GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS

What are genes?

All living things, plants and animals are made up of cells. Inside each cell there is a
nucleus. The nucleus contains x -shaped structures called chromosomes. Chromosomes
are made up of long strands or threads called deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA in short.

Genes determine the specific characteristics of any living organisms for example its
shape, height, color and even how venerable or restraint it is to certain diseases and
weather conditions.

GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANSIMS

Genetically modified organisms are those genes have that been alerted using genetic
engineering technology to enhance a desired trait or characteristic.

The process of altering the genes of organisms is known as genetic engineering.

Genetically modified organisms are sometimes called transgenic organisms because the
organisms are repeated by transferring genes or part of a gene from the one organism to
another.

Plants and animals have been genetically modified for different reasons:

Animals

Several animals species have been genetically modified. These include fish, chicken,
mice, rats, rabbits, cats, dogs, goats, pigs, cows and oxen. However, the most commonly
genetically modified animal is the mouse because many scientists use it for research and
experiments.
Cattle, sheep, goats, chickens, rabbits and pigs have been genetically modified with the
aim of using them to produce medicines that are useful to people. Some fish have been
genetically modified to glow in the dark and are sold as pets.

Crop Plants

Many different crop plats have been genetically modified. For example, cotton rape seed,
tobacco, sunflower, maize, Soya beans tomatoes and potatoes have been genetically
modified for different reasons. Some crops have been genetically modified to resist
certain plant diseases, others to produce higher yields to improve quality of the products,
to extend the period which they stay fresh or to withstand extreme cold or hot weather.

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Countries that grow genetically modified crops include Argentina, Australia Canada
China, Germany, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Portugal, South Africa and USA. The most
common genetically modified crops that are grown in the world are Soya beans maize,
rapeseed and cotton.

THE POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS

1. Enhanced Nutrition

Through genetic engineering, the nutritional value of some food can be improved.
Genetic engineering can be used to introduce proteins, vitamins some other nutrients
which do not exits naturally in a particular food. For example, genetically modified rice
known as the golden rice, has high level of vitamin A. This can prevent conditions caused
by vitamin A deficiency in people whose staple food is rice.

2. Better quality food

GMO vegetables and fruits can stay in longer in shelves before they rot. This can help
reduce the amount of food that goes to waste. Vegetables, fruits, chickens, beef and diary
cattle could be engineered to taste better.

3. Increase agriculture yields

Genetic modification of crops and livestock to produce higher yields without increasing
the amount of land used for farming can help increase food supply as well as help make
farming more profitable. Increasing food supply is particularly important because the
population of the world is increasing rapidly

4. Environmental protection

Pants that are genetically to be disease and pest resistant can allow people reduce the
amount of pesticides and herbicides they use, some of which pollute the environment.
Some crop plants could be genetically modified so that they grow without the need for
artificial fertilizers. The use of artificial fertilizers contributes to pollution of sources of
water such as rivers, lakes and dams. Reducing the need to use pesticides, herbicides and
artificial fertilizers, would not only save money but it would also protect the
environment.

5. Plants and animals can thrive in new different environments

Some plants could be made to grow in salty water or using little water. This would enable
countries with limited fresh water to grow different kinds of crops. Some plants can be to
make to resist cold temperatures. Farmers would be able to grow such crops in winter and
the plants would not be damaged by frost. Animals could be engineered to be brought to
drought resistant. This would be good for people who live in countries that experience
frequents drought. Many of their animals may be able to survive the drought.

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6. Production of drugs for human use

Genetically modified plants and animals can be used to produce medicines that are
useful to people. currently people benefit from drugs produced using genetically modified
organisms such as bacteria , for example human insulin which treats diabetes , a clotting
factor which treats hemophilia , a human growth which treats dwarfism and hepatitis B
vaccine.

THE POTENTIAL DANGERS OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS

Threats to human health

Nobody knows for sure what effects eating foods produced from genetically modified
crops most of the time will have on people’s health.
Some companies use antibiotic resistant as markers that show genes with a desired trait
has been successfully transferred to the host of organisms. The danger is that, people who
eat plants and animals with gene, may become resistant to antibiotics. This would then
make it difficult to cure infections diseases which are treated with antibiotics.

GMO foods may threaten the health of people with food allergies because they may
unknowingly eat genetically modified foods which have genes of food which have genes
of food they are allergic to. For example, if nut genes re transferred into Soya beans
people who are allergic to nuts can get an allergic reaction when they eat Soya beans
products.

Genetically modifying plants and animals can increase the levels of toxins in them. This
would make plants and animals which were safe to eat, unsafe for human consumption.

Environmental dangers

Genes introduced in some crops to make them resistant may be transferred to some wed
plants. This may then result in weeds that are resistant to herbicides.

Some crop plants have been genetically modified so that they produce toxins tat keep
away pets that normally attack such plants. The potential danger is that with time the
pests may become resistant to the pesticide produced by the genetically modified plant.

