Annals of Parasitology 2023, 69(3/4), 91–102 Copyright© 2023 Polish Parasitological Society

doi: 10.17420/ap6903/4.513

Review article

The use of phytotherapy in the fight against parasitic

diseases
Anna KLUJ1, Maciej KOSIADA1, Paulina MULARCZYK1,
Filip ROBAKOWSKI1, Jakub SPŁAWSKI1, Katarzyna TYLKOWSKA1,
Edward HADAŚ1,2

1
Faculty of Medicine, Poznań University of Medical Sciences, Fredry 10, 61-701 Poznań, Poland
2
Department of Biology and Medical Parasitology, Poznań University of Medical Sciences, Święcickiego 4,
60-781 Poznań, Poland

Corresponding Author: Edward Hadaś; e-mail: ehadas@ump.edu.pl

ABSTRACT. In recent years, there has been more and more new research on the therapeutic effects of plants and their
positive impact on the fight against parasitic diseases. It is of great importance, as it gives the opportunity to use this
knowledge for phytotherapy, which is cheaper than pharmacological treatment, and as numerous studies have shown, it
can be equally effective. Scientists are still looking for newer and newer chemicals that can be isolated from plants
around us, and the current medicine is more and more willing to use natural medicines. In the following work, we
present an overview of the most common parasitic diseases caused by protozoa, flatworms, roundworms, as well as by
arachnids and fleas. We also presented alternative methods of treating these diseases using phytotherapy, which uses
extracts of, among others, mint, tea tree, garlic, ginger, pumpkin seeds, annual mugwort, musk cosmos, walnuts, cocoa,
grapes or black cumin.

Keywords: phytotherapy, medicinal plants, plant extracts, parasitic diseases

Introduction Protozoans
Our world is overgrown with over 500,000 Parasitic protozoa constitute a large group of
species of plants, of which only per mille has been various species with a cosmopolitan range of
tested for pharmacology. Therefore, many occurrence. With drug resistance progressing all
unexplored plants may be a source of valuable over the world and the poverty and poverty of drugs
substances in the context of disease control in the and vaccines in some regions of the world, diseases
future. Scientists are still looking for new plant caused by protozoa are becoming a real threat [1].
species, the properties of which could contribute to They can be transmitted in various ways, e.g. through
the treatment of, among others, parasitic diseases, the transfer of invasive stages by arthropods.
which, despite increasing living standards, are still a Protozoa are also transmitted through the process of
real threat, mainly due to the progressive resistance blood transfusion, organ transplantation, or can be
to antibiotics. Medicines of natural origin are passed on by the mother to the fetus. The infections
cheaper to produce than those obtained they cause affect not only humans but also animals,
synthetically, so this is another argument for which entails huge costs in terms of health protection.
scientists to work on this issue. The presented work Modern medicine cannot cope with the progressive
presents an overview of the possibilities presented drug resistance of pathogenic protozoa. Therefore,
by plants and their extracts, in selected parasitic more and more often, alternative methods of
diseases. treatment are sought among the flora around us.
Scientists are increasingly conducting research aimed
at extracting and identifying substances of plant
92 A. KLUJ et al.

