ETHICS REVIEWER – MIDTERM

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION 5. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations.

Ethics 6. Moral standards are associated with special emotions
and vocabulary.
- explain what we mean by morality and moral terms
such as “good”, “right”, “wrong”, etc., and also explain
what moral standards we should adopt. Dilemma
- focus of ethics is indeed the notion of right and wrong,
but what it attempts to explain is why people make - Involve conflicts between moral requirements.
certain moral decisions, how we create moral systems - It is a situation that challenges an agreeable solution.
which tell us how to act.
Morality Cephalus defines ‘justice’ as speaking the truth and paying
- a set of rules to obey and principles to follow. one’s debts.
- the standards that a person or a group has about what Socrates quickly refutes this account by suggesting that it would
is right and wrong, or good and evil.
be wrong to repay certain debts.
A. Moral Standards Jean-Paul Sartre described a moral conflict the resolution of
• involve the rules people have about the kinds which was, to many, less obvious than the resolution to the
of actions they believe are morally right and Platonic conflict.
wrong.
• the values they place on the kinds of objects Moral Dilemma - having moral reasons to do each of two
they believe are morally good and morally actions, but doing both actions is not possible.
bad.
• Ex. Moral values and Moral principles
B. Non-moral Standards Common Types of Dilemmas
• rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical 1. Classic Dilemma
considerations. • choice between two or more alternatives, in
• Either these standards are not necessarily which the outcomes are equally undesirable,
linked to morality or by nature lack ethical or equally favorable.
sense. • The dilemma does not typically involve a
• Ex. rules of etiquette, fashion standards, rules moral or ethical crisis, but the person or
in games, and various house rules. character’s life may change as a result of their
decision.
6 Characteristic of Moral Standards • More than simple choices, because they
1. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant usually prompt the person to think about the
benefits. outcomes of the choices.
2. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values. • Ex. Deciding where to go for dinner on a
3. Moral standards are not established by authority first date
figures. Uncertainty about which job offer to take
4. Moral standards have the trait of universalizability.
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2. Ethical Dilemmas ship. A decision must be made as to who will

• when a person is forced to decide between stay behind.
two morally sound options, but they may
conflict with the established boundaries of a
business, a governmental agency, or the law.
• may involve following the truth versus being
loyal to a friend; following the laws or rules Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas
versus having compassion for an individual’s 1. Individual Level
plight; and concerns about an individual • moral dilemma at a personal level.
person versus the larger impact on a • One is torn between choosing between the
community lesser of two evils: this is referred to as moral
• Ex. A secretary discovers her boss has dilemma.
been laundering money, and she must decide • Example: An unemployed mother may be
whether or not to turn him in. conflicted between wanting to feed her hungry
While responding to a domestic child, and then recognizing that it would be
violence call, a police officer finds out that the wrong for her to steal. Another example is a
assailant is the brother of the police chief, and son may be torn between choosing to
the police chief tells the officer to “make it go terminate or prolong the life of a comatose
away”. family member.

3. Moral Dilemmas 2. Corporate or Organizational

• a situation in which a person is torn between • known as ethical dilemma at an
right and wrong. organizational/company/corporate level.
• A moral dilemma involves a conflict with the • At an organizational level, judgment could be
very core of a person’s principles and values. affected by what guides their values in terms
• The choice the person makes may leave them of what is seen as being accepted by the
feeling burdened, guilty, relieved, or organizations and the professions they are in.
questioning their values. • Example: An organization may have to
• A moral dilemma often forces the individual to choose between complying with the wage law
decide which option he or she can live with, by cutting its workforce or by retaining its
but any outcomes are extremely unpleasant current workforce by paying them below the
no matter what. required minimum wage.
• Ex. The classic “lifeboat dilemma”,
where there are only 10 spaces in the lifeboat, 3. Systemic Level
but there are 11 passengers on the sinking
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• ethical dilemma where the larger society or - Culture reflects the moral and ethical beliefs and
the government or maybe the whole country standards that speak to how people should behave and
is involved interact with others.
• Example 1: The legislators of the Philippine
Congress are confronted with the issue of Cultural Relativism
either passing or rejecting the divorce bill.
- different societies and their cultures makes us aware
• Example 2: The universal health care that there are ways of thinking and valuing that are
different from our own, that there is in fact a wide
diversity of how different people believe it is proper to
act.
- Therefore, what is ethically acceptable or
unacceptable is relative to, or that is to say, dependent
FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM-RESPONSIBILITY
on one’s culture.
FOR ONE’S ACT AND TO OTHERS - the position that claims there is no such thing as
Mahatma Gandhi - “Freedom is not worth having if it does not objective truth in the realm of morality (Rachels)
include the freedom to make mistakes.”
Brief restatement of some of James Rechels criticism of
Immanuel Kant said that in order to make a moral decision we cultural relativism:
must have freedom. 1. The argument of cultural relativism is premised on
John Locke who was also a soft determinist as he believed that the reality of difference.
morality and the ability to make moral decisions developed
throughout your lives. - different cultures have different moral codes, we
cannot say that any one moral code is the right one.
Locke believed that the mind was a tabula rasa, a
blank slate that is shaped and filled by the person's life 2. We are in no position to render any kind of
experience and that ultimately creates a person's morality. judgment on the practices of another culture.

