CONTENTS

1. Introduction 1

2. Literature Review 3

3. Material And Methodology 05

3.1 Bricks/Masonry Components 05
3.2 Common Approaches Toward Green Concrete 06
3.3 Insulation Materials For Buildings 07

4. Application, Advantages And Disadvantages. 11

4.1 .Applications
4.2 Advantages.
4.3 Disadvantage

5. Conclusion 12
6. Reference 13
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No Figure Names Page No

Figure 3.1 Modern vertical shaft brick kiln (VSBK) kiln schematic diagram 05

Figure 3.2 Processes to produce sugarcane bagasse ash 06

Figure 3.3 Manufacturing process of the straw/magnesia composite 07

Figure 3.4 Reinforcement of hybrid polypropylene using rice husk and groundnut shells .
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Development of Construction Materials from Agro Waste

CHAPTER-1
1. INTRODUCTION:
A brief analysis of world population statistics highlights a steady increase in the human
population, rising from 6.8 billion in 2009 to the current 7.7 billion in 2019 and an estimated
9.7 billion by 2050 . On the one hand, the population increase directly indicates that health
and mortality rates are improving over time, thereby leading to population growth. On the
contrary, rising population levels also imply an increase in pressure levels exerted on
available social amenities such as housing. As the demand for housing increases
exponentially, this further strains the construction industry as well as the production of
conventional materials such as cement, steel, aluminum, and wood, among others, has further
argued that the production of the conventional construction materials such as cement also
utilizes significant thermal and electrical energy and, as a result, translates into higher
building costs.
Furthermore, such production processes account for a higher carbon footprint, polluting air,
land, and water. For instance, observe that the calcination process, employed in the
manufacture of cement, requires a temperature of up to 1450 °C and also releases about 0.85
tons of CO2 per 1 ton of cement produced. In a separate study, highlight that building in
France account for about 23.5% of pollution from greenhouse gases (GHG) due to the
utilization of conventional construction materials. In the same vein, have argued that
currently, the construction industry is not sustainable. These findings imply a need for more
scientific research to develop construction materials that are not only more sustainable and
environmentally friendly but also more affordable without compromising building quality.
On the flip side, research further reveals that the disposal of agricultural crop waste materials
such as sugarcane bagasse, wheat straw, coconut, and rice husks, among others, is also a
significant problem in developing nations.
For instance, in India, over 600 metric tonnes (MT) of waste was reported from agricultural-
based products alone , further observe that with the expansion of agricultural production in
the current decade, due to the intensification of farming systems, more agro-waste materials
are anticipated to be produced. Highlight that the most common strategies to manage such
agro-waste include dumping in landfills, incineration, and composting, which as a result
generate severe environmental concerns. Nonetheless, emerging research has shown that the

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re-use of agricultural waste and by-products in the development of construction materials,

either in part or wholly, is a viable and tentative solution to tackle the identified challenges.
Research also shows that re-using agro-based waste helps not only to tackle the pollution
problem brought about by the exploitation of conventional construction materials such as
cement but also the environmental concern of disposing of the waste in landfills. In an
illustrative study, researchers showed that using agricultural crop wastes such as peanut
shells, rice husks, rice straw, and coconut shells, as a partial replacement of sand in the
manufacture of cement blocks, generated blocks that adhered to ASTM standards in terms of
strength and durability features. Likewise, showed that the development of sustainable and
nontoxic construction materials by stabilizing soils using natural wheat and barley straw
fibers generated reinforced bricks with impressive thermal and static qualities. Other
researchers such as further illustrated that developing buildings using only straw bales and
soil led to the generation of more sustainable buildings. The researchers argued that this arose
due to the optimal features of the materials, such as low embodied energy and high thermal
performance. In this regard, the findings confirm that using agro-waste in developing
construction materials, either in whole or partly, helps tackle the sustainability challenge
while reducing pollution and adverse environmental effects.
In this review paper, a detailed examination of the use of agro-based waste in the production
of construction materials, both in part and wholly, is presented. A discussion of their
advantages and disadvantages over conventional construction materials is further undertaken
in order to identify possible research gaps for further development. The paper is organized
into five sections. The first examines the impact of the construction industry on
environmental sustainability. The second section outlines the novelty of the research where
the unique contribution of this research is identified. Several seminal review papers on the
research area are examined critically, in this section, in an effort to identify why this research
is necessary. The third expounds on the use of a different type of agrowaste in the
manufacture of diverse, sustainable construction materials, such as bricks, green concrete,
reinforcement materials, and bio-based plastics, among others. The fourth section further
explores the advantages and disadvantages of using the materials. The fifth section
undertakes a discussion on the different findings identified in the paper, while the sixth
section presents a conclusion.

