Huangdi Neijing

Kong, Y.C.

Published by The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press

Kong, Y.C.
Huangdi Neijing: A Synopsis with Commentaries.
The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press, 2010.
Project MUSE.muse.jhu.edu/book/24634.

For additional information about this book

https://muse.jhu.edu/book/24634

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 1 How to Attain Longevity through the
Practice of the Dao
(Dao Sheng 道生)

Exegesis

The term Dao sheng 道 生 refers to two key words excerpted from the
passage cited in Section 2 of this chapter, i.e. “[to attain] longevity that
lasts as long as heaven and earth with no end; it is possible because the
Dao has been mastered”. (ci qi Dao sheng 此 其 道 生, “the practice of
macrobiotics brings one close to the Dao”.) There are similar terms like
yangsheng 養 生 (literally “to nourish life”, commonly translated as “macro-
biotics”) [1], shesheng 攝 生 (to glean the essence of life), zunsheng 遵 生
(to respect the rules of life) [2], and weisheng 衛生 (literally “to defend life”,
i.e. to practise hygiene) [3]. Of these, yangsheng is the most commonly
used, implying an active pursuit of the Dao [4] in order to prolong the
lifespan.
This chapter follows the central theme of macrobiotics. There are four
chapters in Suwen, i.e. Chapters 1, 2, 5 and 72, from which relevant
passages on macrobiotics have been excerpted and incorporated into this
chapter. There are five main topics of discussion:
1. Observation of the guiding principle of disease avoidance and
conservation of the genuine nature by following the teaching of
the sages.
2. The different levels of attainment in the pursuit of longevity
achieved by different practices and their outcomes.
3. Adaptation to the seasonal changes in yin and yang in order to
achieve the best results in macrobiotics, and the reasons why
different methods produce varying results.

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 4 Neijing Zhiyao Yigu 內經知要譯詁

4. Application of the rules of “the seven detriments and the eight

benefits” from the start, so as to detect and correct irregularities,
balance yin and yang, delay the onset of senility and prolong the
lifespan.
5. Practical methods of respiration control and the conservation of
genuine qi to reinforce the kidney essence.

Footnotes

[1] yangsheng: In Zhuangzi: Yangshengzhu 莊 子．養 生 主, Zhuangzi (ca. 369–

286 bc) cited a number of stories to illustrate how to attain the Dao. He
explained that one’s lifespan was limited, but the scope of knowledge was
boundless, therefore it was necessary to adopt some practices that would
permit one to attain the true way of life, the Dao. Routine practices like
breathing exercises etc. are called macrobiotics. The ultimate purpose is to
keep healthy (baoshen 保 身), to keep alive (quansheng 全 生), to serve the
parents (yangqin 養親) and to live out one’s natural lifespan (jin-nian 盡年).
[2] zunsheng: To respect and thus follow the rules of life; see Gao Lian 高 濂,
Zunsheng ba jian 遵 生 八 牋 (A Guide to Practising a Healthy Life Style in
Eight Chapters) (published in the Ming dynasty).
[3] weisheng: In Zhuangzi: Gengsang Chu 莊 子．庚 桑 楚, Gengsang worked as
a kind of indentured servant (yi 役) for Laozi in order to learn from him, and
had achieved success in this. Gengsang, in turn, had a mature student
called Nanrong Chu 南 榮 趎. Nanrong was not satisfied with learning from
Gengsang, so the latter recommended that he should have an audience with
the great master himself. Nanrong finally met Laozi after travelling for seven
days. He said: “When I learned about the Dao, [I am more confused than
ever], I am just like a sick man getting worse with medication. I would like to
know the way to defend my life style [so that it conforms with the Dao].” Laozi
advised Nanrong to act naturally, and just follow the natural rhythm of life.
That is the way to defend a healthy life style (weisheng zhi jing 衛 生 之 經). In
its modern context, weisheng means “hygiene”, or “public health”; if one
observes hygiene, one stays healthy. For more on hygiene, see p. 314, ref.
53.
[4] Dao: It is extremely hard to define Dao in a footnote. Even a monograph
would not be sufficient. For the moment let us just say that Dao is the way,
the path, the rule, leading to the ultimate truth, which is the universal law of
the universe. To the Chinese mind, the Creator was not God but Dao. In

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 How to Attain Longevity through the Practice of the Dao 5

Laozi’s Daode jing 道 德 經, a concise treatise of five thousand words, Laozi

declared that it was not always possible to describe the Dao (dao ke dao, fei
chang dao 道 可 道，非 常 道). However, he maintained that the Dao begets
one, one begets two, two beget three, three beget myriad things (dao sheng
yi, yi sheng er, er sheng san, san sheng wan wu 道 生 一，一 生 二，二 生 三，
三 生 萬 物). In the context of Chinese medicine, the Dao is the primordial
entity, the “oneness”. Two refers to yin and yang, the dichotomy that is built
into every thing on earth. Three, the third entity, is qi, the dynamic aspect of
all events in life. Dao, qi, yin and yang are not italicised or put between
quotation marks; they are accepted as part of the medical vocabulary in their
own right. To understand better the word Dao, consider compound terms
such as daode 道 德 (morality, moral code), daoyi 道 義 (righteousness,
loyalty) or daoli 道理 (reason, rationality).

[Section 1.1] Suwen Chapter 1: On Genuine Nature

《素問．上古天真論》曰：夫上古聖人之教下也，皆謂之虛邪賊風，避之有
時；恬憺虛無，真氣從之；精神內守，病安從來？

In remote antiquity, the sage [1] taught his subjects how to avoid in a timely
manner the noxious elements (xuxie 虛邪) that appear out of season [2]; be
calm and non-desirous [3], the genuine qi (zhenqi 真氣) [4] will arise sponta-
neously; [if one can] maintain the integrity of the mind (jingshen 精神) [5]
and control the emotions, how can diseases arise?