3. We realize that we are in no position to render

judgment on the practices of even our own culture.
David Hume who believed in a limited form of free will, he
ultimately believed that nature was in control of human destiny
St. Ambrose - “when in Rome, do as Romans do”

LESSON 2: CULTURE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR (NOTE: READ William Graham Sumner - The “right” way is the way which the
MODULE 2 FOR BETTER UNDERSTANDING) ancestors used and which has been handed down... The notion
of right is in the folkways.
Culture

- A collective way of life, or way of doing things.

- It is the sum of attitudes, values, goals, and practices Cultural Relativism says, in effect, that there is no such thing
shared by individuals in a group, organization, or
as universal truth in ethics; there are only the various cultural
society.
- Vary over time periods, between countries and codes, and nothing more.

geographic regions, and among groups and

organizations. Cultural Relativism challenges our belief in the objectivity
and universality of moral truth.
1. Different societies have different moral codes.
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2. The moral code of a society determines what is right within 1. Acceptance 2. Assertiveness
The act of accepting Disposed to or characterized
that society; that is, if the moral code of a society says that a
something or someone. by bold or confident
certain action is right, then that action is right, at least within that Complements: statements and behavior.
Contentment, Forgiveness Complements: Confidence,
society.
Transcends: Denial, Courage
3. There is no objective standard that can be used to judge one Rejection Transcends: Self-doubt,
Shyness
society’s code as better than another’s. There are no moral
3. Authenticity 4. Caring
truths that hold for all people at all times. True to one’s own Feeling or showing concern
4. The moral code of our own society has no special status; it is personality, spirit, or for other people.
character. Complements: Compassion
but one among many. Complements: Honesty, , Kindness
5. It is arrogant for us to judge other cultures. We should always Integrity Transcends: Cruelty,
Transcends: Low self- Insensitivity
be tolerant of them. esteem
5. Commitment 6. Compassion
An agreement or pledge to Sympathetic consciousness
Cultural Relativism holds that the norms of a culture reign do something in the future. of others’ distresses together
supreme within the bounds of the culture itself. Complements: Loyalty, with a desire to alleviate it.
Perseverance Complements: Caring,
Transcends: Lack of Understanding
Consequences if we took seriously the passage quoted by Direction Transcends: Grief,
Judgment
William Graham Sumner 7. Contentment 8. Courage
1. We could no longer say that the customs of other The state of being happy and Mental or moral strength to
satisfied. venture, persevere, and
societies are morally inferior to our own Complements: Fulfillment, withstand danger, fear, or
2. We could no longer criticize the code of our own Joy difficulty.
Transcends: Dissatisfaction Complements: Boldness,
society. , Restlessness Confidence
3. The idea of moral progress is called into doubt. Transcends: Fear, Self-
doubt
• Progress means replacing the old ways with new
and improved ways. 9. Determination 10. Dignity
A quality that makes you A way of appearing or
continue trying to do or behaving that suggests
LESSON 3: DEVELOPING VIRTUE AS A HABIT achieve something that is seriousness and self-
Virtues difficult. control.
Complements: Commitment Complements: Honor,
- universal and recognized by all cultures as basic , Tenaciousness Respect
Transcends: Complacency Transcends: Egoism,
qualities of well-being.
Selfishness
- the moral excellence of a person. 11. Excellence 12. Fairness
Extremely high quality. Treating people in a way
- trait or quality that is deemed to be morally good and Complements: Dignity, that does not favor some
thus is valued as a foundation of principle and good Honor, Integrity, Respect over others.
Transcends: Mediocrity Complements: Equality,
moral being. Justice
- a behavior that shows high moral standards Transcends: Grievance,
Injustice

LIST OF VIRTUES
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13. Flexibility 14. Generosity Resilience