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CHAPTER-2
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
This paper focus on Lignocellulose agricultural residues is unavoidably generated and is
mostly disposed by burning or burying which causes significant pollution. Using these
materials for value added applications can contribute to a greener environment. In this work,
two such agricultural residues namely, rice husk (RH) and groundnut shell (GNS) were used
without any treatment to prepare hybrid polypropylene (PP) biocomposites for green building
materials. The effects of % reinforcement on the thermal insulation, sound absorption,
aqueous stability, flame resistance along with mechanical properties were tested. The unique
wedge shaped morphology of rice husk and its low aspect ratio played a significant role in
influencing the properties of the composites. The composites possessed good tensile and
flexural strength (highest value of 15.6 MPa and 37.6 MPa respectively at the
20/60/20/RH/PP ratio). Thermal conductivity of the composites varied from 0.156-0.270
W/mK. The maximum sound absorption coefficient was 0.48.Flame retardancy of the
composites was on par with the commercially available gypsum based ceiling tiles. Water
absorption of the composites was about 85% lower than that of the gypsum tiles addressing a
major drawback of gypsum based ceiling tiles. The properties of the composites were
comparable to several other biocomposites reported as well. Vijaykumar Guna et al., [1]

This research involves use of small diameter whole-culm (bars) and/or split bamboo (a.k.a.
splints or round strips) has often been proposed as an alternative to relatively expensive
reinforcing steel in reinforced concrete. The motivation for such replacement is typically
cost—bamboo is readily available in many tropical and sub-tropical locations, whereas steel
reinforcement is relatively more expensive—and more recently, the drive to find more
sustainable alternatives in the construction industry. This review addresses such ‘bamboo-
reinforced concrete’ and assesses its structural and environmental performance as an
alternative to steel reinforced concrete. A prototype three bay portal frame, that would not be
uncommon in regions of the world where bamboo reinforced concrete may be considered, is
used to illustrate bamboo reinforced concrete design and as a basis for a life cycle assessment
of the same. The authors conclude that, although bamboo is a material with extraordinary
mechanical properties, its use in bamboo reinforced concrete is an ill-considered concept,

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having significant durability, strength and stiffness issues, and does not meet the
environmentally friendly credentials often attributed to it. Hector Archila et al., 2018 [2].
Concrete, as the world’s most implemented construction material, is increasingly being used
because of the rapid development of industrialization and urbanization. Limited resources and
progressive depravation of the environment are forcing scientific efforts to seek alternative
and effective materials from large amounts of natural resources as additives in the partial
replacement of cement. Cement is a main constituent of concrete. To solve and minimize
environmental issues, research works attempting to employ the wide availability of
agricultural wastes, such as sugar cane bagasse, rice husk, sugar cane straw, and palm oil
fuel, among others, into cement, and to finally bring sustainable and environmentally friendly
properties to concrete are being examined. Agro-waste materials are crushed into fine and
coarse aggregates or are burnt into ash, and are then mixed with cement, which is known as
agro-cement. The replacement of aggregates, either partially or fully, is also deemed as a
sustainable material in construction. This paper mainly reviews the current research on agro-
cement that has been researched and applied for the enhancement of the strength and
durability of concrete. It further summarizes the relevant knowledge and techniques, while
providing optimal parameters for applying agricultural wastes in concrete. Jing He et al.,
2020 [3]

The main objective of this study is to investigate the potential use of various solid wastes for
producing construction materials. The paper is based on the comprehensive review of
available literature on the construction materials including different kinds of solid wastes.
The traditional methods for producing construction materials are using the valuable natural
resources. Besides, the industrial and urban management systems are generating solid wastes,
and most often dumping them in open fields. These activities pose serious detrimental effects
on the environment. To safeguard the environment, many efforts are being made for the
recycling of different types of solid wastes with a view to utilizing them in the production of
various construction materials. This paper discusses the environmental implications caused
by the generation of various solid wastes, and highlights their recycling potentials and
possible use for producing construction materials. In addition, this paper shows the
applications of solid waste based construction materials in real construction, and identifies
the research needs. Md. Safiuddin et al., [4]