origin that could be an effective weapon in the fight quinine (92%) [3]. Artemisinin therapy works well
against diseases caused by parasitic protozoa. in the disease caused by Plasmodium falciparum
and P. vivax, moreover, it does not cause side effects
Malaria [3]. However, the effect of this therapy on diseases
The biggest problem is the protozoa living in the caused, among others, by P. malariae, P. ovale, and
erythrocytes. These are the parasites of the genus P. knowlesi are unconfirmed.
Plasmodium that cause malaria in humans. Parasites The profitability of artemisinin therapy in
that live in the plasma of mononuclear phagocytic relation to other agents and its effectiveness against
cells (macrophages, monocytes, Langerhans cells), the disease caused by the above-mentioned protozoa
neuroglial cells and muscles (heart, skeletal are still open questions and hypotheses of scientists
muscles, smooth muscles) pose a lower threat. [4]. Malaria treatment is also done in a more
These types of parasites include those of the genus traditional way, including with the help of extracts
Trypanosoma and Leishmania, which cause African from plants growing, for example, in Ethiopia, 200
coma and leishmaniosis in humans. The species belonging to 71 families were examined.
aforementioned malaria, despite the continuous The form of administration varied, the most
development of medicine, remains a significant common being oral. Tossing, eating leaves or
health problem throughout the entire chemistry, it consuming broths. Despite the promising prospects,
was the cause of 429,000 deaths in 2015. This the side effects and antimalarial potential have not
problem affects the most sub-Saharan Africa (70% been sufficiently described, and more
of deaths), most often affects children under 5 years comprehensive research is still needed to
of age [2]. Every year, malaria causes 300–500 understand the full potential of these plants [2].
million cases of disease, killing 1.5–2.7 million Plants from which extracts with antimalarial
people worldwide. properties can be obtained should also be sought in
Malaria is a parasitic disease caused in humans Vietnam. From the Rhaphidophora decursiva
by 5 species of spores: Plasmodium falciparum, P. grapevines growing there, an extract of leaves and
vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, P. knowlesi. Most stems was obtained, which showed antimalarial
deaths were caused by Plasmodium falciparum, it is properties. Unfortunately, in the course of further
the most pathogenic human parasite, it is resistant to research on the obtained compound, its cytotoxicity
most of the currently available antimalarial drugs. was discovered [5]. Dicoma anomala is very
As a consequence of malaria parasites becoming popular among plants with medicinal properties. It
resistant to drugs, research has progressed to find an is used in many African countries to treat at least 66
alternative treatment. This way was, among others, diseases. In Zimbabwe, the roots of this plant are
phytotherapy, which we focus on in this article. used in the treatment of syphilis and malaria, and in
Artemisinin therapy is recommended for the South Africa in respiratory diseases and diabetes. Its
treatment of Plasmodium falciparum malaria, which leaves are wide gray. They are used to treat breast
is at least as effective as other agents used in other cancer in Lesotho. Bioactive compounds extracted
types of malaria. Artemisinin is obtained from the from the plant activate apoptotic pathways, the
annual mugwort (Artemisia annua L.). It is an immune response and inhibit various phases of cell
annual plant, blooms from June to July and can development, thus presenting anti-malarial and anti-
grow up to 3 meters in height. It can be classified as cancer properties [6].
a ruderal plant because it occurs mainly on rubble,
wastelands and roadsides. Artemisinin therapy is African coma
more effective than chloroquine therapy, which has African trypanosomosis, also called African
been the main ingredient in previous anti-malaria coma, is an infection caused by the parasitic
therapies. Artemisinin eliminates parasites and fever protozoa of the genus Trypanosoma [7,8]. It is the
faster, moreover, a recurrence of infection is less cause of about 30,000 infections, and in 2010 caused
likely after the therapy performed with it. It has a 9,000 deaths (WHO). It is the most lethal disease in
higher recovery rate on day 28 (84.2%) than that of all of Sub-Saharan Africa [7]. The parasite is
chloroquine, for which this rate did not exceed transmitted by the tsetse flies, which feed on the
(60%). A better outcome in the treatment of blood of mammals and are thus transmitted. They
parasitemia than in the treatment with artemisinin are oviparous, the female lays the developed larva
was reported only in the case of treatment with and then buries it in the ground. There are about 30
The use phytotherapy 93

