wilt Tomato Antifungal effects

AgNPs Different fungal Tomato Inhibition in fungal

diseases growth and reduced
disease symptoms

CeO2 Wilt Tomato Disease suppression

Zn NPs Cercospora leaf spot Sugar beet Reduced disease

incidence and
severity

Si and Ti NPs Powdery mildew Wheat Reduction in disease

severity

Chitosan NPs Downy mildew Pearl millet Induced resistance to

disease

Chitosan NPs Early blight Tomato Reduced pathogenic

infection
 Chitosan NPs Fusarium wilt -- Inhibition in mycelia
growth

CuO Bacterial wilt Tobacco Antibacterial

potentials

8.2 Plant growth (nanofertilizers)

Nanofertilizers are tiny particles created using nanotechnology techniques from larger materials
such as mineral fertilisers, plant parts, or fungi. Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, zinc, and iron
are just a few of the macronutrients and micronutrients found in these particles. There are three
types of nanoparticles:
● Made from macronutrients
● Made from micronutrients
● Used as fertiliser enhancers
"Nanoclays, hydroxyapatite nanoparticles, mesoporous silica, polymeric nanoparticles,
carbon-based nanomaterials, and other particles” can all be used as nanofertilizers.
Nanofertilizers have several advantages over traditional mineral fertilisers, including increased
soil fertility, lower toxicity risk, and lower application rates. Numerous studies have
demonstrated the effectiveness of nanofertilizers on various plants. “Zinc oxide nanofertilizers,
for example, can boost nutrient uptake, growth, and biomass production in tomato plants,
whereas silica nanofertilizers can boost chlorophyll, proline, biomass, and growth in basil plants
under salinity stress”. Furthermore, spraying moringa plants with ZnO and iron nanofertilizers
can help mitigate the negative effects of salinity. Recently, it was discovered that ZnO
nanoparticles significantly increased the photosynthetic rate, nutrient uptake, and growth of
coffee plants.[16]

Table 3[16] gives a list of various nanofertilizers and their effects

Table 3: Nanofertilizers and their effects

Nanofertilizers Plants/crops Effects

Si NPs Basil Improvement in

photosynthetic pigments and
growth and biomass in the
presence of high salinity
levels

Zn & Fe NPs Moringa Better growth and biomass

Zn & B NPs Pomegranate Better nutrient status, fruit

quality and yields
 Zn & B NPs Coffee Improvement in growth

Zn NPs Cotton Enhanced growth in the

presence of high salinity
levels

Fe & Mn NPs Lettuce Improvement in growth

Fe, Mg, & Zn NPs Black cumin Enhanced the yield and
production of essential oil

Fe, Ti & Zn NPs Common bean Greater “N uptake”, growth

and biochemical traits

Fe chelate & Fe oxides NPs Alfalfa Better biochemical and

growth parameters

FeO NPs Pea Improvement in root growth

Bioorganic nanofertilizers Barley Yield increments

Carbon nanotubes & chitosan French bean Better nutrient and water
NPs uptake, and improvement in
growth

Chitosan & Mg NPs Sesame Increased tolerance to

drought conditions

Chitosan NPs Wheat Improvement in growth and

yields

Chitosan NPs Wheat Improved biochemical

attributes

Chitosan NPs Coffee Growth improvement

8.3 Water management

​Access to safe drinking water is a major issue across the globe. Technologies such as “membrane
filtration, chemical treatment, heat and ultraviolet treatment, and distillation” can be used to
remove impurities from water. Water management that is sustainable is essential for conserving
water and determining its suitability for use. In recent years, water resource management has
grown in importance for treatment, sensing and detection, and pollution prevention.
Nanotechnology has played an important role in these efforts by allowing for the “safe reuse of
wastewater, facilitating water disinfection and decontamination, and improving saline water
desalination”. For water treatment, various technologies such as biosorption and nano adsorption,
nano photocatalyst, and nanosensors are used. Water purification membrane technologies such as
reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, and photocatalysis using nanoscopic materials such as “carbon
nanotubes and alumina fibres” are being developed. For example, a solar-powered system that
uses nanofiltration membranes to treat saline water has been developed, resulting in
“high-quality desalinated irrigation water”. Nanoporous graphene can be used to effectively filter
sodium chloride salts from water, and monodisperse magnetite nanocrystals can be used to purify
arsenic. To meet the rapidly increasing demand for water in tropical countries such as India,
multidimensional technological support is required, including nanotechnology-based water and
wastewater treatment.[13]