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CHAPTER-3
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Bricks/Masonry Components
Bricks as masonry components have been predominantly used in the construction industry
since the early centuries. Traditionally, the brick-making processes involve three fundamental
steps: mixing the raw materials (earth-based materials such as clay and water), brick molding
and drying, and finally, firing them to obtain appropriate strength. A significant shortcoming
of this brick production process results in the generation of substantial amounts of
greenhouse gases. Reveal that high pollution arises from brick kilns, which rely on coal
technology, being primarily used to fire the bricks. Interestingly, their research on why such
technology is still relied upon in Bangladesh reported that in most instances, brick buyers
preferred bricks made from such kilns as opposed to more modern ones due to their lower
costs. Similarly, kiln owners used them since they were able to generate a significant return
of investment.
A second disadvantage of the process stems from their excessive usage of non-renewable
Materials such as water and clay, thereby facilitating the depletion of natural resources. It is
important to invest in modern kilns to alleviate such issues in order to enhance the efficiency
of the carbonization process, thereby reducing emission levels. Gomes and Hossain highlight
the Hoffman Kiln (HK) and the vertical shaft brick kiln (VSBK) as two readily available
alternatives that have been observed to reduce emission levels by 42% and 29% respectively
as compared to the traditional bull’s trench kiln (BTK).

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Figure 3.1 Modern vertical shaft brick kiln (VSBK) kiln schematic diagram

3.2 Common Approaches toward Green Concrete

In addition to bricks, concrete is also highly used in the construction industry. Observe that
concrete comprises a mixture of cement, fine aggregate, and coarse aggregate, all of which
are derived from natural resources. Subsequently, as the demand for housing increases,
significant pressure is mounted on the non-renewable natural resources, thereby sparking
research on the use of alternative agro-waste materials to produce concrete. To begin with,
investigated the effect of replacing untreated sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) by a volume of
fine aggregate in concrete in ratios of 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40%. The water–cement ratio
was also maintained at 0.40, and the dose of the superplasticizer was maintained at 0.8%.
After that, the casted concrete specimens were cured under standard laboratory conditions
and tested for 7 days and 28 days for compressive strength, sorptivity test, and tensile
strength.
The findings obtained showed that with the compressive strength, a specimen that contained a
10% replacement of the SCBA demonstrated better results than those that had 0% SCBA.
Additionally, a further increase in SCBA led to a decrease in compressive strength and a
decline in the properties of fresh concrete. An increase in the strength of the mixes with
SCBA was recorded at longer time periods due to pozzolanic properties. Further tests also
showed that the tensile strength and sorptivity decreased as the level of SCBA was increased.
The results of the study have a significant economic implication, since they indicated that
SCBA could be used as a viable alternative to aggregates in concrete production. We have
also weighed on the issue, revealing that in India, about 10 million tons of sugarcane is
treated as waste, and as such, suitable conversion and application as construction materials
facilitate their disposal. Figure 1.2 below illustrates the conversion process from raw
sugarcane to bagasse and finally sugarcane bagasse ash.

Figure 3.2 Processes to produce sugarcane bagasse ash .

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The effect of partially replacing bagasse ash by the weight of cement in concrete production
in ratios of 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 25%. First, the researchers ground the bagasse ash until
particles could pass the 90 μm sieve, reaching the specific surface area of 4716 cm 2/gm. After
that, Portland cement was replaced by the ash at the specified ratios, and the water– cement
ratio was maintained at 0.42 while the cement content remained at 378 kg/m3 for the control
mix. Tests for the compressive strength, split tensile strength, and flexural strength was also
undertaken for cured concrete at 7, 21, and 90 days, respectively. Findings obtained showed
that the cement mix with 10% bagasse ash demonstrated the best results, such as higher
compressive and flexural strength after 90 days.
3.3 Insulation Materials for Buildings
The findings obtained showed that the linseed oil served as a flame retardant, and in effect,
the retarded treatment spread of the flame and further prevented the degradation of the
composite. Similarly, further analysis showed that barley-based composites demonstrated
delicate fire behaviour than wheat composite. The research implies that additional treatment
to natural fibers enhances their thermal properties such as flammability and thermal
degradation, and therefore, real-world applications should leverage on such insights in
insulating buildings. In separate research, also investigated the thermal and mechanical
properties of composites developed from rice straws, magnesium cement adhesive, and a
foaming agent. Similar to the composites were also treated. However, alkali (NaOH) rather
than linseed oil was used. An assessment of the straw properties and bonding between matrix
and straw was also undertaken.

