M.

Tech Name of the programme (XXX)

Outcome Based Education(OBE) and Choice Based Credit System (CBCS)
SEMESTER - I
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND IPR
(Professional Core Course) and (Common to all M.Tech Programmes)
Course Code 18RMI17 CIE Marks 40
Number of Lecture Hours/Week 02 Exam Hours 03
Total Number of Lecture Hours 25 SEE Marks 60
Credits - 02
Course objectives:
• To give an overview of the research methodology and explain the technique of defining a research
problem

• To explain the functions of the literature review in research.

• To explain carrying out a literature search, its review, developing theoretical and conceptual frameworks
and writing a review.

• To explain various research designs and their characteristics.

• To explain the details of sampling designs, and also different methods of data collections.

• To explain the art of interpretation and the art of writing research reports.

• To explain various forms of the intellectual property, its relevance and business impact in the changing
global business environment.

• To discuss leading International Instruments concerning Intellectual Property Rights.

Module-1 Teaching
Hours
Research Methodology: Introduction, Meaning of Research, Objectives of Research, Motivation in 05
Research, Types of Research, Research Approaches, Significance of Research, Research Methods
versus Methodology, Research and Scientific Method, Importance of Knowing How Research is
Done, Research Process, Criteria of Good Research, and Problems Encountered by Researchers in
India.
Revised Bloom’s L1 – Remembering, L2 – Understanding.
Taxonomy Level
Module-2
Defining the Research Problem: Research Problem, Selecting the Problem, Necessity of Defining 05
the Problem, Technique Involved in Defining a Problem, An Illustration.
Reviewing the literature: Place of the literature review in research, Bringing clarity and focus to
your research problem, Improving research methodology, Broadening knowledge base in research
area, Enabling contextual findings, How to review the literature, searching the existing literature,
reviewing the selected literature, Developing a theoretical framework, Developing a conceptual
framework, Writing about the literature reviewed.
Revised Bloom’s L1 – Remembering, L2 – Understanding.
Taxonomy Level
Module-3
Research Design: Meaning of Research Design, Need for Research Design, Features of a Good 05
Design, Important Concepts Relating to Research Design, Different Research Designs, Basic
Principles of Experimental Designs, Important Experimental Designs.
Design of Sample Surveys: Introduction, Sample Design, Sampling and Non-sampling Errors,
Sample Survey versus Census Survey, Types of Sampling Designs.
Revised Bloom’s L1 – Remembering, L2 – Understanding.
Taxonomy Level
Module-4
Data Collection: Experimental and Surveys, Collection of Primary Data, Collection of Secondary 05
Data, Selection of Appropriate Method for Data Collection, Case Study Method.
Interpretation and Report Writing: Meaning of Interpretation, Technique of Interpretation,
Precaution in Interpretation, Significance of Report Writing, Different Steps in Writing Report,
Layout

M.Tech Name of the programme (XXX)

Outcome Based Education(OBE) and Choice Based Credit System (CBCS)
SEMESTER - I
18RMI17RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND IPR
(Professional Core Course) and (Common to all M.Tech Programmes)
Module-4 (continued) Teaching
Hours
Interpretation and Report Writing (continued): of the Research Report, Types of Reports, Oral
Presentation, Mechanics of Writing a Research Report, Precautions for Writing Research Reports.
Revised Bloom’s L1 – Remembering, L2 – Understanding, L3 – Applying, L4 – Analysing.
Taxonomy Level
Module-5
Intellectual Property: The Concept, Intellectual Property System in India, Development of TRIPS 05
Complied Regime in India, Patents Act, 1970, Trade Mark Act, 1999,The Designs Act, 2000, The
Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act1999, Copyright Act,1957,The
Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act, 2001,The Semi-Conductor Integrated Circuits
Layout Design Act, 2000, Trade Secrets, Utility Models, IPR and Biodiversity, The Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD) 1992, Competing Rationales for Protection of IPRs, Leading
International Instruments Concerning IPR, World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO),WIPO
and WTO, Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, National Treatment, Right of
Priority, Common Rules, Patents, Marks, Industrial Designs, Trade Names, Indications of Source,
Unfair Competition, Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), Advantages of PCT Filing, Berne Convention
for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, Basic Principles, Duration of Protection, Trade
Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights(TRIPS) Agreement, Covered under TRIPS
Agreement, Features of the Agreement, Protection of Intellectual Property under TRIPS, Copyright
and Related Rights, Trademarks, Geographical indications, Industrial Designs, Patents, Patentable
Subject Matter, Rights Conferred, Exceptions, Term of protection, Conditions on Patent Applicants,
Process Patents, Other Use without Authorization of the Right Holder, Layout-Designs of
Integrated Circuits, Protection of Undisclosed Information, Enforcement of Intellectual Property
Rights, UNSECO.

Revised Bloom’s L1 – Remembering, L2 – Understanding, L3 – Applying, L4 – Analysing.

Taxonomy Level

Course outcomes:
At the end of the course the student will be able to:
• Discuss research methodology and the technique of defining a research problem

• Explain the functions of the literature review in research, carrying out a literature search, developing
theoretical and conceptual frameworks and writing a review.

• Explain various research designs and their characteristics.

• Explain the art of interpretation and the art of writing research reports

•
Question paper pattern:

Examination will be conducted for 100 marks with question paper containing 10 full
questions, each of 20 marks.
• Each full question can have a maximum of 4 sub questions.
• There will be 2 full questions from each module covering all the topics of the module
• Students will have to answer 5 full questions, selecting one full question from each
module
• The total marks will be proportionally reduced to 60 marks as SEE marks is 60

M.Tech Name of the programme (XXX)

Outcome Based Education(OBE) and Choice Based Credit System (CBCS)
SEMESTER - I
18RMI17 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND IPR
(Professional Core Course) and (Common to all M.Tech Programmes)
Textbooks

1 Research Methodology: Methods and C.R. Kothari, New Age International 4th Edition,
Techniques Gaurav Garg 2018
2 ResearchMethodologyastep-by- Ranjit Kumar SAGE PublicationsLtd 3rd Edition,
stepguideforbeginners. (For the topic 2011
Reviewing the literature under module 2)
3 Study Material Professional Programme Intellectual Property Rights, Law
(For the topic Intellectual Property under and Practice, The Institute of Company Secretaries of India,
module 5) Statutory Body Under an Act of Parliament, September 2013
Reference Books
1 Research Methods: the concise knowledge Trochim Atomic Dog Publishing 2005
base
2 Conducting Research Literature Reviews: Fink A Sage Publications 2009
From the Internet to Paper
 Research Methodology

Module 1:
Meaning, Objectives and Characteristics of research - Research methods Vs
Methodology -Types of research - Descriptive Vs. Analytical, Applied Vs.
Fundamental, Quantitative Vs.Qualitative, Conceptual Vs. Empirical -
Research process - Criteria of good research -Developing a research plan.