Willing to change or to try The quality of being kind, Transcends: Laziness
different things. understanding, and not
Complements: Detachment, selfish; the quality of being
Understanding generous.
Transcends: Stubbornness Complements: Kindness, 27. Reverence 28. Self-discipline
Service Honor or respect that is felt Correction or regulation of
Transcends: Stinginess, for or shown to (someone or oneself for the sake of
Self-centered something). improvement.
15. Gratitude 16. Honesty Complements: Respect, Complements: Commitme
A feeling of appreciation or The quality of being fair and Worth nt, Determination
thanks. truthful. Transcends: Hatred Transcends: Chaos,
Complements: Hope, Joy, Complements: Integrity, Unruliness
Peace Truthfulness 29. Temperate 30. Tolerance
Transcends: Disappointmen Transcends: Deceitfulness Habitual moderation in the Capacity to endure pain or
t, Pain indulgence of the appetites hardship; sympathy or
or passions. indulgence for beliefs or
17. Honor 18. Humility
Respect that is given to The quality or state of not Complements: Moderation practices differing from or
someone who is admired. thinking you are better than Transcends: Excessive conflicting with one’s own.
Complements: Dignity, other people. Complements: Patience,
Respect Complements: Modesty Tenacious
Transcends: Shame Transcends: Arrogance, Transcends: Narrow-
Pride mindedness
19. Integrity 20. Justice 31. Understanding 32. Wisdom
Firm adherence to a code of The process or result of An agreement of opinion or Accumulated philosophic or
especially moral or artistic using laws to fairly judge feeling; adjustment of scientific learning;
values; the quality or state of and punish crimes and differences. knowledge.
Complements: Kindness, Complements: Idealism,
being complete or undivided. criminals.
Complements: Honesty, Complements: Fairness, Tolerance Visionary
Trust Integrity Transcends: Egoism Transcends: Lack of
Transcends: Corruption, Transcends: Discriminatio Intelligence
Deceitfulness n
21. Kindness 22. Loyalty
The quality or state of being The quality or state of being
kind; a kind act. loyal. ARISTOTLE’S GOLDEN MEAN
Complements: Caring, Complements: Honesty, - Aristotle believed that being morally good meant
Compassionate Trust
Transcends: Cruelty, Transcends: Betrayal striking a balance between two vices. You could have
Loneliness a vice of excess or one of deficiency.
23. Modesty 24. Optimistic
The quality of not being too Having or showing hope for Golden Mean - a sliding scale for determining what is virtuous
proud or confident about the future; expecting good - a means of assisting a person in practicing good
yourself or your abilities. things to happen.
Complements: Humility Complements: Hope, character as they strive to make it second in nature.
Transcends: Self- Joyfulness
importance Transcends: Pessimism
25. Patience 26. Perseverance Example:
The ability to wait for a long Continued effort to do or Sphere of
time without becoming achieve something despite Deficiency Mean
feeling or Excess (Vice)
annoyed or upset. difficulties, failure, or (Vice) (Virtue)
action
Complements: Determinatio opposition. Rashness
n, Peace Complements: Commitme Fear and
Cowardice Courage (recklessness,
Transcends: Frustration nt, Determination, confidence
foolishness)
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• plays an active role in the moral development

Moral Character of children
- evaluation of an individual's stable moral qualities. • Congenial environment in the family is
- It distinguishes one individual from another. conducive to moral development.
- “Character” from Ancient Greek word: "charaktêr"; • Lower class parents tend to place greater
meaning: a mark impressed upon a coin. emphasis on conformity to external authority.
- "a disposition to express behavior in consistent The middle-class parents emphasize internal
patterns of functions across a range of regulation of behavior.
situations". Similarly, the philosopher Marie I. George • The child rearing practices also effect the
refers to moral character as the “sum of one’s moral conscience development. The love-oriented
habits and dispositions.” - Psychologist Lawrence practices in child rearing are more effective in
Pervin conscience development
2. School
• fountain head of social and moral virtues
Two Approaches in dealing with MC • plays an important role in moral development
1. Normative ethics of students.
• involve moral standards that exhibit right and 3. Neighborhood
wrong conduct. • Presence of the houses of drunkards, dacoits,
• It is a test of proper behavior and determining gamblers and prostitutes negatively
what is right and wrong. influences moral development.
2. Applied ethics 4. Religious Institutions
• involve specific and controversial issues • regarded as primary social and moral
along with a moral choice, and tend to involve institutions.
situations where people are either for or • Religion is of dominant influence in
against the issue. determining social and moral attitudes and
moral functioning.
Moral Development - is one of the most significant aspects of 5. Club and Camp Experience
the personality development • useful in the development of valuable social
- behavior arises not due to ignorance of social and moral qualities.
expectations, but due to intentional disapproval of 6. Playmates and Friends
social standards or lack of feelings of obligation to • have vital influence in the moral development
conform. of the child.
7. Culture
FACTORS INFLUENCING MORAL DEVELOPMENT • The existing cultural environment exerts a
1. Family powerful influence in the moral development.
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• Social traditions, customs, values and norms - stage in which older children, adolescents, and young
are unwritten laws that the child has to follow. adults learn to conform to the expectations of society.
8. Community - This is the time when one learns to follow the
• a potent factor in moral development. conventions of her group.

STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT Two Stages (the third and fourth stages of moral
American moral psychologist Lawrence Kolberg (1927-1987) development)
who theorized that moral development happens in six stages, 1. Interpersonal Concordance
which he divided into three levels. • Being good is what pleases others.
• The child adopts a conformist attitude to
First Level: Pre-conventional morality.
- Up tp age 9 2. Law and Order orientation
- it corresponds to how infants and young children think. • Being good now means doing your duty to
- reasoning is centered on the consequences of one’s society.
actions. • A person realizes that following the dictates of
her society is not just good for herself but
Two Stages more importantly, it is necessary for the
1. Obedience and Punishment existence of society itself.
• This is an elementary state of mind of the • Most adults do not progress past this stage.
child who tries to follow the best way in his/her
own realm. Third Level (Highest Level): Post-conventional
• an action is “good” if it enables one to escape - 10 to 15% of the over 20s
from punishment; “bad” if it leads to - it is a question of understanding personally what ought
punishment. to do and deciding, using one’s free will, to act
accordingly.
2. Instrumental and Relativist
• Learns to act according to what she thinks will Two Stages (fifth and sixth)
serve her self-interest. 1. Social Contract
• what is “good” at this stage is what the child • Right and wrong are now determined by
thinks can bring her pleasure. personal values, although these can be over-
• right and wrong is now determined by what ridden by democratically agreed laws.
we are rewarded for, and by doing what • Moral maturity therefore is seen
others want.

2. Universal Ethical Principle

Second Level: Conventional
- most adolescents & adults.
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• We can now live in accordance with deeply ➢ The morally right thing to do is
held moral principles which are seen as more always the thing best supported by
important than the laws of the land. the arguments.
➢ Moral judgments are different from
LESSON 4: THE ACT expressions of personal taste.
A. Feelings in Moral Deliberation o There is a need for reasons
• Emotions or feelings have long been in moral judgements, while
decided by purely rationalistic perspectives in preferences, it doesn’t
as having no place in a properly executed need any.
moral decision. • The Requirement of Impartiality
• Aristotle precisely points out that moral virtue ➢ Impartiality is the idea that each
goes beyond the mere act of intellectually individual’s interests are equally
identifying the right thing to do. Instead, it is important - no one should get special
the condition of one’s character by which an treatment.
agent is able to manage her emotions or ➢ Impartiality requires that we not treat
feelings. the members of particular groups as
• Our emotions are, as much as reason itself, inferior, and thus it condemns forms
part of what makes one a human being. of discrimination like sexism and
racism.
B. Minimum Requirement for Morality: Reason and ➢ Impartiality is closely connected with
Impartiality the idea that moral judgments must
• Moral judgments must be backed by good be backed by good reasons.
reasons. ➢ It forbids treating one person worse

• Morality requires the impartial consideration than another when there is no good

of each individual interest. reason to do so.

• Moral Reasoning
➢ Our feelings may be irrational; they The Minimum Conception of Morality

may be nothing but the product of • Morality is, at the very least, the effort to guide

prejudice, selfishness, or cultural one’s conduct by reason---that is, to do what

conditioning. there are the best reasons for doing---while

➢ Essence of morality: if we want to giving actual weight to the interests of each

discover the truth, we must let our individual affected by one’s decision.

feelings be guided as much as • Conscientious moral agent

possible by reason. ➢ someone who is concerned
impartially with the interests of
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everyone affected by what he or she

does
➢ who carefully examines facts and
their implications
➢ who accepts principles of conduct
only after scrutinizing them to make
sure they are justified
➢ who is willing to “listen to reason’’
even when it means revising prior
convictions
➢ who, finally, is willing to act on the
results of this deliberation.