species of these flies, these species are divided Leishmaniosis

according to three criteria: the preferred habitat and Leishmaniosis is a tropical parasitic disease
the transmission of one of the two subspecies of the caused by protozoa of the genus Leishmania sp.,
parasite Trypanosoma brucei gambiense or T. b. which is the second most deadly after malaria [14].
rhodesiense [8]. The first subspecies occurs in West Every year, there are approximately 300–500
and Central Africa and has a chronic course of the million cases of malaria, which causes the death of
disease that may last for years before reaching its 1.5–2.7 million people worldwide. About 12 million
final stages [7]. It accounts for 95% of all cases [9]. people suffer from leishmaniosis, and about 2
The second subspecies, on the other hand, occurs in million new infections are recorded each year, and
eastern and southern Africa, the course of the disease about 20–40,000 people die from the infection.
is much more severe, with a shorter course that can Despite this, it is rarely the center of attention and
last from several weeks to several months [7]. After therefore remains a neglected disease [15].
infection, the disease develops in two stages, the first Leishmaniosis is endemic in over 98 countries
called hemolymphatic, which irreversibly around the world. Mainly in southern Europe, North
transforms into a second meningoencephalic disease, Africa, the Middle East, Central and South America,
followed by death. In the first stage, we can observe and the Indian subcontinent. More than 90% of new
headaches and joint pains, fever attacks and itching. infections occur in 13 countries: Afghanistan,
Trypomastigota enter the host’s lymphatic network Algeria, Bangladesh, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia,
and bloodstream, then multiply and attack peripheral Ethiopia, India, Iran, Peru, South Sudan, and Syria
organs. When parasites cross the blood-brain barrier, [16]. It is rather unusual in eastern Asia and
the meningoencephalic stage begins [9]. Few drugs Australia with Oceania [15]. It is estimated that at
are available to treat this disease. Drug resistance, least 2 million people are infected with this disease
limited effectiveness and many undesirable side annually, and over 350 million people live in
effects also do not have a positive effect on the endangered areas [17]. It is also responsible for
treatment process. That is why scientists turned to approximately 20–40,000 deaths per year [18].
phytotherapy when creating new drugs. In a study There are three types of leishmaniosis: cutaneous,
carried out on mice, the effectiveness of an extract visceral, and mucocutaneous [19,20]. The same
from the aerial part of the plant called Artemisia protozoan development cycle occurs in all clinical
abyssinica L. against coma was confirmed. The types of leishmaniosis. Animals are the reservoir of
extract was isolated by maceration with disease [15]. The vector is female sand flies that
dichloromethane and 80% methanol at doses of 100, suck the host’s infected blood. In the middle
200, 400 mg/kg for 7 days. The study showed that intestine of the vector, amastigotes transform into
doses above 200 mg/kg of the body reduced promastogites, these travel to the insect’s mouth
parasites, relieved anemia, prevented weight loss, apparatus, from where they are transferred to other
contributed to an increase in neutrophil levels and a organisms, including humans [17]. Currently, there
decrease in lymphocytes [10]. Buchholza coriacea is no pharmacotherapy that brings satisfactory
seeds are also effective in fighting diseases caused results. Moreover, the availability and choice of
by trypomastigota. It is an evergreen tree with a drugs is limited by high price (most cases of the
height of 0.9 m to 1.8 m. Its ripe fruit is yellowish in disease occur in poor areas), toxicity and side
color and has a spicy flavor [11]. The anti- effects. In addition, it has been proven that the use
trypomastigotic effect was also demonstrated by the of drugs and the resulting drug resistance is the
water extract of eugenol basil leaves (Ocimum cause of recurrent infections in treated patients [14].
gratissimum L.) [12]. This has been confirmed in in Chemotherapy is currently the fastest and most
vitro and in vivo tests. During the in vitro study, the effective treatment for leishmaniosis, but
life time and the mobility of parasites were inhibited, unfortunately it has many side effects and is
the time in which this happened differed depending expensive. Hence, phytotherapy offers great
on the concentration – it was longer in the lower and prospects. It is known that natural products are an
shorter in the higher. In contrast, during the in vivo important source of new drugs and structures for
study, infected rats were treated with the extract. synthetic modification of bioactivity [21]. An
Treated rats had less dramatic clinical signs and lived example is a mixture of iridoid glycosides prepared
longer than untreated rats [13]. from an alcoholic extract of the rhizome and roots
of Picrorhiza kurroa [22]. This plant is found in the
94 A. KLUJ et al.