 1:Methodology:An Introduction
MEANING OF RESEARCH
The search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding solution to a problem is research.
The systematic method consisting of:
 Enunciating the problem
 Formulating a hypothesis
 Collecting the facts or data
 Analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions
 Conclusions - solutions to the problem or in certain generalizations for
some theoretical formulation
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The main aim of research is to find out the hidden undiscovered truth through
scientific procedures
Categories of objectives
1. Exploratory or formulative research: To gain familiarity with a
phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it
2. Descriptive research: To accurately specify the characteristics of a
particular situation
3. Diagnostic research: To determine the frequency with which something
occurs or with which it is associated
4. hypothesis-testing research: To test a hypothesis of a causal
relationship between variables
MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
The possible motives for doing research may be
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
1. Descriptive vs. Analytical
Descriptive research (Ex post facto research): includes surveys and
enquiries of different kinds. Researcher has no control over the variables;
he can only report what has happened or what is happening
Analytical research: the researcher has to use facts or information
already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation

Manjunatha E, BITM Page 1

 Research Methodology
2. Applied vs. Fundamental:
Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem
facing a society or an industrial/business organization.
Fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and
with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s
sake, eg: studies, concerning human behavior, Mathematics

3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative:

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or
amount. eg: measuring the performance of a process
Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon of
relating to or involving quality or kind. eg: investigating the reasons for
human behavior
4. Conceptual vs. Empirical:
Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It
is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts
or to reinterpret existing ones.
Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone; it is data-
based research, coming up with conclusions which can be verified by
observation or experiment.
In Empirical a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a
working hypothesis or guess of the probable results. He then works to
get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets
up experimental designs to bring forth the desired information.
5. Other Types of Research:
 One-time research: the research is confined to a single time-period
 Longitudinal research: the research is carried on over several time-
periods
 Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or
simulation research, depending upon the environment in which it is to
be carried out.
 Clinical or diagnostic research: follow case-study methods or in-depth
approaches to reach the basic causal relations
 Exploratory research: development of hypotheses rather than their
testing
 Formalized research: development of hypotheses and testing it.
 Historical research: utilizes historical sources like documents, remains,
etc. to study events or ideas or philosophy of persons of the past
 Conclusion-oriented: a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign
the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes
 Decision-oriented research: is always based on the needs of a decision
maker and the researcher is not free to change research according to his
own inclination. eg: Operations research
Research Approaches
Quantitative approach can be further sub-classified into inferential,
experimental and simulation approaches to research.
Manjunatha E, BITM Page 2
 Research Methodology
The inferential approach is a survey where a sample of population is studied
(questioned or observed) from which to infer characteristics or relationships of
population.
Experimental approach: in this case some variables are manipulated to
observe their effect on other variables.
Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment
within which relevant information and data can be generated. This permits an
observation of the dynamic behavior of a system (or its sub-system) under
controlled conditions.
Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of
attitudes, opinions and behavior. Research in such a situation is a function of
researcher’s insights and impressions and generates results in non-
quantitative form the techniques of focus group interviews, projective
techniques and depth interviews are used.
Significance of Research
 Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes
the development of logical habits of thinking and organisation
 Research provides the basis for government policies in our economic
system.
 Research has its special significance in solving various operational and
planning problems of business and industry
 Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social
relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems.
 To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research
may mean careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social
structure;
 To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of
livelihood
 To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new
ideas and insights
 To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new
styles and creative work
 To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalisations of
new theories
Research Methods versus Methodology
Research methods or techniques may be understood as all those
methods/techniques that are used for conduction of research.
Research techniques refer to the behaviour, techniques and instruments we
use in performing research operations such as making observations, recording
data, processing data etc.,
Research methods refer to the behaviour and instruments used in selecting
and constructing research technique. Methods are more general and methods
that generate techniques
Example: Library Research method: Analysis of historical records Technique:
Recording of notes, Content analysis, Tape and Film listening

Manjunatha E, BITM Page 3

 Research Methodology
Research methods can be put into the following three groups:
1. Methods concerned with the collection of data
2. Statistical techniques which are used for establishing relationships
between the data and the unknowns
3. Methods used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem.
It is a science of studying how research is done scientifically
It is necessary for the researcher to know how to apply particular research
techniques, but they also need to know which of these methods or techniques,
are relevant and which are not, and what would they mean and indicate and
why, what are the assumptions underlying various techniques and the criteria
to decide that certain techniques and procedures will be applicable to certain
problems and others will not.
Research and Scientific Method
Research is an inquiry into the nature of, the reasons for, and the
consequences of any particular set of circumstances researcher is interested in
the repeatability of the results and in their extension to more complicated and
general situations
Scientific Method The ideal of science is to achieve a systematic interrelation
of facts by experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted
postulates and a combination of these three in varying proportions.
The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates:
1. It relies on empirical evidence;
2. It utilizes relevant concepts;
3. It is committed to only objective considerations;
4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only
adequate and correct statements about population objects;
5. It results into probabilistic predictions;
6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny is for
use in testing the conclusions through replication;
7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as
scientific theories.
Importance of Knowing How Research is done
The study of research methodology gives the student the necessary training in:
 gathering material and arranging them
 participation in the field work
 techniques for the collection of data appropriate to particular problems
 use of statistics, questionnaires and controlled experimentation
 recording evidence, sorting it out and interpreting it
 develop disciplined thinking to observe the field objectively
 ability to evaluate and use research results with reasonable confidence

Manjunatha E, BITM Page 4

 Research Methodology
Research Process

Various steps in research process:

 formulating the research problem;
 extensive literature survey;
 developing the hypothesis;
 preparing the research design;
 determining sample design;
 collecting the data;
 execution of the project;
 analysis of data;
 hypothesis testing;
 generalisations and interpretation;
 preparation of the report or presentation of the results,

Steps involved in a research process are not mutually exclusive; or they

separate and distinct. They do not necessarily follow each other in any specific
order and each step in the research process anticipate the requirements of the
subsequent steps.