Figure 3.3 Manufacturing process of the straw/magnesia composite.

The findings obtained showed that the mechanical properties of the composite attained

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Maximum value when the straw was mixed with 3% NaOH for 150 min. Furthermore,
compared to other composites, the developed composite was lighter, non-flammable, and
provided heat insulation. The research is vital, as it confirms the findings that the treatment of
composites manufactured using agro-wastes such as rice, wheat, or barley straws enhances
their thermal and mechanical features.
Other researchers expanded the research by investigating the impact of adding other
agrowastes to the cement/straw composites. For instance, investigated the use of Sphagnum
moss as a fibre in thermal insulation panels. In the study, several compositions were
developed for thermal insulation boards based on rye straw, reed, and moss, while using
liquid glass binder. The composites were further assessed for thermal conductivity and
physical properties such as compressive strength and bending. The findings obtained showed
that optimal results were obtained for insulation panels that combined moss and straw fibers.
Good thermal conductivity of 0.044 to 0.046 W/mK and a density of 156–190 kg/m3 were
recorded. Similarly, compression strength between 0.20 and 0.21 MPa was also obtained
without any shrinking during the drying process.
Similar sentiments were also echoed, who developed eco-friendly composites by mixing a
gypsum matrix with two natural fibers: cardboard and cork waste. The findings obtained
showed that mixing the two composites with the gypsum Materials 2020, 13, 262 15 of 29
building material enhanced the insulation capacity. Likewise, the paper fiber enhanced the
compression property of the composite. In a further study, investigated the thermal
conductivity and mechanical properties of konjac glucomannan (KGM)/starch-based aerogel
enhanced by wheat straw. The wheat straw and starch were added to enhance the physical
properties of the aerogel, such as the distribution of pore sizes and mechanical strength.
The findings obtained showed that adding starch and wheat straw enhanced the mechanical
strength of the composites, whereas wheat straw decreased the pore sizes of the aerogel.
Additionally, the optimized aerogel composite was observed to demonstrate low thermal
conductivity at 0.046 Wm-1K-1, excellent thermal stability, a compression modulus of 67.5
kPa, and an elasticity of 0.27. The results reveal that building insulation materials can be
enhanced further by incorporating additional agro-waste such as moss fibers, starch, or
cardboard. Directly, this suggests that practitioners in the building industry are presented with
several alternatives to enhance the sustainability of thermal insulation building materials—on
the one hand, treatment using alkalis such as NaOH or linseed oil enhances their thermal
features, while on the other, adding other agro-waste materials to the composites also
achieves similar qualities.

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In a different study, investigated the mechanical and morphological properties of carbonized

maize stalk used to reinforce polyester composites in the manufacture of eco-friendly
composites. The carbonized maize stalk ash particles (MSAps) were added in four separate
ratios— 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%—and the composite samples produced were analyzed in
order to assess the impact of the different ratios. The findings obtained showed that an
increase in the maize stalk ash particles resulted in a commensurate increase in the tensile
strength, compressive strength, and tensile modulus of the composites. However, the impact
strength decreased gradually. The results implied that MSAps could be used to enhance the
polymer matrix composites used in building and automobile applications. Further
investigated the use of fiber to reinforce geopolymer composites due to their poor tensile and
bending strengths, which resulted in their brittle and ceramic nature. The findings obtained
also showed that both organic and inorganic fibers enhanced the flexural strength of the
geopolymers.
The geopolymers were also observed to increase their toughness. In a separate study,
investigated the reinforcement of a polymeric matrix by utilizing untreated natural fibers
based on PLA and pine resin added at three different ratios: 5%, 7.5%, and 10%. The
morphological and thermal characteristics of the fiber were further evaluated. The findings
showed that there was an increase in the flexural strength of composites that had natural
fibers added as compared to those that excluded them and also comparatively investigated the
possibility of using waste tire composites reinforced with rice straw as composite
construction materials. In the study, two types of panel insulation boards were manufactured:
wood-particle based and composite boards made by mixing agricultural lignocellulosic fiber
(rice straw) waste tire particles at parameters of specific gravity of 0.8 and rice straw content
in ratios of 10/90, 20/80, and 30/70 by weight of the rice straw in the insulation boards.
Polyurethane adhesive for rubber was used as the composite binder.
The findings obtained showed that the composite boards reinforced by the rice straw wastes
demonstrated better water absorption, waterproof qualities, and thickness swelling than the
wood particleboard. The composite boards were also more superior to the wood-based and
had good acoustical insulation, anti-rot, anti-caustic, and electrical insulation features.
Similarly, the research showed that the composite boards could be used as an adequate
replacement for insulation boards and other flexural construction materials due to their
excellent qualities in preventing impact damage, their inexpensiveness, and ease of
modification. A side-by-side assessment of the findings highlights two critical findings.