Explanatory Notes
This section is steeped with Daoist preaching and is believed to be the genuine
conviction of Wang Bing, an adept of Daoism, who put the four chapters of
similar teachings into volume 1. The quotation in [3] is considered the golden
aphorism of Chinese medicine. It defines the fundamental approach to health
management in Chinese medicine: try to live according to the rhythm of
nature and avoid getting sick in the first place. Many readers would consider
this sentence as the one quotation that represents the spirit of Neijing. This
particular section holds to the central tenet of macrobiotics. It delineates two
important areas of intervention. Externally, deflect the approach of noxious

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 6 Neijing Zhiyao Yigu 內經知要譯詁

elements (xuxie) that appear out of season. Seasonal changes always exist, but
if the change does not seem to fit the climatic pattern of the time, e.g. a late
frost in spring, it becomes noxious (xie 邪, “evil, harmful”) [6], especially
when the body is weak (xu 虛, “void, depletion”, thus xuxie) [7]. Internally, it
is of paramount importance to conserve the genuine nature, meaning the self-
regulatory mechanism of the body. In this case, the “thieving wind” (zeifeng 賊
風), i.e. the noxious elements that attack stealthily (insidious onset of disease),
cannot cause harm. Consequently, the spirit (jingshen, “the spirit, the mind,
the mental state”) remains intact and stays inside the body, and is not
disturbed by either external factors or internal emotions. There is a hint of
preventive medicine in this passage and indeed a good part of Chinese medi-
cine is concerned with staying healthy rather that curing disease. Hence the
golden aphorism from Neijing, later reiterated by Zhang Zhong-jing: “Good
physicians can treat the disease before it appears” (shang gong zhi wei bing 上
工治未病) [8].

Footnotes

[1] sage: Shengren 聖 人, literally “holy man”, “saint” (but without any religious
connotation). It can be also translated as the “sage”, “wise man”, “great
teacher” or “community mentor”. It plays the role of a sagacious patriarch.
See also ibid. 1-2-3.
[2] out of season: The Chinese term is zeifeng 賊 風. Feng 風 is a volatile patho-
genic factor that attacks stealthily (out of season, or insidiously), hence a
“thieving wind”.
[3] be calm and non-desirous: The words tian dan xu wu 恬憺虛無 were literally
jumping out of Zhuangzi’s own writings. In Zhuangzi: Tiandao 莊 子．天 道
one section reads: “Now that calmness and tranquillity, lack of desire,
solitude and inaction are like a completely level universe, the ultimate of
morality (the summit of the Dao).” (fu xujing, tiandan, jimo, wuweizhe, tian-
diping er daode zhizhi 夫虛靜，恬淡，寂寞，無為者，天地平而道德之
至; also see Keyi 刻 意). Annotators preferred to consider the four terms as
one, referring to the state of “doing nothing” (wu wei 無為).
[4] zhenqi: It is as hard to define qi as to define the Dao. For an appraisal of qi,
see ref. 53 Section 3.1. In the context of this passage, zhenqi 真 氣 is the
capacity of the body for self-regulation in order to adapt to changes in the
external and internal environments.
[5] jingshen: Jingshen 精 神 is the mind, the integrity of the mind, so that the

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 How to Attain Longevity through the Practice of the Dao 7

body can appreciate the changes confronted by the body and react accord-
ingly. The term can be reduced to shen with no religious connotation.
[6] noxious: Anything harmful to the body is defined as xie 邪. A harmful or
noxious factor is naturally a pathogen. But xie is not necessarily pathogenic
per se until it arises out of season, or is not in keeping with the environment.
Xie is viewed in contrast to zheng 正, as in zhengqi, the capacity of the body
for physiological compensation. There are internal xie (neixie 內 邪) and
external xie (waixie 外 邪), but zhengqi is always internal, as in zhengren junzi
正人君子, a righteous man, with the moral quality inside him.
[7] weak: Xu 虛 is “weak, depleted, empty”. It is viewed in contrast to shi 實,
meaning “solid, full, congested, plenty”. Relatively speaking, xu and shi are an
appreciation of inadequacy and excess in body function. They form a pair of
parameters that constitute the eight cardinal rules in symptom analysis (ba
gang bian zheng 八綱辨證).
[8] Lingshu, Chapter 55: “The best doctor treats a disease before it occurs; he
would not treat a disease until it is full-blown;” Zhang Zhong-jing, in his
Jingui yaolüe 金匱要略, Chapter 1: “The best doctor treats a disease before it
occurs.” This idea may stem from an ancient concept of governance in
Shujing: Zhouguan 書 經．周 官, “Maintain law and order before it becomes
riotous; safeguard the country before it becomes perilous” (zhizhi yu weiluan,
baobang yu weiwei 制治於未亂，保邦於未危).

[Section 1.2] Suwen Chapter 1: On Genuine Nature

《素問．上古天真論》曰：（上古）有真人者，提挈天地，把握陰陽，呼吸精
氣，獨立守神，肌肉若一，故能壽敝天地，無有終時，此其道生。
有至人者，淳德全道，和於陰陽，調於四時，去世離俗，積精全神，
游行天地之間，視聽八遠之外，此蓋益其壽命而強者也，亦歸於真人。
有聖人者，處天地之和，從八風之理，適嗜欲於世俗之間，無恚嗔之
心。行不欲離於世，（被服章），舉不欲觀於俗，外不勞形於事，內無思想
之患，以恬愉為務，以自得為功，形體不敝，精神不散，亦可以百數。
有賢人者，法則天地，象似日月，辨列星辰，逆從陰陽，分別四時，
將從上古合同於道，亦可使益壽而有極時。