In this report, we will be exploring the following three applications of nanotechnology in water
and wastewater management[17]:

8.3.1 Photocatalysis
Photocatalysis is a promising water treatment technique pioneered by nanotechnology. It has the
potential to transform wastewater treatment. Photocatalysts such as titanium dioxide
nanoparticles can break down organic pollutants in wastewater under UV light. This process
produces highly reactive oxygen species. These species can oxidise and mineralize pollutants to
make them harmless. Photocatalysis can remove contaminants such as dyes, pharmaceuticals,
and pesticides from wastewater. Photocatalysis produces no harmful byproducts or residues.
Thus, it is an environmentally friendly technology. Photocatalysts can be easily synthesised by
low-cost and environmentally friendly methods. Hence, it is cost-effective for large-scale
applications.

8.3.2 Nanofiltration
Another water treatment technique introduced by nanotechnology is nanofiltration. It uses a
membrane with pores ranging from 1 to 10 nanometers to filter contaminants from wastewater.
The membrane's small pore size allows it to remove dissolved solids, organic matter, and bacteria
while retaining essential minerals and nutrients in the water. Nanofiltration has been effective in
the treatment of brackish water, seawater, and industrial wastewater. It uses less energy than
traditional methods such as reverse osmosis or distillation. Nanofiltration membranes have a
longer lifespan than other membranes due to their resistance to fouling and scaling.

8.3.3 Nanoabsorbents
Nanosorbents are nanotechnology-enabled materials that can adsorb contaminants from
wastewater via physical or chemical interactions. Because of their high surface area-to-volume
ratios, these materials can selectively adsorb specific pollutants based on their chemical
properties. Activated carbon nanoparticles, zeolites, and metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are
examples of nanosorbents. Heavy metals, organic compounds, and other toxic substances have
been removed from wastewater using nanosorbents. Nanosorbents have the advantage of being
easily regenerated and reused, making them a cost-effective solution for wastewater treatment.
Furthermore, nanosorbents can be tailored to specific contaminants, making them highly
selective and efficient polluter removal agents in wastewater. However, due to their high cost, the
use of nanosorbents in large-scale applications remains limited.

8.4 Food processing

The occurrence of food poisoning outbreaks is a major concern as it causes loss of lives and
economic losses due to healthcare expenditure and lost man-days. To tackle this issue,
nanomaterials are being utilised to keep food products fresh for a longer duration of time.
Nanosensors are being placed in food production and distribution facilities, food packaging, and
the food itself to detect food pathogens such as “E.coli, Campylobacter, and Salmonella” by
attaching themselves to the pathogens. These nanosensors contain thousands of nanoparticles.
They can detect the presence of different kinds of bacteria and pathogens rapidly and accurately.
“Nano-sensors” can work through various methods such as fluorescent colours or magnetic
materials.

In the food and beverage industry, attempts have been made to add micronutrients and
antioxidants to food substances. However, these antioxidants tend to degrade during food
manufacturing and storage. “Nanocochleates delivery system” solves this issue by protecting the
substances from degradation. Polyphenols and resveratrol are present in most foods and wine,
respectively, and tend to get degraded and oxidised when exposed to air. Nanocochleates
individually capture and wrap these substances in a “phospholipids wrap”, preventing early
oxidation and maintaining the internal nutrients secure from water and oxygen. “Bio delivery
Sciences International” has developed nanocochleates, which are 50 nm coiled nanoparticles that
deliver nutrients like vitamins, lycopene, and omega-3 fatty acids more efficiently to cells
without affecting the colour or taste of the food. The delivery vehicle consists of
“soyphosphatidylserine”, which is completely safe and provides a protective coat for a range of
nutrient additives.[14]

8.5 Food packaging

Consumers today want food that lasts longer and packaging materials that are safe, healthy, and
easy to use. However, in the food science industry, finding the right packaging material is a
major challenge. Bayer has developed a plastic packaging enriched with a high number of
silicate nanoparticles to address this challenge, making it even more airtight and effective at
keeping food fresher for longer than conventional plastics. This hybrid system represents a
significant advancement in nanoparticle technology.[14]