Himalayan region from Kashmir to Sikkim at an shown that the highest concentration of apigenin is
altitude of 2,700–4,800 meters above sea level. This found in Passiflora alata leaf extract.
plant is on the verge of extinction. The extract itself Concentrations of these plant extracts from 4 to 12
is not active against leishmaniosis. However, it has mg/ml show amoebostatic or amoebicidal activity.
a hepatoprotective effect, so when used with Higher concentrations, above 12 mg/ml, have an
second-line drugs, it alleviates their side effects. amoebicidal effect or convert trophozoites into
Another medicinal preparation is alcoholic extracts cysts. Lower concentrations reduce the rate of
of Yucca filamentosa, which showed strong anti- amoeba multiplication [23].
leishmaniosis activity. Already at a concentration of
5 mg/ml, it shows greater activity than meglumine Giardiosis and Entamoebosis
antimonate (a first-line drug) at the same Giardia intestinalis and Entamoeba histolytica are
concentration. From the roots of one of the snail one of the most common protozoa in humans. The
species (Annona haematantha), α, β-unsaturated d- disease caused by G. intestinalis – gardiosis, can be
lactone was isolated and identified as found all over the world, but most often in poor
argentilactone, which shows activity against various countries with poor sanitary conditions. In Poland,
Leishmania strains. In clinical trials, agentilactone the infection rate does not exceed 4%. On the other
was as effective as the reference medicines, hand, E. histolytica causes 50 million cases of disease
reducing protozoan infection by 96%. There were a year. Control of diseases caused by protozoa is
also no side effects of using hexane extract of expensive and time consuming due to
soursop [18,21]. It is estimated that over 100 plants recontamination. Therefore, readily available plants
may contain substances that could be used to fight with parasiticidal applications are sought. The
leishmaniosis. 239 plant-derived chemicals have research carried out on the plant Zanthoxylum
been identified that inhibit the development and liebmannianum, growing in Central America,
spread of leishmaniosis. These compounds mostly showed that extracts from the leaves of this plant
belong to the classes of alkaloids, triterpenes, inhibit the multiplication of trophozoites. Chloroform
lactones, flavonoids or steroids [21,22]. extracts obtained from plants such as Boesenbergia
pandurata, Eclipta prostrata, Piper betle, P. chaba,
Acanthamoebosis Zingiber zerumbet or methanol extracts from B.
Species of the genus Acanthamoeba spp. are the pandurata and E. prostrata are also suitable for the
etiological factors of granulomatous encephalitis, control of G. intestinalis and E. histolytica. We will
keratitis, lung or skin infections. These amoebae are meet these plants in the tropical zone. They inhibit
widely distributed in the free environment. the growth of protozoa in vitro, while in vivo they
Infections with this protozoan are not only a reduce the effects in HIV-infected patients.
problem of developing countries, and cases of In the in vitro control of E. histolytica and G.
infection can be found in all latitudes. intestinalis are used water, methanol, acetone and
Acanthamoeba spp. trophozoites are resistant to hexane extracts from mature leaves of Artemisia
most chemotherapeutic agents, such as: antibiotics, ludoviciana, by the people inhabited North
antiseptics, antifungal agents, antiprotozoals, America, among others, in Mexico [24]. The
including metronidazole. So far, cysts are most introduction of chemotherapy helped to deal with a
effective, but their number is small. Therefore, huge number of diseases, unfortunately, to this day,
research continues to discover compounds there are diseases that modern pharmacology is
(preferably natural) that could be used to fight unable to deal with. Especially in developing
Acanthamoeba spp. The greatest hopes are placed countries, phytotherapy is becoming more and more
on three species of free-living plants: Passiflora popular due to its lower costs than traditional
incarnata, Passiflora caerulea and Passiflora alata. pharmacology. Plants are a valuable source of
These plants are found in the areas of South substances used in phytotherapy. Thanks to them,
America, the Netherlands, Spain, Italy and Poland. modern medicine is better and better at fighting
Research shows that in the leaf extract of each of the diseases caused by drug-resistant protozoa. Plant
3 species of the above-mentioned plants, over 36 extracts are used more and more often in
substances exhibiting amoebicidal properties are pharmaceutical products, which has a positive effect
present. These are mainly flavonoids (including on the effectiveness in combating diseases, but also
apigenin, isovitexin, vitexin, luteolin). Studies have reduces the price and increased availability.
The use phytotherapy 95