1. Formulating the research problem:

The researcher must find out the problem he wants to study based on area of
interest.
Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the
feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a working
formulation of the problem can be set up.
Two steps are involved in formulating the research problem
Understanding the problem thoroughly: problem is to discuss it with guide
colleagues the administrative agencies
The researcher must examine all available literature both conceptual
literature concerning the concepts and theories, and the empirical literature
consisting of studies made earlier which are similar to the one proposed

Manjunatha E, BITM Page 5

 Research Methodology
Rephrasing the problem in analytical terms: The problem to be investigated
must be defined unambiguously discriminating relevant data from irrelevant
ones Care must be taken to verify the objectivity and validity of the background
facts concerning the problem

2. Extensive literature survey:

Once the problem is formulated, a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the
necessary Committee or the Research Board for approval.
The researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with
the problem by abstracting and indexing journals and published or
unpublished bibliographies.
The source will be Academic journals, conference proceedings, government
reports, books etc.,
3. Development of working hypotheses
After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the
working hypothesis
The hypothesis:
 Keep researcher in right track by delimiting the area of research
 It will guide the attention on the more important facets of the problem
 It also indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data
analysis to be used.
Working hypotheses arise as a result of a-priori thinking, examination of the
available data and material including related studies and the counsel of experts
and interested parties.
4. Preparing the research design: after defining working hypothesis
researcher has to state the conceptual structure (design) within which research
would be conducted
The preparation of such a design facilitates research to collect relevant
evidence with minimal effort, time and money
Research design should have the following consideration:
 The means of obtaining the information;
 The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
 Why and which means of obtaining organizing and reasoning information
 The time available for research
 The cost factor relating to research
5. Determining sample design: in any constitute field of inquiry all the items
under consideration is called a ‘universe’ or ‘population’ but checking all the
items( census inquiry) is not possible so we select only a few items from the
universe for our study purposes.
The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample known as the sample
design
Different type of sample designs:
i) Deliberate sampling: known as purposive or non-probability sampling this
involves purposive or deliberate selection of sample
When selection is based on ease of access, its called convenience sampling it
may give very biased results when the population is not homogeneous.
Manjunatha E, BITM Page 6
 Research Methodology
When researcher’s judgement is used for selecting items its called Judgement
sampling it is used frequently in qualitative research
ii) Simple random sampling: known as chance sampling or probability
sampling where each and every item in the population has an equal chance of
inclusion in the sample
iii) Systematic sampling: In some instances the most practical way of
sampling is to select every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on one side of
a street and so on
Randomness introduced by using random numbers to pick up the unit with
which to start.
iv) Stratified sampling: If the population needed should not constitute
homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is applied
In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of non overlapping
subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum.
If the items selected from each stratum randomly called as stratified random
sampling.
v) Quota sampling: In stratified random sampling is often so expensive so
that interviewers are simply given quota to choose from different strata, the
actual selection of items is left to the interviewer’s judgement. It is a form of
non-probability sampling.
vi) Cluster sampling and area sampling: Cluster sampling involves grouping
the population and then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than
individual elements for inclusion in the sample.
Area sampling is type of cluster sampling used when total geographical area of
interest is to be big.
We first divide the total area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas
called geographical clusters, then a number of these smaller areas are
randomly selected, and all units in these small areas are included in the
sample.
vii) Multi-stage sampling: This is a further development of the idea of cluster
sampling the first stage may be to select large primary sampling units such as
states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within towns. If
the technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages called as multi-stage
random sampling
viii) Sequential sampling: The sample is not fixed in advance but is
determined according to mathematical decisions on the basis of information
yielded as survey progresses.
The sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking
into consideration the nature of the inquiry and other related factors.
6. Collecting the data:
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey.
Experiment observation provide some quantitative measurements, or the data,
which help to prove hypothesis
Survey data can be collected by the following ways:
 By observation: the collection of information by way of investigators own
observation, without interviewing the respondents, this method is
Manjunatha E, BITM Page 7
 Research Methodology
expensive and provided very limited information
 Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure
and seeks answers to a set of pre-conceived questions through personal
interviews.
 Through telephone interviews: collecting information by contacting the
respondents on telephone.
 By mailing of questionnaires: Questionnaires are mailed to the
respondents with a request to return after completing the same.

7. Execution of the project: The researcher should execute the project If the
execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected
would be adequate and dependable the project should be executed in a
systematic manner and in time
8. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher analyze
them. The analysis of data requires.
Establishment of categories: Researcher should classify the raw data into
some purposeful and usable categories
Coding is usually done when categories of data are transformed into symbols
that may be tabulated and counted
Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding
Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are
put in the form of tables.
Analysis work after tabulation is based on the computation of various
percentages, coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical
formulae.
In the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting
with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests to determine
validity of data conclusion(s) is drawn.
9. Hypothesis-testing: After analyzing the data the researcher test the
hypotheses using various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test
Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting
it.
10. Generalisations and interpretation:
If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the
researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory.
If the researcher had no hypothesis he might explain his findings on the basis
of some theory known as interpretation. The interpretation may trigger off new
questions that may lead to further researches.
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis:
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him
The layout of the report should be as follows:

i) The preliminary pages:

Should contain Title and date, acknowledgements and foreword table of
contents list of tables and list of graphs and charts,
ii) The main text

Manjunatha E, BITM Page 8

 Research Methodology
Should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the
research, the methodology, the scope and limitations
(b) Summary of findings: statement of findings and recommendations in non-
technical language
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical
sequence and broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text
(iii) The end matter: Should contain appendices and Bibliography

Criteria of Good Research

Qualities of a good research
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with
specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the
well defined set of rules
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the
rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and
deduction
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically
to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results
to be verified by replicating the study

*********************End of Module 1*****************************

Manjunatha E, BITM Page 9

 Research Methodology

Module 2:
Defining the research problem - Selecting the problem - Necessity of defining
the problem -Techniques involved in defining the problem - Importance of
literature review in defining a problem - Survey of literature - Primary and
secondary sources - Reviews, treatise, monographs patents- web as a source -
searching the web - Identifying gap areas from literature review -Development
of working hypothesis

 2:Defining the research problem

WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM?
A research problem refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in
the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a
solution for the same.
Conditions to be met for research problem:
1) There must be an individual or a group or an organisation, let us call it
‘I,’ to whom the problem can be attributed. The individual or the
organisation occupies an environment, say ‘N’, which is defined by values
of the uncontrolled variables, Yj.
2) There must be at least two courses of action, say C1 and C2, to be
pursued. A course of action is defined by one or more values of the
controlled variables.
3) There must be at least two possible outcomes, say O1 and O2, one per
course of action i.e., an objective
4) The courses of action must provide some chance of obtaining the
objective, such that each choices have different efficiencies for the
desired outcomes Thus, if P(Oj|I,Cj,N) represents the probability that an
outcome Oj will occur, if I select Cj in N, then P(O1|I,C1, N)!=
P(O1|I,C2,N)
The individual or the organisation ‘I’ have the problem which can be technically
described as a research problem, if ‘I’ wants one or more desired outcomes ’o’,
with two or more courses of action that have different efficiency for the desired
objective(s) and ‘I’ are in doubt about which course of action is best.