“Leeds University” researchers have found that nanoparticles with antimicrobial properties, such
as titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, and magnesium oxide, can be used to make food packaging
safer. These nanoparticles can kill microorganisms in a more efficient and cost-effective manner
than metal-based nanoparticles. The most difficult element for food packaging engineers to deal
with is oxygen. It causes the fat in meat and cheese to spoil and turn pale. However,
incorporating “clay nanoparticles” into plastic materials like ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer
and poly(lactic acid) biopolymer can improve their oxygen barrier properties. Improved gas
barrier properties, mechanical strength, and thermal stability have also been discovered in
“polymer-silicate nanocomposites”. Glass bottles are made with “nanoclay-nylon coatings” and
“silicon oxide barriers”.[14]

Conventional plastics commonly used in food packaging pose a significant challenge for
disposal. This is because of their resistance to degradation. So researchers have investigated the
use of biomass-based materials in the development of environmentally friendly food packaging.
However, such materials have a number of performance and processing issues, such as low
mechanical strength, brittleness, and an insufficient gas and moisture barrier. They can also be
expensive. Silver nanoparticles can be integrated into polymeric materials such as PVC, PE, and
PET during polymerization to solve these issues. Silver nanoparticles can be used in food
packaging because they are effective at killing pathogens, bacteria, viruses, and fungi.
Nanotechnology-based packaging materials containing silicate nanoparticles, such as "hybrid
system" films, can significantly reduce the entry of oxygen and other gases. They also prevent
moisture evaporation. This extends the shelf life of food products such as juices, milk, and
agricultural produce. These packaging materials are thought to be 100 times more secure than
traditional options.[10]

9. Risks Associated with Nanotechnology

Recent research has found that rats exposed to nanoparticles accumulate them in their lungs and
brains, resulting in increased biomarkers for inflammation and stress responses. Furthermore,
hairless mice exposed to nanoparticles experienced oxidative stress-induced skin ageing. The
“Royal Society” has identified nanoparticles' potential hazards, including the risk of exposure
during disposal, destruction, and recycling. In response, they suggested that manufacturers of
products subject to extended producer responsibility publish procedures outlining how they will
manage these materials in order to minimise potential human and environmental exposure.

Furthermore, the “Institute for Food and Agricultural Standards” has proposed integrating
nanotechnology standards across consumer, worker, and environmental regulations, with the
involvement of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and citizen groups in the development
of these standards. This proposal reflects the difficulties in ensuring responsible nanoparticle life
cycle regulation.

While nanoparticles have enormous utility due to their ultra-small size, the same property has
several negative consequences and may pose significant hazards to the environment, animals,
humans, and plants when used irresponsibly. Nanoparticles used as pesticides or fertilizers, for
example, can clog stomata and form a fine physical and toxic barrier layer on the stigma,
preventing pollen tube penetration. They may also enter vascular tissue and impair water,
mineral, and photosynthate translocation. Animals may inhale nanoparticles, causing a variety of
health problems and disorders, with the particles potentially entering the bloodstream.

While “nano-pesticides” may reduce environmental contamination by reducing pesticide

application rates, they may also cause new types of soil and waterway contamination due to
enhanced transport, longer persistence, and higher toxicity. Airborne nanoparticles pose specific
risks to human health. They can enter the body through the respiratory system, causing
inflammation, protein fibrillation, and genotoxicity.

Given these potential risks, it is critical to proceed with caution when incorporating
nanotechnology into pesticide and fertiliser formulations. This necessitates a requirement to
critically analyse and examine the risks associated with “nano-formulations” in order to
minimise any potential hazards to the environment, animals, humans, and plants.[18]

10. Conclusion
In conclusion, this paper has discussed the difficulties faced by farmers in achieving sustainable
agricultural productivity while taking care of the environment and human health. The use of
synthetic fertilisers and pesticides has negatively impacted farm earnings, productivity, and soil
and water quality. However, nanotechnology can provide a solution to these issues.

Nanotechnology can improve resource usage, product quality, and the productivity of natural
resources. By using innovative technologies, targeted agricultural expansion can be achieved in
areas with limited water and land resources.

To ensure safe use of nanotechnology, the proposal is to integrate nanotechnology standards

across consumer, worker, and environmental regulations. This approach would help in
maximising the benefits of nanotechnology while avoiding any potential harm.

Overall, this paper emphasises the importance of innovation in boosting agricultural productivity
and maintaining environmental sustainability. By focusing on innovations that improve resource
usage and product quality, we can support overall national growth. Nanotechnology has the
potential to transform various sectors and contribute to the country's development.
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