Helminths effective and safe antiparasitic drug against the

above-mentioned species of flukes [29]. In addition
Flukes to the use of myrrh oil, extracts of marjoram
Fasciolosis is a parasitic disease caused by flukes (Origanum majorana), Christ’s thorns (Ziziphus
Fasciola hepatica and F. gigantica. In humans, spina-christi) and shrub sage (Salvia fructiosa) [30]
infection most often occurs through the have also found their pharmacological purpose.
consumption of infected plants, such as cress, or Studies have shown that the administration of
with water, in which metacercariae that previously medicinal products from these plants kills all
develop in the snail’s body are present. parasites after their incubation. Another study
Myrrh from Commiphora myrrha is a substance showed that aqueous extracts of the plants listed,
used to treat fasciolosis. It has been tested for its varying in concentrations, have a degenerative
antiparasitic activity against flatworms of the effect on S. haematobium (i.e., reduction/lack of
species Fasciola gigantica. It has been shown to mobility, lifetime, degeneration of integuments),
damage the shell, making it easier to kill [25]. where the higher the concentration, the greater the
Another study, where myrrh was also used showed changes. Therefore, it is safe to say that O.
that apart from damage to the shell, displacement of majorana, Z. spina-christi and S. fruticosa extracts
the spines on the body of the parasite and disruption have an antiparasitic effect and may someday be
of the basal lamina were observed [26]. used in the treatment of schistosomosis [30]. Other
Schistosomosis is a parasitic disease caused by experiments [31] on the action of black cumin oil
flukes of the genus Schistosoma. It is the second most (Nigella sativa) and cyanosis extract (Chroococcus
common parasitosis globally, after malaria. turgidus) against flukes (S. mansoni). showed that
According to statistics, it is responsible for around these substances caused deformation of the suction
280,000 deaths annually among 78 different cups or loss of spines, especially in male worms.
countries in the world [27]. Symptoms may vary This led to the fact that they could not stay on the
depending on the species of flukes causing the blood vessel wall in any way, so they ended up in
disease in humans. Schistosomosis mainly spreads in the bloodstream, and there they could be easily
poor countries with a tropical climate, such as killed by the host’s immune system. Nigella sativa
Malaysia or the countries of equatorial Africa. Its oil has been shown to increase its effect when
prevalence in these places is primarily due to neglect administered with an antiparasitic drug, as the
and lack of basic personal hygiene. People who settle percentage of dead eggs/parasites is even greater
near water reservoirs, in the absence of access to than without the drug [31]. It was also found that the
cleaning products, are most likely to become infected Chroococcus turgidus extract decreased female
with this parasite, because people most often become fertility, and thus the lack of additional eggs [31].
infected when they come into contact with water in Nobel Prize-winning substances may also be
which cercariae developed previously. promising compounds against schistosomosis [32].
The three main causative species are: S. These are avermectin and artemisinin. It is true that
mansoni, S. haematobium, and S. japonicum [28]. they require many other experiments, but the
The drugs used in the treatment of schistosomosis preliminary analysis gives hope for the use of these
have many harmful side effects or are not effective compounds in the future. Studies of peppermint oil
enough. For this reason, in Egypt, a study was (Mentha piperita L.), which contains menthol and
conducted on people infected with flukes of the menthone, also indicate that it may be an effective
genus S. mansoni and S. haematobium, substance in the treatment of schistosomosis. This is
experimentally giving them a preparation based on demonstrated by studies in which mice infected
an extract of myrrh oil, a fragrant resin from the tree with the parasite were used. It was shown that the
of the species C. myrrha. After three months of number of eggs in faeces was reduced, as was the
therapy, the effectiveness of the experiment was number of adult worms. Liver histopathology
checked on a research group of over a thousand showed a decrease in the number of eggs in this
people. The effectiveness of S. haematobium turned organ and a decrease in the number of cocci. It was
out to be slightly higher than that of S. mansoni emphasized that many other studies should be
carriers, but still almost 100%. The treatment did carried out on peppermint oil, but it is possible that
not produce any life-threatening side effects, and in the future it could be used in the treatment of
myrrh from C. myrrha has been found to be an schistosomosis [33].
96 A. KLUJ et al.