Once genetically modified organisms have been released into the environment, nobody
knows for sure what impact they would have on non-genetically modified organisms.

Socio – economic dangers

The socio economic dangers associated with the environment and use of genetically
modified plants and plants and animals include:

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Farmers losing access to seeds

Some commercial seed companies have been genetically modify crop plants to make
them sterile so that they no longer produce seeds which can be gathered and planted to
grow new crops. This is a threat to poor substinence farmers who would not be able to
afford to buy seeds every year and the ability of developing countries to achieve food
security.

Bio piracy

Bio piracy involves private companies and scientists who collect plats and animals from
other countries, genetically modify them and then claim exclusive ownership rights to
these plants or animals. Once copy right is claimed over these natural resources , any one
who needs to use them has to seek permission and pay for their use, bio piracy threatens
peoples rights to use what is naturally available for them, and have freely shared and
used for thousand of years.

SOME MORAL ISSUES ARISING FROM THE DEVELOPMENT AND USE OF

GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS

Should genetically modified crops and food products be clearly labelled as being
genetically modified?

Some people argue that there is no need to label food containing genetically modified
products because such food is not different from non genetically modified food. Other
argue that people have a right to chose whether or not they want to use or eat genetically
modified crops or food products. The use of GMO’s without proper labels and
information is considered a violation of the rights of consumers.

Is it morally right to tamper with nature?

Supporters of genetic engineering do not see anything wrong with tampering with nature
as long as it benefits people. The benefits of genetic engineering overweigh the need to
preserve nature. Some opponents of genetic engineering believe that is unnatural and
morally wrong because scientists are crossing genes from different spices.

Is it morally right to develop and use GMO’s when we do not know for certain the
negative consequences of using such organisms?

Some people argue that the dangers of developing and using genetically modified crops
are exaggerated. Opponents of genetic engineering argue that it s morally wrong to
continue developing genetically modified organisms when no one knows for sure how
the environment and people will be affected by such organisms.

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Is it morally right to sterilize crops so that farmers are forced to buy and grow
genetically modified seeds?

People who support genetic engineering argue that genetically modified

crops give farmers the best chance to end or to greatly reduce hunger, illness and
conditions caused by malnutrition. Opponents of genetic engineering argue that forcing
farmers to grow genetically modified seeds is an unfair way of enriching companies that
hold ownership rights of genetically modified seeds

Does genetic engineering violate rights of animals?

Some people argue that genetically modifying animal’s violates the animal the live a life
free from human interference. Other argues that the benefits genetic engineering justify
the violation of any rights animals may have.

Is genetic engineering not widening the gap between rich and poor countries?

Some people argue that increased yields from genetically modified crops can help to fight
world hunger. This would help them to narrow the gap between the rich and the poor.
Others argue that at the moment most GMOs are developed and owned by companies in
rich developed countries and exported to poor developing countries. Developing
countries are often left with no choice but to buy genetically modified products and pay
for the ownership rights of some genetic resources.

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CLONING

Cloning is a biological process of creating an organism that is a genetic copy an original

or parent organisms.

Types of cloning

The types of cloning that most people discuss nowadays are reproductive and
therapeutic cloning.

Reproductive cloning

Normally, sexual reproduction involves the merging of two sets of genes, one set from a
male and the other set from a female to produce a new offspring. The offspring therefore
contains genetic information from each parent.
In reproductive cloning, all the genetic information comes from one parent or original
organisms and the offspring has a genetic makeup that is identical to that parent or
organism. The offspring is a copy or identical twin of the parent.
The first mammal to be successfully cloned was a sheep called Dolly in 1996.

Therapeutic cloning

This involves cloning cells for use to cure certain disease in humans and for scientific
research. The potential use of therapeutic cloning in humans is a controversial issue
because it involves the use of stem cells. In 1998 scientists discovered that human
embryos at the blastocyst stage (4-5 days after fertilization), contained special cells called
stem cells. Stem cells have the potential to grow into any human body tissue or organ.
Scientists believe that stem cells can be used to cure certain diseases or to grow organs
and tissues to replace damaged ones. However, to get the stem cells the embryo has to be
destroyed.

Reasons for cloning

1. To mass produce plants and animals which have desired qualities, such as resistance to
certain diseases and pests
2. To replace deceased favourite pet.
3 To find cures for human diseases and conditions
4. To reproduce endangered or extinct plant and animal species.

Even though no human being has been cloned yet and many countries have made it
illegal, some people give the following reasons to justify why cloning of people may be
necessary.
 Reproductive cloning could help infertile couples to have children.
 Families can clone their dead children and other relatives.

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ETHICAL ISSUES OF CLONING

The development of reproductive and therapeutic cloning technologies, have raised many
ethical issues. Ethical issues of cloning make us think about the moral rights and wrongs
of cloning. Below are some of the ethical issues that arise from cloning

1. The dignity of human beings

Cloning would create individuals who do not have their own genetic identity. A clone
would be a genetic copy of another person. They would not be unique individuals.