In remote antiquity, there were immortals (zhenren 真人) [1] who could

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 8 Neijing Zhiyao Yigu 內經知要譯詁

master the laws of heaven and earth and control the forces of yin and yang.
They were able to benefit from the genuine essence in their breathing exercises
and maintain the integrity of mind and body. Therefore, it was possible for
them to attain longevity that lasted as long as heaven and earth; there was no
end in sight. This was possible because the Dao had been mastered.
In ancient times, there were quasi-immortals (zhiren 至人) [2] who
embodied an impeccable morality and perfect spirituality. They were in total
harmony with the ebb and flow of the yin and yang forces as well as the come
and go of the four seasons. They could abandon all worldly desires and abstain
from all secular customs and habits, living an anonymous life. In their spiri-
tual pursuit, they were able to conserve the integrity of the mind and let it
drift freely in the realm of the universe. Their senses of hearing and sight
could reach the eight remote corners of the earth and beyond. This was due to
their active pursuit of a healthy life that promised longevity. With such a level
of attainment, they could also be considered immortals.
Closer to our time, there were sages (shengren 聖人) [3] who lived in
harmony with heaven and earth. They were able to profit from the course of
the change of winds from the eight directions and adjusted their desires to the
secular world. They had neither anger nor rancour in their hearts. They would
not behave in an unconventional manner but they kept their integrity inside
without bending to conventional habits. They were not worn out by daily
chores, or burdened with troubled thoughts. They liked to be happy and
relaxed and endeavoured to be content with themselves. They would not
exhaust their bodies or lose the concentration of their minds. Their bodies
were never in disrepair, neither would they lose the concentration of mind. In
this way, they could live beyond one hundred years.
There were also those wise men (xianren 賢人) [4] who respected the
laws of nature and adjusted themselves to changes as if the wax and wane of
the sun and moon. They thrived according to the rise and fall of yin and yang
over the four seasons, just like the displacement of constellations in heaven.
They respected and obeyed the practice of the Dao that was established since
ancient times. In this way, they could live long up to the limit of their lifespan.

Explanatory Notes
Following the instructions outlined in Section 1, adepts in the practice of the
Dao may attain four levels of achievement that are represented by the

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 How to Attain Longevity through the Practice of the Dao 9

“immortals”, the “quasi-immortals”, the “sages” and the “wise men” with
decreasing degrees of ability to conserve the genuine nature (zhenqi 真氣, ibid.
1-1-4). In spite of the differences between them, there is a common feature
inherent in each category, i.e., harmony with nature. In the pursuit of good
health, which is manifested in terms of longevity, the honing of moral quali-
ties as well as the perfecting of our demeanour in daily life should conform to
the rhythm of nature. There is obvious practical significance in a modern
context as this is the most appropriate path to follow if we want to lead a
healthy and long life.
In Neijing, there is a paragraph preceding this section that gives an
example to illustrate the right and wrong life styles that have direct repercus-
sions on one’s lifespan. It says: “People in ancient times who were knowledge-
able about the practice of the Dao would observe the laws of yin and yang.
They were skilful in macrobiotics and adopted a regular schedule of taking
meals and alternating work with rest. They never exhausted themselves need-
lessly. Their body and mind remained intact. Therefore, they could live to the
limit of their lifespan that extended readily beyond one hundred years. On the
contrary, contemporary people are acting quite differently. They drink wine as
if it were water. They act erratically, thinking that it is the norm. They co-habit
under the influence of alcohol. They are keen to empty their essence (semen)
and dissipate their natural constitution. They do not know how to maintain a
full spirit and control their emotion under different circumstances. They
desire instant gratification and become elated for no reason. They adopt an
irregular pattern of life. In this case, they are worn out when they are barely 50
years old.”
Zhuangzi, in Da Zongsi 大 宗 師, gave a detailed description of the virtues
of a “genuine person” (zhenren); he is someone who understands and obeys
the universal laws of nature so that he is totally free from the vicissitudes of
the natural, spiritual and secular world. According to Lü Si-mian 呂 思 勉
(1884–1957)1, this was a rather mechanistic world view, whereas here in
Neijing, it is more pro-active.

1
Lü Si-mian, Jingzi jieti 經 子 解 題 (Annotations on Classics and Scholars) (Hong
Kong: Joint Publishing Co. Ltd., 2001).

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 10 Neijing Zhiyao Yigu 內經知要譯詁

Footnotes

[1] zhenren: Zhen 真 means “true, genuine”; zhenren is a Daoist who has
mastered the Dao, like Sun Si-miao 孫 思 邈 (581–682), also known as Sun
Zhenren 孫真人.
[2] zhiren: Zhi 至 means “arrive, attain”, like those who attain a high level of the
“Dao”. Daxue 大 學: “Do not stop until one reaches the ultimate virtue” (zhi
yu zhi shan 止於至善). There is a common adage: “The man who attains the
ultimate virtue has no dreams” (zhi ren wu meng 至 人 無 夢). This implies
that because one has attained the higest level of morality, one has no desires
or qualms, and therefore no dreams.
[3] shengren: Sheng 聖 means “holy”; shengren, “holy man”. The word holy (聖)
has no religious meaning in Chinese; it means supreme, impeccable, immac-
ulate. Thus Confucius is sometimes venerated as Kong Shengren 孔 聖 人.
The emperor is shengshang 聖 上 (holy and lofty). Avalokitesvara (a compa-
rable status as the Virgin Mary) is shengjie 聖 潔 (holy and pure). Zhuangzi:
Tianxia 莊 子．天 下 preached the rule of nei sheng wai wang 內 聖 外 王, a
kind-hearted ruler with an iron fist. (See also ibid. 1-1-1)
[4] xian: Xian 賢 means “kind, compassionate, virtuous”; xianren are public
figures with a high moral standard who serve the good of the community.
Liji: Liyun 禮 記．禮 運, Chapter Datong 大 同: “To elect the virtuous and
capable for public service, for an ideal civic government by Confucianism”
(xuan xian yu neng 選賢與能). A good minister, capable and uncorrupted, is
referred to as xian xiang 賢 相. A good wife and a loving mother is described
as xian qi liang mu 賢妻良母.