Tapeworms Females can reach a length of 40–50 cm, while males

Cestodoses are caused, among others, by Taenia 15–35 cm. The human roundworm has a life cycle of
saginata, Taenia saginata, Diphyllobothrium latum about 2–3 months and lay up to 200,000 eggs per day.
and other species. Their prevalence depends on The invasive form for humans are eggs containing
factors such as: culinary habits in a given culture, larvae, which enter the gastrointestinal tract through
meat storage, hygienic behavior. The most common the oral route together with thoroughly washed
way of spreading the parasite is contact with the vegetables, fruit or water [38]. It is widespread all
infected or consumption of meat contaminated with over the world, and especially where poverty prevails
tapeworm eggs [34]. In addition, in recent times, and, consequently, poor sanitation.
capsules with these eggs have become a new way to Africa is a zone of particularly intense endemic
lose weight, so the dominion of this parasite is quite endemic species. Intensive infections and
common. complications of ascariosis cause about 60,000
Currently, praziquantel and nicklosamide are the deaths annually in the world. Parasites cause anemia
most commonly used antiparasitic drugs to combat in hundreds of thousands of infected people. In the
this disease [35]. Before the use of these two context of dealing with this type of disease, a study
substances was discovered, however, people had to was carried out to assess the effectiveness of musk
resort to folk medicine. To combat tapeworms, the quinoa (Chenopodium ambrosioides) in the fight
extract from the rhizome of Dryopteris filix-mas, a against intestinal parasites, including human
representative of forest ferns, was used [36]. roundworm (A. lumbricoides) [39]. The phyto-
However, it is a highly poisonous plant, and the therapeutic treatment consisted of administering
aforementioned pharmaceuticals have their „Ka’aré” oil macerated in 70% ethyl alcohol. In the
disadvantages in the form of price or undesirable treatment assessment, the prevalence of parasites in
side effects [35]. For this reason, it was decided to the overall population was significantly reduced [39].
look for an alternative way of treating tapeworms. Similar applications as the musk quinoa also have
Home methods of getting rid of this flatworm from calamus (Acorus calamus), also known under folk
the gastrointestinal tract include, among others, names as ajer and tartar herb. The range of this
infusions of oregano, wormwood, black cumin species includes, among others Asia and North
seeds or buckthorn bark. In addition, scientists from America. In Poland, this species is common
Asia and Europe conducted studies on the throughout the area, except for the Carpathian
effectiveness of treating tapeworm caused by Taenia Mountains [40].
spp. with pumpkin seed and areca nut extract. Their
goal was to create an alternative, plant-based Enterobiosis
treatment method that would overcome the The human pinworm (Enterobius vermicularis)
problems associated with the use of the synthetic is a parasite of the digestive system. Counted among
substances mentioned above. The research showed round worms. It occurs all over the world,
an enormously high efficiency of the complete especially in temperate climates. They most often
elimination of the parasite from the body, reaching colonize the large intestine, less often the appendix
almost 80%. This had a decisive impact on the or the end part of the small intestine. It feeds on the
traditional medicine routinely used in China [35]. sucked up intestinal content and the nutrients it
Other plants have also found use in the treatment contains. Enterobiosis is caused by poor personal
of tapeworm caused by other species of tapeworm. hygiene. The most common infection occurs
A novel method of controlling rat tapeworm through the oral-fecal route (often in the form of
Hymenolepis diminuta was papaya extract [36], and auto-infection), and it also occurs through
in the case of Echinococcus granulosus – an inhalation or by retroinvasion (internal self-
aqueous extract from an endemic plant found in infection). Mainly children are sick. At a very young
Iran, i.e. Artemisia sieberi [37]. age, it is caused, among other things, by the sucking
habit. Eggs can be carried on unwashed hands,
Ascariosis everyday items, bedding and underwear. Along with
The human roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoides) is the dust, it happens that they end up in the upper
a parasite found in the small intestine in respiratory tract. The larvae hatch from the egg after
approximately one quarter of the world’s population, reaching the duodenum. They travel further to the
and in some regions it affects 90% of the population. large intestine where they mature within 2–4 weeks.
The use phytotherapy 97