Human clones may start being produced so that they could donate their organs, such as
livers, bone marrow, and kidneys to the people they were cloned from. Such clones
would not be valued as individuals but simply as a source of spare organs.

Using another person as means to an end is a way of undermining the dignity and rights
of the person. Human beings should not be sacrificed for any purpose and therefore the
destruction of embryos for therapeutic purposes can never be morally justifiable.

People who support human cloning argue that human cloning would not undermine
human dignity because a clone is like a delayed identical twin. He or she may have the
same genes as the original but would still be a different person.

The value of human life and the rights of human embryos

In therapeutic cloning, embryos are destroyed in order to harvest stem cells. Some people
believe tat life begins at conception and that every human embryo has the potential to be
born and exist as a person. It is therefore morally unacceptable that, the value and dignity
of an unborn human life should be ignored.

Supporters of therapeutic cloning, argue that using stem cells is morally justifiable
because the cells are harvested from blastocysts which consist of 50- 150 cells only.
Blastocyst is a clump of cells and therefore we cannot talk about its dignity or right to
life. The stem cells would be used to protect the lives of people who already exist or
whom we know.

2.The risks associated with the cloning process

Cloning has a very high failure rate. For example, the process of reproducing Dolly the
sheep used 277 eggs from which 29 viable embryos were created. Only three of these of
these embryos were born, and only one, Dolly survived to adulthood. Such a high failure
rate using human embryos would be morally unacceptable.

3. The risk associated with the cloned life

Studies of cloned animals show that these animals have higher rates of death and
deformities at birth. This is why many people, including scientists and doctors, argue that

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it unethical to clone human beings. A scholar called Thomas Murray has said “it is
absolutely inevitable that groups are going to try to clone a human being. But they are
going to create a lot of dead and dying babies along the way.

4. The natural order of life

Cloning is an asexual reproductive system. It involves people creating life and controlling
the genetic make up of another human being or animal using scientific technologies.
Cloning undermines the natural process of sexual reproduction in animals and humans
and would limit the differences in genetic make- up of individuals. Genetic differences
are what make individuals unique.

5. The rights of animals

Those who support cloning argue that cloning does not interfere with animal rights below
are the reasons they give their argument
1. People clone certain animals for their desired qualities. This shows that they value such
animals. When people like certain qualities about an animal they are more likely to avoid
violating the rights of such animals.
2. Cloning ensures that animals are saved from extinction and are allowed to continue to
live.
People who are against cloning of animals argue that have the same moral rights as
human beings. Since human cloning is unethical, cloning animals is also unethical.

The social implications of cloning

Family relationships

There may also be confusion on how the clone is related to family members. For
example, would the clone be considered as a delayed identical twin or a child of the
parent? If the parent had other children, would the clone be their sibling or parent?

Parental identity

There may be confusion over who should be considered the parent of the clone. Although
genetically a clone is born as a copy of the donor or the nucleus, the nucleus would be
inserted in a donor egg which has no nucleus. Could the donor of the egg be able to claim
some parental rights over the clone?

In many countries, including Botswana, the names of both parents have to be stated on
the birth certificate of their child. A clone would be born of both parents have to be stated
on the birth certificate of their child. A clone would be born as a result of reproduction.
This means that laws requiring that names of the names of the father and mother of a
child should appear on a child’s birth certificate would have to change.

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DNA could not be used to identify individuals

Human cloning could create a problem of mistaken identity. In many countries, the police
use DNA to identify people who have committed crimes. Cloning would make this
impossible because a clone would be genetically identical to his or her original parent.
People may be arrested for crimes they did not commit.

The personal identity of a clone

Cloning has implications for the personal identity of clones. Would clones feel they are
unique individuals or simply copies of others? Sometimes, if people are uncertain about
their identity, it can lead to low self-esteem and confidence. We do not know for sure,
how clones would be affected emotionally and mentally knowing that they were
deliberately created as copy of someone else.

Age of clone

Since a clone would have been created from an existing animal or human being, how old
would the clone be? Would the age of a clone be calculated from the date birth or from
the age of animal or human it was cloned from?

Cloning may lead to a discriminatory society

If clones are identified as such on their birth certificates, it would result in a society that
has two types of people – cloned and non cloned people. Non clones may view clones as
less than human and this may result in the stigmatization of clones and discrimination
against them. People would not only be discriminated on the basis of sex, age, race and
ethnicity but they may be discriminated on the basis of their genetic make up.

Human cloning may result in incest

In many societies, having a sexual relationship with a close blood relative such as ones
parent, child or sibling is a taboo and illegal. The risk of birth defects is higher if two
people who are blood relatives have a child together than if they are not related by blood.
Cloning would create a risk of incest. In a situation in which a person would have created
multiple clones of herself or himself, or donates cloned embryos to different couples
throughout the world. His or her clones cold later on in life meet and have a sexual
relationship.