Components of a research problem

a. There must be an individual or a group which has some problem I
b. There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains N
c. There must be some objective(s) to be attained o1, o2
d. There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining
the objective(s) c1, c2
e. There must remain some doubt with regard to the selection of
alternatives based on efficiency
A research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best
solution i.e., which course of action the objective can be attained optimally in
the context of a given environment.

Manjunatha E, BITM Page

10
 Research Methodology

SELECTING THE PROBLEM

The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected with the
research guide
Following points may be observed while selecting a research problem:
1. Subject which is overdone should not be normally
2. Controversial subject should chosen
3. Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided
4. The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that
the related research material or sources of research are within one’s
reach
5. The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a
researcher, the costs involved, and the time factor are few other criteria
that must also be considered
6. The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study

NECESSITY OF DEFINING THE PROBLEM

Problem clearly stated is a problem half solved
A proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be on the
track whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles.
Questions like: What data are to be collected? What characteristics of data are
relevant and need to be studied? What relations are to be explored? What
techniques are to be used for the purpose? The researcher can well plan his
strategy and find answers to all such questions only when the research
problem has been well defined.

TECHNIQUE INVOLVED IN DEFINING A PROBLEM

The technique for definition of research problem:
1. Statement of the problem in a general way: First of all the problem
should be stated in a broad general way, keeping in view either some practical
concern or some scientific or intellectual interest. For this purpose, the
researcher must conduct pilot survey.
Then the researcher himself or with guides help can state the problem,
Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms, and it is then up to
the researcher to narrow it down and phrase the problem in operational
terms.
Feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered and the same should
be stated in the problem
2. Understanding the nature of the problem: discuss it with those who first
raised find out how the problem originally came about and with what objectives
in view
Keep in view the environment within which the problem is to be studied and
understood
3. Surveying the available literature: All available literature concerning the
problem at hand must necessarily be surveyed and examined before a
Manjunatha E, BITM Page
11
 Research Methodology
definition of the research problem
Knowing what data are available often serves to narrow the problem and
choose technique that might be used
Surveying help a researcher to know if there are certain gaps and inconsistency
in the theories; understand the type of difficulties that may be encountered;
possible analytical shortcomings also show new lines of approach to solve the
present problem
4. Developing the ideas through discussions: a researcher must discuss his
problem with his colleagues and others who have enough experience in the
same area or in working on similar problems called experience survey
Discussion help Researcher to sharpen his focus of attention on specific
aspects within the field, provide general approach; techniques that might be
used; possible solutions, etc.
5. Rephrasing the research problem: Finally, the researcher must rephrase
the research problem into a working proposition
the researcher puts the research problem in as specific terms as possible so
that it may become operationally viable and may help in the development of
working hypotheses
Following points must also be observed while defining a research problem
1. Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used
should be clearly defined
2. Basic assumptions or postulates should be clearly stated
3. The value of the investigation (i.e., the criteria for the selection of the
problem) should be provided
4. The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must
also be specified
5. The scope of the investigation or the limits must be mentioned explicitly

Reviewing the literature

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define what is review of literature;
2. Identify the importance of a good literature review;
3. List the ideal procedures for review of literature;
4. Describe common weaknesses in review of literature; and
5. Critique a journal article.

Manjunatha E, BITM Page

12
 Research Methodology
INTRODUCTION
A literature review uses as its database reports of primary or original scholarship,
and does not report new primary scholarship itself. The primary reports used in
the literature may be verbal, but in the vast majority of cases reports are written
documents. The types of scholarship may be empirical, theoretical,
critical/analytic or methodological in nature. Second, a literature review seeks to
describe, summarise, evaluate, clarify and/or integrate the content of primary
reports.

Cooper, H. M. (1989) Integrating research: a guide for literature reviews,

2nd Ed, Sage Publications, Newbury Park, Calif.

Do you agree with the statement by Cooper? The review of literature has not been
properly understood by some graduate students. Some students have the opinion
that literature review means collecting and compiling facts for the research being
undertaken. In fact, the literature review process needs analytical thinking,
critiquing ability and empirical approach. The review of literature is a standard
topic of a research report especially thesis or dissertation. Review of literature is
an integral part of an entire research process. When you undertake a research
process, review of literature will help you to establish the theoretical roots of your
field of interest, clarify your ideas and develop your methodology. The review of
literature also helps you to integrate your findings with the existing body of
knowledge once. You must remember that one of your important responsibilities
in research is to compare your findings with those of others, and that is why we
said review of literature plays a very important role in the research process.

In this topic, you will first define what is literature review. In Section 3.2, we will
explain to you the importance of literature review. Following that, you will look at
the 4 steps in literature review. After that, the topic will present to you the
common weaknesses faced by researchers in completing a literature review.
Finally, this topic will invite you to look at the steps required in reviewing journals.
We hope this topic will guide you in your research progress.All the best!

WHAT IS LITERATURE REVIEW?

The aim of literature review is to highlight what has been done so far in the
field of interest and how your findings relate to earlier research. The review
of literature also indicates the following:
(a) Approaches;
(b) Methods;
(c) Variables used; and
(d) Statistical procedure.
Of foremost importance in a literature review is the findings itself. In the field of
ICT, compiling literature review has always been a challange. This is due to the
nature of computing and information field which go through tremendous changes
and new findings within a short period. The review gives an overview on findings
based on previous research work done at the time of research period. The review

Manjunatha E, BITM Page

13
 Research Methodology
also traces the general patterns of the findings and the conclusions that can be
made based on the findings.
For example, your literature review could justify whether your work is an
extension of what others have done. It could also indicate whether you are
trying to replicate earlier studies in a different context. A good example
would be a researcher who uses Service Oriented Architecture of software
system to develop hardware modelling requirements. This is a good example
of using existing studies in different contexts.