[Section 1.3] Suwen Chapter 2: On Seasonal Variation of

Zang-organ Function

《素問．四氣調神大論》曰：春三月，此謂發陳。天地俱生，萬物以榮。夜
卧早起，廣步於庭，被發（髮）緩形，以使志生。生而勿殺，予而勿奪，賞
而勿罰。此春氣之應，養生之道也。逆之則傷肝，夏為寒變。奉長者少。

夏三月，此謂蕃秀。天地氣交，萬物華實。夜卧早起，毋厭於日。使
志無怒，使華英成秀，使氣得泄，若所愛在外。此夏氣之應，養長之道
也。逆之則傷心，秋為痎瘧。奉收者少，冬至病重。

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 How to Attain Longevity through the Practice of the Dao 11

秋三月，此謂容平。天氣以急，地氣以明。早卧早起，與雞俱興。使
志安寧，以緩秋刑；收斂神氣，使秋氣平；無外其志，使肺氣清。此秋氣
之應，養收之道也。逆之則傷肺，冬為飧泄。奉藏者少。

冬三月，此謂閉藏。水冰地坼，無擾乎陽，早卧晚起，必待日光。使
志若伏若匿，若有私意，若已有得。去寒就溫，無泄皮膚，使氣亟奪。此
冬氣之應，養藏之道也。逆之則傷腎，春為痿厥。奉生者少。

The period of three months in spring is a period of sprouting (burgeoning) [1].

Everything in heaven and earth comes to life and flourishes. Sleep late and
wake up early. Stroll in large steps in the courtyard, letting loose the hair and
relaxing, so that the desire to live arises. Let live and do not kill anything. Give
out but do not take anything by force. Reward generously and punish parsi-
moniously. This conforms to the spirit of spring; it is the right way to pursue
the Dao. If one acts against this spirit, the liver will suffer. Then in summer,
one will feel cold due to an insufficiency in the vigour of growth.
The period of three months in summer is a period of prosperous growth
[2]. The forces of heaven and earth are blended harmoniously; everything
flourishes and begins to bear fruit. Sleep late and wake up early, do not feel
bored with a long day. Never get angry and let the joyful spirit prevail like the
flowers blooming. Allow the spiritual force to exude from the body to show
one’s loving care. This conforms to the spirit of summer, this is the right way
to live and grow. If one acts against this spirit, the heart will suffer. Then in
autumn, one will contract malaria [3]. Since the body has not been hoarding
enough strength to meet with winter, serious diseases will occur by then.
The period of three months in autumn is a period of fullness [4]. The
climate changes precipitously, the air is luminous and clear. Sleep early and
rise early with the cockcrow. Be peaceful in mind, it helps to lessen the hard-
ship of autumn. Pacify your feelings and get accustomed to the mood of
autumn. Keep one’s spirit inside and do not allow it to dissipate; this will help
to maintain restful lungs. This conforms to the spirit of autumn, it is the right
way to recollect oneself and slow down an active life. If one acts against this
spirit, there will be indigestion [5] and the body will have few reserves to
survive the winter.
The period of three months in winter is a period of concealment [6].
Water turns into ice and the frozen earth cracks. Do not disturb the yangqi
(accelerate the metabolism) [7]. Sleep early and do not rise until the day

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 12 Neijing Zhiyao Yigu 內經知要譯詁

breaks. Let all emotions and desires lie dormant as if there is something to
conceal, or one is content to have what one has wished. Avoid the cold and
seek warm places but do not sweat, this can sap the yangqi. This conforms to
the spirit of winter; it is the right way to nurture the reserves of the body. If
one acts against this spirit, one will suffer from cold and weak limbs [8] in
spring; there will be little left to start another growth cycle.

Explanatory Notes
This section is a typical example of the literary style of Neijing. The four para-
graphs follow a certain format like four stanzas in a poem and the metrical
units are partially in rhyme. It can be rearranged as follows:

Time period The period of three months in spring is a period of sprouting

(burgeoning) (fachen 發陳). Everything on earth comes to life
and flourishes.
Life style Sleep late and wake up early. Stroll in large steps in the
courtyard, letting loose the hair and relaxing, so that the desire
to live arises.
Temperament Let live and do not kill anything. Give out but do not take
and behaviour anything by force. Reward generously and punish
parsimoniously.
Reason to do so This conforms to the spirit of spring; it is the right way to
pursue the Dao.
Pros and cons If one acts against this spirit, the liver will suffer. Then in
summer, one will feel cold.
Rationale Due to an insufficiency in the vigour of growth.

A reader who perceives the structure of this format will have no difficulty
filling in the relevant passages from other paragraphs. The memory work is
greatly facilitated by the rhyme, which is particularly evident in the paragraph
on autumn.

Time period … a period of fullness (rong- ci wei rong ping 此謂容平 (平)
ping 容平).

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 How to Attain Longevity through the Practice of the Dao 13

Life style … the air is lucid and clear. di qi yi qing 地氣以明 (明)
… as soon as the cocks crow. yu ji qu xing 與雞俱興 (興)
Temperament … lessen the hardship of yi huan qiu xing 以緩秋刑 (刑)
and behaviour autumn.
Reason to do … accustomed to the mood of shi qiu qi ping 使秋氣平 (平)
so autumn.
… maintained a quiet lung. shi fei qi qing 使肺氣清 (清)
… conforms to the spirit of qiu qi zhi ying 秋氣之應 (應)
autumn.
Pros and cons … there will be indigestion. dong wei sun xie 冬為飧泄
Rationale … few reserves to survive the feng cang zhe shao 奉藏者少
winter.