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First, agro-waste materials could be used in reinforcement applications in their natural form,
for instance, bamboo in cementitious applications. Secondly, the agro-waste materials could
be treated or used in chemical admixtures in reinforcing biocomposites, thereby suggesting
that treating the agro-waste was necessary before utilizing them in reinforcement
applications. Nevertheless, a confluence observed with the different studies was that the
building materials developed demonstrated excellent properties, which were comparable with
other conventional materials

Figure 3.4 Reinforcement of hybrid polypropylene using rice husk and groundnut shells

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CHAPTER-4
4 APPLICATION, ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
4.1 Applications

4.2 Advantages
 Reusing agro waste for construction material will reduce the disposed to the
environment
 It reduces the burning of agro waste in agriculture field will avoid the global warming
 Eco friendly material
 Agro-waste materials are reused as alternatives to conventional building materials
such as cement or sand aggregates, less non-renewable resources are exploited to
facilitate production processes.

4.3 Disadvantages
 Groundnut shells as a replacement of aggregate could not be utilized in heavy
structural applications due to their lower compressive strength
 The bricks generated from agro waste were light weight, and as such, they were only
suitable for some structural applications
 Need for high expertise in their manufacture
 Highly skilled labor in developing the materials
 It require pre-treatments are costly and require time

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CHAPTER -5
5. CONCLUSION
 In this paper the author has examined the utilization of agro-waste materials in the
production of sustainable construction materials.
 A comprehensive review of different research studies showed that the integration of
natural organic waste from agricultural processes such as sugarcane bagasse, rice
husks, and groundnut shells among others in the manufacture of different construction
materials improved their overall physico-mechanical and thermal qualities and also
enhanced their sustainability properties by reducing costs and boosting environmental
conservation.
 Furthermore, the findings also showed that higher durability advantages also emerged
from the use of agro-waste-based construction materials

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REFERENCES
1. Kazmi. S, Abbas. S, Munir. M, Khitab. A: Exploratory study on the effect of waste
rice husk and sugarcane bagasse ashes in burnt clay bricks. J. Build. Eng. 2016, 7,
372–378.
2. Rao. M, Prabath. N: Green Concrete using Agro Industrial Waste (Sugarcane Bagasse
ASH). Int. J. Soft Comput. Eng. (IJSCE) 2015, 5, 86–92.
3. Belayachi. N, Hoxha. D, Ismail. B. Impact of fiber treatment on the fire reaction and
thermal degradation of building insulation straw composite. Energy Procedia 2017,
139, 544–549.
4. Hassan. S, Oghenevweta. J, Aigbodion. V. Morphological and mechanical properties
of carbonized waste maize stalk as reinforcement for eco-composites. Compos. Part B
Eng. 2012, 43, 2230–2236.
5. Hector Archila,Sebastian Kaminski, David Trujillo,Edwin Zea Escamilla,Kent A.
Harries:Bamboo reinforced concrete: a critical review, Materials and Structures
(2018) 51:102.
6. Md. Safiuddin1, Mohd Zamin Jumaat, M. A. Salam, M. S. Islam and R. Hashim:
Utilization of solid wastes in construction materials, International Journal of the
Physical Sciences (2010), Vol. 5(13), pp. 1952-1963.

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