Review of literature also reveals techniques and statistical procedures that have
not been attempted by others. To accomplish review of literature, you need to
locate, read and evaluate research documents, reports as well as thesis and other
sources of academic materials. Review done for one particular research process
must be extensive and thorough because you are aiming to obtain a detailed
account of the topic being studied. Normally, the emphasis and weight are heavier
for PhD work since the results of PhD should be novel and narrowed down to a
very specific research problem.

THE IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE REVIEW

Reviewing literature can be time-consuming and daunting. However, it is always
rewarding. A review of literature has a number of functions in research
methodology, as illustrated in Figure 3.1 below.

Figure 3.1: Functions of literature review in research

Manjunatha E, BITM Page

14
 Research Methodology

The following are the main importance of literature review:

(a) Improve your Research Methodology

Literature review helps you to acquire methodologies used by other
researchers to find and solve research questions similar to the ones
you are investigating. It will explain the procedures other researchers
used and methods similar to the ones you are proposing. It will give
you an idea whether the methods other researchers used worked for
them and what are the problems they faced. By doing a review of
literature, you will become aware of pitfalls and problems and could
strategise well to select a methodology that you feel will suit your
research work better.
(b) cus on Research Problem
Review of literature could help you shape your research problem
because the process of reviewing the literature helps you to
understand the subject area better and thus helps you to
conceptualise your research problem clearly and precisely. In addition,
it also helps to understand the relationship between your research
problem and body of knowledge in your research area.

(c) Cater to Thnowledge Base for Research Area

One of the most important objectives of literature review is to ensure
that you read widely around the subject area in which you intend to
conduct research study. It is fundamental that you know what others
are doing in your field of interest or the similar topic you have been
working on as well as understanding theories that have been put
forward and gaps that exist in the particular field. M.Sc and PhD
candidates are expected to be experts in their area of study, therefore
a thorough review of literature helps to fulfil this expectation.
(d) Contextualising Research Findings
Obtaining answers for your research questions is easy. The difficulties lies
in how you examine your research findings in the existing body of
knowledge. How do you answer your research questions compared to what
other researchers concluded? What is the new knowledge contribution from
your research work? How are your findings distinguished from those of
other researchers? To answer these questions, you need to go back to the
review of literature.
(e) Ensure Novelty in your Work
By doing a review of literature, you do not run the risk of „reinventing the
wheel,‰ meaning that wasting efforts on trying to rediscover something that
is already known or published in the research arena. Therefore, through
literature review, you could ensure novelty and new contribution in your
research work

Manjunatha E, BITM Page

15
 Research Methodology
Figure 3.2 below summarises the main importance of literature review
explained earlier.

Figure 3.2: Importance of literature review

REVIEW OF LITERATURE PROCEDURES

Since ICT has a broad range of research problems, with various research
designs and approach, it is important for you to have a specific idea of what
you want to research. This is because there is danger in reviewing literature
without having a reasonably specific idea of what you want to study. It can
condition the thinking about your research and the methodology you might
prefer, resulting in a less innovative choice of research problem and
methodology than otherwise would have been the case. Therefore, try to
draft your main idea before proceeding to review the literature. Generally
there are 4 steps in literature review, as demonstrated by Figure 3.3 below.

Manjunatha E, BITM Page

16
 Research Methodology

Let us look at each of the steps in more detail.

Step 1: Search the Existing Literature in your Research Area of Interest
Once you choose your topic of interest, make sure it is a well-researched
area and well studied which could give you more lines of research to
choose from. Narrow your topics so that you can cover in depth.
Comprehensive and narrowness of topic go hand in hand. Now, you can
proceed to search the existing literature. To effectively search literature,
have in mind some idea of the broad subject area and the problem you
wish to investigate. The first task would be compiling a bibliography in
your research area. Books and journals are always the best sources for
literature in particular research area. Information technology and
communication (ICT) research findings can be sourced out in several
prominent sources and these can save you enormous time. The sources
include:
(a) Indices of Journals ( e.g. ACM, IEEE Transcations and Elsevier )
(b) Abstracts of articles (e.g. Dissertaions Abstracts International, Emerald and
IT Thnowledge Base) Citation indices(e.g. ProQuest and Scopus)

Manjunatha E, BITM Page

17
 Research Methodology

In most libraries, information on books, journals, dissertations and so on are

stored in computers and CD-ROMs. OUMÊs Tan Sri Dr Abdullah Sanusi Digital
Library has a vast collection of e-journals and digital books for ICT. This Digital
Library can also help you prepare a bibliography and review the literature for
your research topic.

Step 2: Review the Literature Obtained

Once you have identified several journals and books, the next thing to do is to
start reading them critically to pull together themes and issues that are
associated with your research topic. Read and read! That is the bottom line of
doing a review. If you do not have a framework or theme to begin your research
with, use a separate paper to jot down the main points you extract from journal
articles and books. Once you create a rough framework, you may slot in the
extracted information accordingly. As you read further, do some critical review
with particular references to the following aspects:

(a) Note the theories put forward, critics, methods used (sample size, data used,
measurement procedure)
(b) Note whether the knowledge relevant to your designed framework has been
confirmed beyond doubt
(c) Find differences of opinions among researchers and jot down your opinions
about their validity Examine the gaps that exist in the body of knowledge

Step 3: Develop a Theoretical Framework

Reviewing the literature can be a never-ending task. You must know that with the limited
time you have to complete your research, it is important for you to set the boundary and
parameters by looking into literature relevant to your research topic. Every information
you obtain from literature sources must be sorted out accordingly with the themes and
issues you put in your framework. Unless you review the literature with regard to the
framework you developed, you will not be able to develop a focus in your literature search.
This means your theoretical framework will provide you a base and guide to read further.
The best practice would be to develop a framework first and then dive into literature search or
vice versa. Of course, as you read more about your research area, you are likely to change the
framework. Do not worry much about this because it is part of a research process.