Having explained the format of the literary style in Neijing, let us examine
the significance of this section. It is actually an extrapolation of the principles
of macrobiotics outlined in the two previous sections. Here a concrete
example is given to illustrate the substance of the annual cycle of sprouting
(sheng 生), growth (zhang 長), harvest (shou 收) and storage (cang 藏). The
practice of macrobiotics must observe and obey these seasonal changes, adapt
to them in a proactive manner, and benefit from them by following the natural
course of seasonal changes. The consequence of misbehaviour is not apparent
immediately, but it will show up in the following season and its rationale is
given. There is an element of preventive medicine in this practice as it is
further elaborated in a following paragraph that is not quoted in Neijing
zhiyao (hereafter abbreviated as NJZY) by Li Zhong-zi. The paragraph in
question helps to amplify the dictates of Section 3 and is loosely paraphrased
as follows:
“That there are four seasons and the changes of yin and yang forces
accounts for the diversity of the myriad things in the world. Thus the sages
nurtured the yang forces in spring and summer, the yin elements in autumn
and winter. This is to conform to the basic rules so that everything can thrive
and perish in the domain of life. To disobey this basic rule is like severing the
root of a tree and harming its genuine nature. Therefore the seasonal change
of yin and yang is the beginning and the end of everything, the final cause of
life and death. To act against it will bring disaster. To conform to it will prevent
the outbreak of serious disease. This is the way to accomplish the Dao, the

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 14 Neijing Zhiyao Yigu 內經知要譯詁

fundamental law of nature. The sages practised the Dao; ignorant men
rebelled against it. To follow the change of yin and yang will live; to act against
these changes will perish. Following the change of yin and yang will maintain
an orderly community; ignoring it will bring social chaos. Departure from the
natural trend will cause internal confrontation between the body’s functions
and external conditions. This is the reason why the sages do not wait for
disease to occur, they treat the body so that disease will not occur (zhi wei bing
治 未 病). (See ibid. 1-1-8) By the same token, the sages do not wait till a revolt
breaks out, they rule wisely so that people are not rebellious. To administer
medicine after a disease has occurred is tantamount to start digging a well
when one feels thirsty, or to manufacture weapons when the battle has begun.
Is it not a little late by then?” (See Suwen Chapter 2) [9].
The paragraph on spring reminds one strongly of a passage in the
Analects of Confucius in the same context. It reads: “In late spring, wearing
newly-made light spring clothes, in the company of a group of youngsters and
teenage boys, (we) rinse ourselves on the banks of Yi, and refresh ourselves in
the breeze by the altar where one prays for rain, singing joyfully while
returning home.”2 It was a rare moment of relaxation in the Analects, which
met with the approval of the Great Master, who was strenuously admonishing
his entourage, trying to prop up the declining rites of Zhou. It is entirely
possible that the authors of this passage of Neijing had read the Analects.

Footnotes

[1] three months in spring: Traditionally, the Chinese year is divided into 24
time periods, the jieqi 節氣 (solar terms). Beginning with lichun 立春 (spring
commences), sometime in February of the Gregorian calendar, every fifteen
days will see a new time period. Agricultural and social activities follow this
time schedule closely and observe its special current features (jieling 節 令) .
Spring covers the three months beginning with lichun, the first time period,
with the spring equinox (chunfen 春 分, March 20–22) as the fourth of these
periods. The most salient feature of this period is characterised by the term
fachen 發陳, “burgeoning or sprouting and spreading”.

2
《論語．先進》︰「暮春者，春服既成，冠者五六人，童子六七人，浴乎沂，
風乎舞雩，詠而歸。」

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 How to Attain Longevity through the Practice of the Dao 15

[2] three months in summer: Summer covers the three months beginning with
lixia 立 夏 (summer commences) as the seventh time period, with the
summer solstice (xiazhi 夏 至, June 21/22) as the tenth period. The descrip-
tive term for this period is fanxiu 蕃秀 (plants thriving lushly).
[3] malaria: Jienüe 痎 瘧 is generally translated as “malaria” (nüeji 瘧 疾). Nüe 瘧
means “cruel, severe suffering”. It refers to the most important symptom, i.e.
alternate cycles of high fever and chills (wang lai han re 往 來 寒 熱) and can
refer to any disease, irrespective of its cause. While jienüe is malaria in
general, jie 痎 refers to tertiary malaria. Chapter 36 of Suwen is devoted to
the study of malaria.
[4] three months in autumn: Autumn covers the three months beginning with
liqiu 立 秋 (autumn commences) as the 13th time period, with the autumn
equinox (qiufen 秋 分, September 22/24 by the western calendar) as the 16th
time period. The representative term for this period is rongping 容 平
(“leisurely and level”), describing the level surface of a granary, having been
filled up to the brim.
[5] indigestion: The term sunxie 飧 泄 appears frequently in Neijing, and in later
classics of clinical Chinese medicine. It refers to the passing of undigested, or
not completely digested, grains of cereal, indicating weakness of the spleen
(meaning digestive functions, see Section 2.2.4, ref. 53) and stomach func-
tions. Xie 泄 means “leak”, thus xiexie 泄瀉 (diarrhoea).
[6] three months in winter: Winter covers the three months beginning lidong 立
冬 (winter commences) as the 19th time period, with the winter solstice
(dongzhi 冬 至, December 21/23) as the 22nd period. The descriptive term is
bicang 閉藏 (literally “to close and hide”), “to conceal, hibernate, conserve”.
[7] yangqi: The yang elements are broadly encompassing metabolic function,
growth potential and an active response to internal and external changes.
[8] weak limbs: The Chinese term is weijue 痿 厥. Wei 痿 is atrophy of an organ
or a limb. Chapter 44 of Suwen is devoted to the study of atrophy. Jue 厥
means literally “a very low level”, and it refers to a low level of qi due to its
“reverse flow” (ni 逆), e.g. in the limbs. Hence the term jueni 厥 逆. Because
the qi does not arrive, the limb gets cold, thus jueleng 厥 冷. Hence the Sini
Tang 四 逆 湯 of Shanghan lun 傷 寒 論 and its variations. Weijue describes a
limb which is flaccid and shrinking due to the lack of qi. Here qi means
“blood”, and it can also be innervation.
[9] To pre-empt a disease, as if it were a rebellion, is central to disease manage-
ment in Chinese medicine. Heguanzi 鶡冠子 talks about this idea in Chapter

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 16 Neijing Zhiyao Yigu 內經知要譯詁

16 (Shi xian 世 賢) of his book, which was highly praised by Lü Si-mian. Lü

further ascertained that Heguanzi was the teacher of an adviser to Duke
Wuling of Zhao (325 bc), thus pinning a firm date on the source of this
quotation. Lü Si-mian was not only famous for his expertise in ancient
history and philosophy, but he also declined the offer of a much coveted
academic position at Peking University.3