Then the females make their way to the area of the mucous membranes. It also has anti-inflammatory
anus to lay about 8,000–12,000 eggs in the skin and anti-infectious properties. Areca nut extract
folds in sticky secretions. They do it at night, which tablets have the same therapeutic effects as pyrantel
is why sick children sleep badly due to severe pamoate. Areca walnut contains pyridine group
itching. In women, the area around the entrance to alkaloids such as arekadine and arecoline. Arecolin
the vagina may become infected and itching of the depresses the central nervous system and paralyzes
vulva [41]. The average life cycle of pinworms is the muscles of the parasite due to binding to
approximately 8 weeks. The symptoms of pinworms acetylcholine receptors [44].
depend on the intensity and individual sensitivity of
the host. It may be asymptomatic. Many patients Trichinellosis
suffer from itching around the anus, which may Trichinella spiralis is a parasite that causes
result in lack of sleep. There is also abdominal pain, trichinellosis. Infection occurs after eating infected
decreased appetite and weight loss, recurrent meat, in the case of humans, most often pig or boar
diarrhea, as well as problems controlling urinary meat, containing invasive larvae and not subjected
incontinence and teeth grinding. Nervous ailments to appropriate heat treatment. Trichinellosis is a
are manifested by excessive excitability and general serious problem on a global scale. According to
fatigue. estimated data, there may be as many as 10 million
Phytotherapeutic treatment of pinworms people infected with the Trichinella parasite in the
involves the use of herbal mixtures for parasites, world. The World Health Organization is
which are largely based on mugwort wormwood, encouraging research into medicinal plants to
walnut leaves, tansy, thyme, onion (containing a produce new, easy-to-use anthelmintic compounds
high concentration of natural sulfur compounds). with fewer side effects in the fight against human
Some of these herbs are ingredients of preparations disease in underdeveloped countries. The wider
supporting the functioning of the digestive system acceptance of medicinal plants as medicinal agents
in the period of pinworms. The anthelmintic is due to the pharmacological effects attributed to
properties are also attributed to oregano oil. Some of their phytonutrients, fewer side effects and better
these herbs cannot be used by women during viability than their synthetic counterparts. The most
pregnancy and breastfeeding. Diet with pinworms commonly used therapeutic drug in the clinical
should be rich in fiber (dietary fiber), protein. treatment of trichinosis is a synthetic drug –
Complementary, you can use herbal teas for the benzimidazole. However, it has many
intestines, such as chamomile, which soothes disadvantages. The search for alternative natural
inflammation [42]. Garlic is also used to treat compounds to combat the above disease is the goal
against E. vermicularis. This antiparasitic property of many researchers. In a 2003 study, the
of garlic is particularly important from an economic anthelmintic properties of the water extract from the
point of view as parasitic diseases often affect a stem bark of the Mangifera indica species were
poor part of the population. Garlic (Allium L.) analyzed, with particular emphasis on the effects of
removes pinworms directly from the intestines and Mangifera and the polyphenol present in those
effectively destroys pinworm eggs. It can be used extracts administered orally with the infected T.
both internally (eat fresh raw garlic) and externally spiralis nematode. Treatment with mangiferin
[43]. Pumpkin seeds (Cucurbita L.) contain throughout the life cycle of the parasite resulted in a
cucurbitacin in a film between the seed and the significant decrease in the number of parasite larvae
shells. It damages the nervous system of pinworms. encapsulated in the muscles; however, no treatment
She is called the „parasite killer”. It also has has been effective for adults in the gut [45]. These
antibacterial and anti-cancer effects. Its bitter taste results suggest that mangiferin may be useful in the
can be dismissive. Cucurbitacin is not absorbed treatment of trichinosis.
from the gastrointestinal tract and does not irritate
the intestinal mucosa. Treatment should last 2 Arachnids and Insects
weeks and end with the use of laxatives [42]. Unripe
walnuts (still green) contain worm-fighting Human scabies (Sarcoptes scabiei) belongs, inter
substances. They are made into a tincture which alia, to the parasitic arachnids. It causes a rash all
contains juglone. Tincture of walnuts in alcohol has over the body, especially around the genitals,
an anti-haemorrhagic effect because it tightens the buttocks, back of the hand and groin. The condition
98 A. KLUJ et al.