Step 4: Writing up the Literature Review

Now, the final task would be compiling and writing all the literature you read and reviewed.
Begin your review with some theme or points that you want to emphasise. Organise and list
all the themes you would like to discuss and relate. Organisation is of utmost importance
and make the structure known to your reader. While writing, identify and describe various
theories relevant to your field and specify gaps in body of the knowledge in that area.
Proceed to explain recent advances in the area of study as well as current trends. Note that
in the field of ICT research, current trends are always given great importance. We describe,
do comparison and evaluate findings based on:
(a) Assumptions of research
(b) Theories related to the area of study
Manjunatha E, BITM Page
18
 Research Methodology
(c) Hypotheses
(d) Research designs applied
(e) Variables selected
(f) Potential future work speculated by researchers

We will go in depth on hypotheses and research designs in coming topics in this module.
Most importantly, avoid plagiarism when writing. Give due recognition to the works of
other researchers. Quote from other researchersÊ work to show how your findings
contradict, confirm or add to them. This function is undertaken when writing about your
findings, that is after finalising your data analysis during the research process. It does not
cost anything to acknowledge sources. In fact, it shows the breadth and depth of your
review and shows that your work is precise.

COMMON WEAKNESSES
Normally, beginners in research make the following mistakes as soon as they start writing the
review of literature:

(a) The review made is a mere description of various materials without making an effort
to show the relation between the studies and main objective of the research topic.
(b) Students tend to cut and paste, which SHOULD NOT be encouraged. Original works
should be cited and quoted.
(c) Journals or reports that are included are not critically evaluated. Critically evaluate
the research questions, the methodology used and recommendations made by the
researcher.

There is some evidence to suggest that students have not read the original works but instead have
taken someoneÊs work and cited it as though they had read the primary source

EVALUATING JOURNAL ARTICLES

Writing your literature review is essential so that you would be able to interpret the works of
other researchers. How do you go about evaluating journal articles or proceedings? The procedure
for evaluating journal or research articles is shown in Figure 3.4.

Manjunatha E, BITM Page

19
 Research Methodology

Figure 3.4: The 5 step procedure of evaluating a journal article

Step 1: Read and Understand the Abstract
(a) What was the research about? Are the objectives or aims of the study specified
clearly?
(b) Was the design used described?
(c) What are the reasons for understanding the research?

Step 2: Read and Understand the Introduction

(a) You should keep in mind that the author is assuming that the reader is an expert in
the field and has some background knowledge about it.
(b) References made may be short and brief because it is assumed that you know the
people in the field (e.g. if you are exploring „search engine usage in ICT‰ then
names like Larry Page or Sergey Brin must be known to you.)
(c) Do some critique on the research questions whether it is applicable to the theme
mentioned or not.
Step 3: Read the Methodology Section
(a) This section describes the methods used to collect data and the background of the
subjects used.
(b) You should be able to do some critique on whether the subjects selected is clear
(c) Are the issues of validity and reliability discussed?
(d) If the topic was design and development, was the framework explained in sufficient
detail? Could it have been done in another way?
Manjunatha E, BITM Page
20
 Research Methodology

Step 4: Read the Results Section

(a) This section desribes the connection between the results and the research questions
or hypotheses
(b) It also reports results relating to the research questions and other statistically
significant results
(c) Were the results clearly reported and presented? (e.g. usage of tables and graphs)
(d) Do the results reflect predictions made in the Introduction section?

Step 5: Read and Understand the Discussion Section

(a) This section describes main findings and relating it to the Introduction section.
(b) It also speculates reasons for the results.
(c) You need to identify what are the weaknesses or limitations identified by the author
or something you found but was not mentioned.
(d) You must analyse whether the authorÊs way is the only way to interpret the
predicted results (a good researcher would look into this aspect to justify his/her
findings firmly).

SELF-CHECK 3.3
1. What are the major aspects you will look at when
evaluating a journal article?
2. When you critique the Methodology and Results sections,
what will you look for?

*********************End of Module 2*****************************

Manjunatha E, BITM Page

21
 Research Methodology

Module 3:
Research design and methods – Research design – Basic Principles- Need of
research design ––Features of good design – Important concepts relating to
research design – Observation and Facts, Laws and Theories, Prediction and
explanation, Induction, Deduction, Development of Models - Developing a
research plan - Exploration, Description, Diagnosis, and Experimentation -
Determining experimental and sample designs.

 3:Research Design
MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN
“A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure.”
The research design is the conceptual structure within which research is
conducted it contain blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of
data
The design decisions include:
1. What is the study about?
2. Why is the study being made?
3. Where will the study be carried out?
4. What type of data is required?
5. Where can the required data be found?
6. What periods of time will the study include?
7. What will be the sample design?
8. What techniques of data collection will be used?
9. How will the data be analyzed?
10. In what style will the report be prepared?

Parts of research design:

1. The sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to
be observed for the given study
2. The observational design which relates to the conditions under which
the observations are to be made;
3. The statistical design how many items are to be observed and how the
information and data gathered are to be analyzed;
4. The operational design which deals with the techniques used to carry
out the implementation specified in sampling, statistical and
observational designs

Important features of a research design

 It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to
the research problem
 Approach used for gathering and analyzing the data also population
 Methods to be used in processing and analyzing data

Manjunatha E, BITM Page

22
 Research Methodology

 It also includes the time and cost budgets

NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the
various research operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible
yielding maximal information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and
money
The design helps the researcher to organize his ideas in a form whereby it will
be possible for him to look for flaws and inadequacies. Such a design can even
be given to others for their comments and critical evaluation

FEATURES OF A GOOD DESIGN

A good design is often characterized by flexible, appropriate, efficient,
economical, minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data, gives the
smallest experimental error, yields maximal information etc,.
Thus, the question of good design is related to the purpose or objective of the
research problem and also with the nature of the problem to be studied. One
single design cannot serve the purpose of all types of research problems.
A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, involves
the following factors:
 The means of obtaining information;
 The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
 The objective of the problem to be studied;
 The nature of the problem to be studied; and
 The availability of time and money for the research work
 In exploratory or a formulative the major emphasis is on discovery of
ideas and insights so flexible design
 In accurate description of a situation or of an association between
variables design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of
the evidence
MPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN
1. Dependent and independent variables:
A concept or attributes of Phenomena which can take on different quantitative
values is called a variable. Eg: weight, height, income
Variables that take decimal points are called ‘continuous variables’ eg: age
Variables that take integer are called non-continuous discrete variables eg:
no of children
If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is
termed as a dependent variable, and the variable that is antecedent to the
dependent variable is termed as an independent variable. Eg: height depends
upon age and sex, then height is and age and sex are independent variable
2. Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to the
purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed as
extraneous variables
The effect of extraneous variable on dependent variable is known as an
‘experimental error’.
Manjunatha E, BITM Page
23
 Research Methodology