[Section 1.4] Suwen Chapter 2: On Seasonal Variation of

Zang-organ Function

《素問．四氣調神大論》曰：天氣清淨光明者也，藏德不止，故不下也。天
明〔蒙〕則日月不明，邪害空竅，陽氣者閉塞，地氣者冒明〔萌〕，雲霧不精
〔晴〕，則上應白露不下。交通不表，萬物命故不施，不施則名木多死。惡
氣不發，風雨不節，白露不下，則菀稾（槁）不榮，賊風數至，暴雨數起，
天地四時不相保，與道相失，則未央絕滅。唯聖人從之，故身無奇病。萬
物不失，生氣不竭。

The reason that the air is pure and luminous is because though the Dao is
concealed [in it], it operates incessantly without relenting. If the sky is cloudy,
the sun and the moon cannot shine through. The evil forces will then pene-
trate the body through the apertures [1]. The yangqi from heaven is blocked
[from radiating on earth], the yinqi of the earth cannot ascend [towards the
sky]. The sky is cloudy and there is no sunshine. In this way, the force of the
earth cannot meet with the force of heaven to produce dew that precipitates
on earth. Since yin and yang do not interact, the potential of life cannot be
expressed. This will cause the death of even majestic trees and the evil forces
will not dissipate. The wind will not blow and the rain will not come in time
so that plants will wilt and wither. There are frequent gusts of wind blowing
out of season [2] and there are frequent downpours of heavy rain. The
seasonal elements do not balance with each other; they are not harmonious
with the Dao. Therefore, the myriad living things perish mid-way through
their lifespan. Only the sages can conform to the Dao, consequently they do
not contract serious diseases. If the myriad living things can follow the Dao
like the sages, their potential of life will not be exhausted.

3
Lü, Jingzi jieti.

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 How to Attain Longevity through the Practice of the Dao 17

Explanatory Notes
This section stresses the intimate relationship between the body and the envi-
ronment. It is considered to be the outline of the same subject discussed in
Suwen Chapter 67, which is excerpted in Section 5.8. Suwen Chapters 66–71
and Chapter 74 carried the title of “a major discussion” (dalun 大 論), hence
Chapter 2 was also entitled “dalun”.
While the Dao governs all changes in the universe, there are times when
its expression is hampered by the vicissitudes of natural forces. These forces
are particularly harmful when they arise out of season; they can penetrate the
body through the apertures and disease ensues. This is similar to the way in
which majestic trees that have lived for a long time and weathered the climatic
changes will also succumb to frequent attacks of inclement weather. Living
things with lesser life potential will only survive these vicissitudes if they can
follow the Dao, like the sages who conform to the Dao in order to shelter
themselves from the attack of insidious diseases. The description of bad
weather strongly reminds us of the climate change that confronts us today. El
Niño may not have appeared in Neijing times, but there have always been
periods of tempest down the ages, though they may be more frequent and
devastating nowadays. The important thing is to survive, as suggested here, by
adhering to the Dao. Laozi says, “Gusts of wind would not last the whole
morning, torrential rain would not pour down till evening.”4 Can men survive
climate change? Must we re-read Daode jing to come up with new ideas?

Footnotes

[1] aperture (qiao 竅): This refers to the seven apertures on the body’s surface,
viz. eyes, ears, nostrils and mouth. Another method of counting the seven
apertures includes the urethral opening and the anus, but counts the nostrils
as one, the nose. Zhuangzi tells an amusing story in Zhuangzi: Yingdihuang
莊 子．應 帝 王. Hundun 混 沌 had no apertures on his face. His intimate
friends Shu 鯈 and Hu 忽 had a normal face. These two men were very clever
and they thought that Hundun was not, because of his lack of facial aper-
tures. So during one of their meetings, in order to repay Hundun’s kindness
to them, each day they bored a hole in Hundun’s face, to make him look
clever. On the seventh day, Hundun died. There is no further comment; the
message is clear.

4
《道德經》︰「飄風不終朝，暴雨不終夕。」

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 18 Neijing Zhiyao Yigu 內經知要譯詁

[2] out of season: The Chinese term is zeifeng 賊 風, “the thieving wind” (ibid.
1-1-2).

[Section 1.5] Suwen Chapter 5: On the Phenomena of

Yin-Yang

《素問．陰陽應象大論》曰︰能知七損八益，則二者可調；不知用此，則早
衰之節也。年四十，而陰氣自半也，起居衰矣；年五十，體重，耳目不聰
明 矣；年 六 十，陰 痿，氣 大 衰，九 竅 不 利，下 虛 上 實，涕 泣 俱 出 矣。故
曰︰知之則強，不知則老，故同出而異名耳。智者察同，愚者察異；愚者
不足，智者有余〔餘〕。有余〔餘〕則耳目聰明，身體輕強，老者復壯，壯者
益 治。是 以 聖 人 為 無 為 之 事，樂 恬 憺 之 能〔態〕，從 欲 快 志 於 虛 無 之 守
〔宇〕，故壽命無窮，與天地終。

[In the practice of macrobiotics,] if one is knowledgeable about the “seven

detriments and the eight benefits” [1], one can proceed to balance between the
influences of yin and yang. If one does not know how to regulate the yin
versus the yang, an early onset of senility will ensue. In this case, at forty the
[renal] yin potential [2] is already half gone; life continues with difficulty. At
fifty, the body puts on weight; the ears and eyes are no longer sharp. At sixty,
the yin elements will wither [and become impotent], the genuine qi is nearly
exhausted and all the nine apertures [3] are no longer patent. Because the
body is depleted in the lower half [by sexual indulgence] and congested in the
upper half [the yin elements having rushed towards the head unchecked by a
lack of yang elements], tears and nasal mucus flow profusely. Therefore it is
said that those who are knowledgeable about this will become strong; those
who are ignorant about this will get old before their time. That is why people
living under similar circumstances can differ in their experience with the
onset of senility. The wise will be able to notice the minor differences while
they look apparently like all the others. The foolish are aware of the differences
only when they become obvious. Thus the foolish will lavish their life poten-
tial and it soon becomes insufficient, while the wise will carefully hoard it so
that it is always plentiful. With plenty of life potential in stock, the ears and
eyes are sharp, the body is strong and lightweight, the old can rejuvenate and
the strong gets stronger. Consequently, the sages always act spontaneously, not

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 How to Attain Longevity through the Practice of the Dao 19

chasing after anything on purpose [4]; they are happy to be able to live in a
non-desirous and relaxed manner. Such a carefree life style brings them enor-
mous pleasure. They will dwell in such a nihilistic state so that their lifespan
knows no end and it merges into one with the universe like heaven and earth.