is called scabies and, if left untreated, it can lead to than they weigh themselves. The substance that
serious complications such as sepsis and heart causes flea allergy dermatitis (FAD) is hapten.
disease. Human scabies spreads intensively in poor Bubbles or pustules that are infected by bacteria
and developing countries, where the incidence in may also appear. They can be infected mainly in
rural areas oscillates around 8%. In turn, in Africa it public, humid and neglected places. Their host can
reaches the level of up to 50% and this is an inherent also be domestic animals, which become a source of
problem of the local population. Scabies is treated infection for their owners. The dog flea
symptomatically with various types of creams, (Ctenocephalides canis) spreads the flea tapeworm
ointments and emollients [46]. In addition, however, (Dipylidium caninum). Human fleas transmit
the use of this parasite has been found among many numerous microorganisms, including the plague-
plant-derived substances. One of them turned out to causing Yersinia pestis, typhoid Salmonella typhi,
be 5% tea tree oil (Melaleuca alternifolia). A case tularemia-causing Francisella tularensis, and
was described in which this substance was used Staphylococcus aureus. A very large number of
with emulsifiers on a woman brought to the hospital bites can cause anemia, especially in children.
with a diagnosis of scabies. It took effect shortly Within about 80 days from one flea, under favorable
after topical application. Tea tree oil is recognized conditions, millions of fleas can develop in the form
as a useful remedy [46] In addition, rosemary of eggs, larvae, pupae and adult insects. Depending
(Rosmarinus officinalis), camphor cinnamon on the species, one flea can lay 600–2000 eggs
(Cinnamomum camphor), or Curcuma longa are during its lifetime [50]. Fleas adversely affecting
used to treat scabies [46]. Demodex sp. is one of the their hosts. They are bothersome and difficult to
most common external parasites inhabiting humans. exterminate. They transmit serious diseases that can
It causes demodicosis, which is a disease where the even be fatal. Rickettsia typhi is a typhus bacterium
parasite attacks the hair follicles and the sebaceous and is transmitted primarily by rat and cat fleas.
glands. The use of tea tree oil (TTO) was used as a People get infected through feces and crushed flea
substance against Demodex, which attacks the bodies. Y. pestis causing the plague was not
eyelids of ophthalmic demodicosis patients. This discovered until 1894. This made it possible to
treatment showed that the use of tea tree oil scrub understand the link between hygiene, transmission
helped to reduce and even combat demodicosis in and disease. Old books mention plants that were
patients suffering from it [47]. In the fight against used to protect against infection, including common
demodicosis, drops are also used, which include juniper (Juniperus communis), healing angelica
plant extracts containing active ingredients such as: (Angelica archangelica) and saxifrage (Pimpinella
geraniol, eugenol, limonene [48]. In turn, plants saxifraga). To get rid of the source of the infection,
such as aloe, yarrow herb, angelica root, willow focus on eliminating fleas. The prevention of bites
bark and even olive oil produced from European of blood-sucking insect species relies heavily on the
olive are ingredients of medicines used to use of chemical repellants and pesticides. However,
counteract demodicosis and have anti-inflammatory their effectiveness is currently under threat due to
effects. Essential oils that have a lethal effect on the rapidly increasing levels of resistance in target
Demodex sp. are raw materials obtained from mint vectors. There are many examples of insect control
leaves, chia seeds, lavender leaves or eucalyptus strategies using natural products and herbal
leaves [49]. remedies. The anti-flea effect of lemon and
Human fleas (Pulex irritans) are ectoparasites of eucalyptus oil has been observed. Fleas also do not
the order Siphonaptera that live on the surface of like the smell of mint, fern leaves, rose petals and
the skin. They have a laterally flattened body, cloves, so it is worth helping them directly (e.g. by
chitinous armor, reach 1–4 millimeters, and do not spreading them on plates around the bed) or
have wings. They come in a variety of colors from indirectly (creating, for example, infusions). Plants
light to dark brown. Thanks to their jumping legs, vary in chemical content depending on soil
they can cover a distance of up to 1 meter. They nutrition, stress exposure, water availability, and
avoid light by hiding in their hair, hair or feathers. many other environmental conditions. Thus, it can
They appear on clothing and bedding. They feed on be dangerous to assume that all plants are the same
the blood of mainly birds and mammals, leaving an or „natural is safe” [50]. Linalool or linalool (3,7-
itchy trail resembling a mosquito bite after biting dimethyl-1,6-octadien-3-ol) is a compound
them. During the day, they can drink 20 times more extracted from many plants, including basil
The use phytotherapy 99

(Ocimum spp.) and lavender (Lavandula great threat to humans, and the known methods of
angustifolia) [51,52]. It is distinguished by a treatment do not always bring the expected results.
different smell, reminiscent of the aroma of lily of As a result, there is a high incidence of parasitic
the valley. This ingredient can be found in flea diseases, which were not only a medical problem,
preparations for dogs and cats. It acts on the nervous but also a social and economic one. Phytotherapy is
system, interferes with ion transport and the release therefore an alternative way of treating certain
of acetylcholine esterase [53]. Linalool has been parasitic diseases, as we presented in the above
found to be a strong allergic ingredient. A possible article. It involves the search for new plant
rash on the skin does not manifest itself under the medicines and the discovery of new therapeutic
influence of the direct action of this substance. It is applications of already known plants. Thus, the
the product of its decay that has such toxic activity of „herbal pharmaceuticals” has become the
properties. Linalool hydroxide, which may irritate subject of various studies, experiments and
and cause contact rash. Insects dislike tea tree oil analyzes. Research shows that the use of
(Melaleuca alternifolia). It brings relief from phytotherapy can be as effective as the use of
mosquito and flea bites. Its combination with other expensive pharmaceuticals, which is why it is used
essential oils is used to combat ectoparasites in pets more and more often.
and humans. It is enough to apply in the form of a
spray. The most active ingredients of the oil are References
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