A study must always be so designed that the effect upon the dependent
variable is attributed entirely to the independent variable(s), and not to some
extraneous variable or variables.
3. Control: The technical term ‘control’ is used when we design the study
minimizing the effects of extraneous independent variables.
4. Confounded relationship: When the dependent variable is not free from the
influence of extraneous variable.
5. Research hypothesis: The research hypothesis is a predictive statement
that relates an independent variable to a dependent variable, which has to be
tested
6. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research: When
the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as
hypothesis-testing research.
Research in which the independent variable is manipulated is termed
‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’
Research in which an independent variable is not manipulated is called
‘non-experimental hypothesis-testing research’
7. Experimental and control groups: In an experimental hypothesis-testing
research if a group is exposed to usual conditions termed as ‘control group’,
but when the group is exposed to some novel or special condition, it is
termed an ‘experimental group’.
8. Treatments: The different conditions under which experimental and control
groups are put are usually referred to as ‘treatments’
9. Experiment: The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis,
relating to some research problem, is known as an experiment.
Eg: If we want to determine the impact of a fertilizer on the yield of a crop, it is
a case of absolute experiment; but if we want to determine the impact of one
fertilizer as compared to the impact of some other fertilizer, our experiment
then will be termed as a comparative experiment.
10. Experimental unit(s): The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where
different treatments are used, are known as experimental units.

DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS

1. Research design in case of exploratory research studies:
The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more
precise investigation or discovery of ideas and insights and developing the
working hypotheses from an operational point of view
The research design for such studies must be flexible enough to provide
opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study
The following three methods of research design are used:
a. The survey of concerning literature: for formulating research problem
or developing hypothesis
b. Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their
usefulness be evaluated and new hypothesis will be developed as a basis
for further research.

Manjunatha E, BITM Page

24
 Research Methodology

In this way the researcher should review and build upon the work
already done by others, but in cases where hypotheses have not yet been
formulated
c. Experience survey: survey of people who have had practical experience
with the problem to be studied to obtain insight into the relationships
between variables and new ideas
d. Analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’: This method consists of the
intensive study of selected instances of the phenomenon in which one
is interested. For this purpose the existing records may be examined, the
unstructured interviewing may take place, or some other approach may
be adopted.
Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of
the researcher to draw together diverse information into a unified
interpretation are the main features
2. Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies:
Descriptive research: studies which are concerned with predicting describing
the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group
Diagnostic research studies determine the frequency with which something
occurs or its association with something else
The researcher must be able to define clearly, what he wants to measure and
must find adequate methods for measuring it along with a clear cut definition
of ‘population’ he wants to study.
The research design must minimize bias and must maximize reliability rigid
and not flexible
The research design must include:
a. Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why
is it being made?)
b. Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering
data)
c. Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
d. Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what
time period should the data be related?)
e. Processing and analyzing the data.
f. Reporting the findings

Manjunatha E, BITM Page

25
 Research Methodology

The difference between exploratory research and descriptive/diagnostic

research

3. Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies:

It is experimental studies where the researcher tests the hypotheses of causal
relationships between variables.
Such studies require procedures that will minimize bias and increase
reliability, also permit drawing inferences about causality.
Usually experiments meet this requirement. Hence, research design in such
studies includes design of experiments.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental designs:
1. The Principle of Replication: the experiment should be repeated more than
once. Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of
one. By doing so the statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased.
2. The Principle of Randomization: this principle indicates that we should
design or plan the experiment in such a way that the variations caused by
extraneous factors can all be combined under the general heading of “chance.”
3. The Principle of Local Control: the extraneous factor, the known source of
variability, is made to vary deliberately over as wide a range as necessary and
this need to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can be
measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error.
Important Experimental Designs
Experimental design refers to the framework or structure of an experiment
We can classify experimental designs into two broad categories, viz.,
Informal experimental designs: use a less sophisticated form of analysis based
on differences in magnitudes
Formal experimental designs: more control and use precise statistical
procedures for analysis

Manjunatha E, BITM Page

26
 Research Methodology

Important experiment designs are as follows:

a) Informal experimental designs:
(i) Before-and-after without control design.
(ii) After-only with control design.
(iii) Before-and-after with control design.
b) Formal experimental designs:
(i) Completely randomized design (C.R. Design).
(ii) Randomized block design (R.B. Design).
(iii) Latin square design (L.S. Design).
(iv) Factorial designs.
1. Before-and-after without control design: In such a design a single test
group or area is selected and the dependent variable is measured before the
introduction of the treatment.
The treatment is then introduced and the dependent variable is measured
again after the treatment
The effect of the treatment would be equal to: the level of the phenomenon after
the treatment minus the level of the phenomenon before the treatment.

2. After-only with control design: In this design two groups or test areas are
selected and the treatment is introduced into the test area only.
The dependent variable is then measured in both the areas at the same time.
Treatment impact is assessed by subtracting the value of the dependent
variable in the control area from its value in the test area.
The basic assumption in such a design is that the two areas are identical with
respect to their behaviour towards the phenomenon considered. If this
assumption is not true, there is the possibility of extraneous variation.

3. Before-and-after with control design: In this design two areas are selected
and the dependent variable is measured in both the areas for an identical time-
period before the treatment. The treatment is then introduced into the test area
only, and the dependent variable is measured in both for an identical time-
period after the introduction of the treatment. The treatment effect is
determined by subtracting the change in the dependent variable in the control
area from the change in the dependent variable in test area.

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

20
 Research Methodology

4. Completely randomized design (C.R. design): Involves only two principles

viz., the principle of replication and the principle of randomization of
experimental designs
subjects are randomly assigned to experimental treatments(or vice-versa) eg: if
we have 10 subjects and if we wish to test 5 under treatment A and 5 under
treatment B, the randomization process selects 5 subjects randomly such that
all 10 on an equal opportunity of being assigned to treatment A and treatment
B
When all the variations due to uncontrolled extraneous factors are included as
a chance variation then the experiment design is C.R. design.
Two forms of C.R. design
(i) Two-group simple randomized design:
First the population is defined and then from the population a sample is
selected randomly into two groups then these sample(item) is randomly
assigned to the experimental and control groups (principle of randomization)
The two groups (experimental and control groups) of such a design are given
different treatments of the independent variable

This design is quite common in research concerning behavioral sciences. The

merit is that it is simple and randomizes the differences among the sample
items. But the limitation is it does not control the extraneous variable so the
result of the experiment may not depict a correct picture.