Explanatory Notes
This section is an extensive excerpt from Suwen Chapter 5: On the Phenomena
of Yin-Yang. Yin-yang is the core of traditional Chinese medical thinking. To
view the mechanism of life in its yin and yang aspects is the quintessence of
Chinese medicine. The title Neijing zhiyao 內 經 知 要 borrows the key words
from a quotation in Lingshu, Chapter 1, Jiu zhen 九 針: “If one knows the
essentials [about the profusion of acupoints], one sentence suffices [to explain
it all]” (zhi qi yao zhe, yi yan er zhong 知 其 要 者， 一 言 而 終) [5]. Lingshu was
talking about the function of the 365 acupoints, but not directly referring to
the differentiation of yin and yang. However, Zhang Jie-bin reiterated this
dictum more explicitly: “The art of medicine may seem complex, but one
phrase covers it all, i.e. yin and yang.” [6] This chapter holds a dualistic view
of the body, the myriad things on earth and in the universe, and the correla-
tion between them as an interaction between yin and yang. Inside the body, all
the physiological functions, the cause and development of diseases, the clinical
approaches and methods of treatment as well the properties of drugs are
considered in the light of their relative yin and yang preponderance. While
there are many concrete examples in this chapter illustrating the action of yin
and yang, this paragraph cites the rule of the “seven detriments and eight
benefits” as a paradigm in the regulation of yin and yang. This is how the sages
would engage themselves, and ordinary mortals should follow, in order to
avoid the dire consequences, i.e. the early onset of senility.
The rule of the “seven detriments and eight benefits” actually refers to the
advantages and disadvantages of a regular and irregular sex life. This is by no
means a guidebook for “bed chamber techniques” (fangzhong shu 房 中 術)
and it provides no technical details of this kind. Sexual intercourse is consid-
ered primarily as an interaction of yin and yang forces; it is cited here as the
generalised mode of action in balancing yin and yang and the outcome of
correct and incorrect practices. The moral is: “The sages do it, [so] you can do
it.”
The complete chapter title should read “a major discussion on the

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 20 Neijing Zhiyao Yigu 內經知要譯詁

phenomena yin-yang”. This is the second “major discussion” (dalun 大 論)

following Suwen Chapter 2 that was quoted in Sections 1.3 and 1.4. There are
seven more “major discussions” that make up Suwen Chapters 66–74
(including two apocryphal chapters). The early appearance of major discus-
sions underlines the importance of these two chapters, of which the present
chapter is quoted five times in NJZY, the most numerous.

Footnotes

[1] seven detriments and eight benefits: “Detriment” (xun 損 ) refers to

menstrual flow. Each time the menses occur, the loss of blood is detrimental
to the body. The life cycle of women is construed as consisting of units of
seven years; indicative signs in reproductive physiology, like menarche and
menopause, mark these units. “Benefit” (yi 益) is the homonym of yi 溢,
meaning “overflow, spill over”. This refers to ejaculation, an overflow of
semen. Since this can happen only when the man is strong and healthy, yi 溢,
spilling the semen is a benefit (yi 益) because it can avoid a congestion of the
semen in store. The life cycle of men is construed as being built of units of
eight years; indicative signs in reproductive physiology like ejaculation and
impotence mark these units. Suwen Chapter 1: On Genuine Nature gave a
detailed description of the male and female cycles.
   There are other more technical interpretations of “seven” and “eight”;
they refer to the seven “don’ts” and eight “do’s” during co-habitation. This
information is quoted from a macrobiotic manual, exhumed from the
Mawangdui Han tombs (175–145 bc), dating from the same period as
Neijing. This source may not own the exclusive right to use the term “seven
detriments and eight benefits”, but it lends support to the idea that sexual
activity is undertaken for the purpose of health management.
[2] yin potential: The text reads yinqi 陰 氣, which is taken to mean shenqi 腎 氣.
It refers broadly to an active state of bodily activity, including sexual desire.
The kidneys, or more correctly the adrenals, are the primary source of
vigour. There is a common saying, “With adequate renal qi, one lives up to
160 years old.” (shen qi zu, huo dao bai liu 腎 氣 足，活 到 百 六). The large
number of years is used for the purpose of rhyme; it is not an exact measure
of time.
[3] nine apertures (jiu qiao 九 竅): This is counting the openings of the eyes, the
ears, the nostrils, and the mouth, plus the two in the private parts. (See ibid.
1-4-1). A patent aperture is important because it allows a channel of

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 How to Attain Longevity through the Practice of the Dao 21

communication between the inside and outside of the body. When the qi
seeps naturally out of the body through the apertures, the senses of sight,
hearing, taste etc. are guaranteed. When these apertures are blocked, the
senses are lost. The sweat glands are also perceived as apertures. They are too
many to count and their patency is controlled by the subcutaneous striae
(couli 腠 理, or “hypodermal vasculature”), which tighten and loosen under
the influence of the current conditions.
[4] chasing after: The Chinese term of [not chasing after] is wuwei 無 為. Not
doing anything on purpose is the nirvana in the practice of Daoism. It is an
active nihilism that frees one from all worldly desires and constraints, and
enables one to lead a carefree life that follows the natural course of events in
nature. Daode jing preaches “to rule without laws and the community is
orderly” (wu wei er zhi 無 為 而 治). Perhaps “nihilism” is not an appropriate
translation, for wuwei is more like absolute naturalism.
[5] Lingshu Chapter 1: Jiu zhen 九針: “知其要者，一言而終” (zhi qi yao zhe, yi
yan er zhong). This key phrase becomes incorporated into the title of this
book, Neijing zhiyao. It appears twice more, in Suwen Chapters 71 and 74,
rather as if it is a teacher who keeps reminding his students to focus on the
gist of the subject matter.
[6] Zhang Jie-bin, Chuanzhong lu 傳忠錄 (A Treatise on Medical Thoughts): “醫
道 雖 繁 …… 一 言 蔽 之 者，曰 陰 陽。 ” (yi dao sui fan … yi yan bi zhi zhe,
yue yin yang).

[Section 1.6] Suwen Chapter 72: On Acupuncture

(apocryphal)

《素問．遺篇．刺法論》曰︰腎有久病者，可以寅時面向南，淨神不亂思，
閉氣不息七遍，以引頸咽氣順之，如咽甚硬物。如此七遍后〔後〕，餌舌下
津液無數。

For those who are suffering chronically in the kidneys, they shall sit facing
south at the hour of yin [1]. They must first of all be free of stray thoughts.
Hold the breath [2] as long as possible before breathing out slowly. Stretch the
neck and swallow the air [i.e. with nothing in the mouth] as if one is swal-
lowing a hard object; this will help the body relax after these straining efforts.

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 22 Neijing Zhiyao Yigu 內經知要譯詁

Do this seven times, then the saliva will flow profusely under the tongue [3];
swallow it all as it keeps coming.

Explanatory Notes
Suwen Chapter 72 (On Acupuncture) and the chapter which follows it were
apocryphal, and carried only a title in the first edition of Neijing, which was
produced by Wang Bing 王 冰 (710–805) in the Tang dynasty. In a monograph
focusing on the correlation between the occurrence of disease and climatic
cycles (wu yun liu qi 五 運 六 氣, see ref. 51 for a detailed description of this
subject) by Liu Wen-shu 劉 溫 舒 in the Song dynasty, the two chapters were
reinstated, ostensibly from a newly discovered source. While the authenticity
of these two chapters became a matter of incessant academic wrangling, it is
fair to believe that they were penned sometime between after Wang and before
Liu. Modern day scholars like Qin Bo-wei and Zhang Can-jia tended to disre-
gard these two chapters as bearing little significance to the core of medical
thinking in Neijing. This does not fully explain why Zhang Jie-bin still treated
it seriously in Leijing 類 經 and why Li Zhong-zi has now excerpted it in NJZY.
Irrespective of the problem of authenticity, one must realise that these two
chapters followed the group of seven chapters on climatic cycles. Although the
subject matter of these chapters concerns the prevention of diseases by
acupuncture, it is not a departure from the main theme. On the contrary, it
could afford a concrete example of the prevention of disease, now that, after a
lengthy discussion on climatic cycles and their computation, this has become
predictable. It is fair to believe that Li Zhong-zi excerpted this paragraph and
put it at the end of Chapter One, Dao Sheng, in an effort to amplify the
notion that the practice of the Dao is a feasible undertaking.

Footnotes

[1] hour of yin (yinshi 寅 時): This corresponds to 3–5 a.m. A day is divided into
twelve 2-hour time-slots which are named after the twelve terrestrial
branches (dizhi 地支). The exact time in the day is marked by the water clock
(clepsydra) with a scale divided into 100 equal markings, with one marking
(ke 刻) equal to quarter of an hour. For a detailed discussion on the marking
of time, see Joseph Needham, Science and Civilisation in China. Suffice it to
say here that each time-slot has its own significance in the daily cycle. For
example, the period zi (zishi 子 時) means midnight, hence ziye 子 夜. The

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 How to Attain Longevity through the Practice of the Dao 23

period wu (wushi 午 時) is midday (from 11 a.m. to 1 p.m.), and is the time

of execution. Hence there is a “Wu Gate” (wumen 午 門) in the Forbidden
City in Beijing, where capital punishment would be carried out at noon. In
Neijing, there are passages describing the development of a disease over the
hours of the day and seasons of the year, depending on the nature of the
disease. (Suwen Chapter 22: On Seasonal Changes of Visceral Organ
Functions).
[2] hold the breath: This is an exercise in holding the breath (biqi 閉 氣) until
close to asphyxiation and then releasing it slowly. Breathing exercises are an
important element of macrobiotics. To be able to control breathing at will
has the double benefit of achieving the concentration of the mind and
slowing down the metabolic rate. A very slow breathing rhythm is called
guixi 龜 息 (“breathe like a tortoise”, a creature with a slow metabolism).
Some monks of extremely high attainment in their Buddhist pursuit can
reduce their breathing to a virtual stop, and thereby they voluntarily die of
asphyxiation while sitting (zuohua 坐化). Their corporeal remains stay intact
without decomposing and the mummified corpse is then gilded for worship.
Many examples exist and are publicly displayed on occasion. The one in
Jiuhua Shan 九 華 山, Anhui province, is that of an abbot believed to be the
incarnation of the Bodhisattva of the Nether World (Kşitigarbha 地藏菩薩).
[3] saliva: Trying to stimulate the flow of the saliva and swallow it is very benefi-
cial to health. There are two acupoints under the tongue, the lianquan 廉 泉
(RN-23), corresponding to the openings of the sublingual salivary gland. It is
however not necessary to stimulate it with a needle, because saliva will be
caused to flow by forcing the tip of the tongue towards the palate while
knocking the teeth against one another. Today we know there are a number
of bioactive substances in the saliva, such as epidermal growth factor from
the submaxillary gland. At any rate, drinking one’s own saliva is more palat-
able than drinking urine, which is also lauded by some for its beneficial
properties, but not in Daoism. The urine of juvenile boys was used to prepare
herbal decoctions such as Baitong jia zhudan tang from the days of Shanghan
lun.

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