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

21
 Research Methodology

Eg: if researcher wants to compare two groups of students who have been
randomly selected and randomly assigned. Two different treatments viz., the
usual training and the specialized training
Wherein individual differences among students are being randomized But this
does not control the differential effects of the extraneous independent variables
(like teacher training the students).
(ii) Random replications design:

Random replication design is an extension of the two-group simple randomized

design; and it eliminate or reduce the effect of extraneous variable by providing
a number of repetitions for each treatment.
The sample is taken randomly from the population available for study and is
randomly assigned to, say, four experimental and four control groups.
Similarly, sample is taken randomly from the population available to conduct
experiments and the eight individuals so selected should be randomly assigned
to the eight groups.
Generally, equal number of items is put in each group so that the size of the
group is not likely to affect the result of the study.
Variables relating to both population characteristics are assumed to be
randomly distributed among the two groups.
5. Randomized block design (R.B. design)
In the R.B. design, subjects/items are first divided into groups (blocks), each
group contain homogeneous items are related to some selected variable.
Manjunatha E , BITM Page
22
 Research Methodology

The variable for grouping the subjects/items is one that needs to be measured
in respect of the dependent variable.
The number of subjects/items in a given block would be equal to the number
of treatments and subjects are randomly assigned to each treatment.
Each treatment appears the same number of times in each block.
Eg: Suppose four different forms of statistics test were given to each of five
students
Students are selected one from each of the five I.Q. blocks and each student
took the four tests separately in randomized the order it is a R.B. design.

6. Latin square design (L.S. design) is an experimental design very frequently

used in agricultural research where nature plays an important role Eg: to
measure the effects of five different varieties of fertilizers on the yield of a
certain crop
The effect of fertilizers depend on varying fertility of the soil blocks and seeds
The L.S. design is used when there are two major extraneous factors such as
the varying soil fertility and varying seeds.
In L.S design each fertilizer appears five times but is used only once in each
row and in each column of the design. L.S. design of orders (5 × 5) to (9 × 9) are
generally used

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

23
 Research Methodology

7. Factorial designs: Factorial designs are used in experiments where the

effects of varying more than one factor are to be determined. They are
important in experiments where large number of factors affect a particular
problem.
Factorial designs can be of two types: (i) simple factorial designs and (ii)
complex factorial designs.
(i) Simple factorial designs:(two-factor-factorial design)In case of simple
factorial designs, we consider the effects of varying two factors on the
dependent variable.
It may either be a 2 × 2 simple factorial design, or it may be, say, 3 × 4 or 5 × 3
The extraneous variable to be controlled by homogeneity is called the control variable
The independent variable, which is manipulated, is called the experimental variable
A 2 × 2 simple factorial design can graphically be depicted as follows:

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

24
 Research Methodology

There are two treatments of the experimental variable and two levels of the
control variable and there are four cells into which the sample is divided
Subjects are assigned at random
Column mean: represent main effect for treatments without considering effect
due to the level of control
Row mean: represent main effect for level of control without considering effect
due to the treatments
This draws conclusion that whether the treatment and levels are independent
of each other or they are not
It may also be of the type having two experimental variables or two control
variables. For example, a college teacher compared the effect of the class size

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

25
 Research Methodology

(ii) Complex factorial designs: Experiments which considers simultaneously

three or more independent variables
In case of three factors with one experimental variable having two treatments
and two control variables, each one of which having two levels, the design used
will be termed 2 × 2 × 2 complex factorial design which will contain a total of
eight cells

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

26
 Research Methodology

The dotted line cell in the diagram corresponds to Cell 1 of 2 × 2 × 2 design

represent: Treatment A, level I of the control variable 1, and level I of the
control variable 2.
From this design it is possible to determine the main effects for three variables
i.e., one experimental and two control variables.
The researcher can also determine the interactions between each possible pair
of variables (‘First Order interactions’) and interaction between variable
taken in triplets (Second Order interactions).
In case of a 2 × 2 × 2 design, the further given first order interactions are
possible:
Experimental variable with control variable 1 (or EV × CV 1);
Experimental variable with control variable 2 (or EV × CV 2);
Control variable 1 with control variable 2 (or CV1 × CV2);
Three will be one second order interaction between all the three variables i.e.,
EV × CV1 × CV2.
Advantages of Factorial designs:
They provide equivalent accuracy
They permit various other comparisons of interest

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

27
 Research Methodology
Sampling design - Steps in sampling design - Characteristics of a good
sample design - Types of sample designs - Measurement and scaling techniques -
Methods of data collection – Collection of primary data - Data collection
instruments
CENSUS AND SAMPLE SURVEY
All items in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘Universe’ or ‘Population.’ A
complete enumeration of all items in the ‘population’ is known as a census
inquiry.
This type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy. So is
difficult to adopt because it is practically beyond the reach of ordinary
researchers.
Further, many a time it is not possible to examine every item in the population.
Sometimes it is possible to obtain sufficiently accurate results by studying only
a part of total population.
The respondents selected should be as representative of the total population as
possible in order to produce a miniature cross-section. (‘Sample’)
The selection process is called ‘sampling technique’. The survey so conducted
is known as ‘sample survey’.
Algebraically, let the population size be N and if a part of size n (which is < N)
of this population is selected according to some rule for studying some
characteristic of the population.
Researcher must prepare a sample design for his study

STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN

1. Type of universe: clearly define the set of objects (Universe) to be
studied. It can be finite or infinite
2. Sampling unit: A decision concerning a sampling unit before selecting
sample
3. Source list: prepare ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be drawn
4. Size of sample: the number of items to be selected from the universe to
constitute a sample. The size of sample should optimum. An optimum
sample is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency,
representativeness, reliability and flexibility.
5. Parameters of interest: consider the specific population parameters
which are of interest.
6. Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from practical point of view
7. Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide about the
technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample.

CRITERIA OF SELECTING A SAMPLING PROCEDURE

Two costs are involved in a sampling analysis viz., the cost of collecting the
data and the cost of an incorrect inference (systematic bias) resulting from the
data.
Systematic bias results from errors in the sampling procedures, and it cannot
be reduced or eliminated by increasing the sample size.

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

28
 Research Methodology

Systematic bias is the result of one or more of the following factors:

 Inappropriate sampling frame: If the sampling frame is inappropriate or
biased representation of the universe
 Defective measuring device: If the measuring device is constantly in
error
 Non-respondents: If we are unable to sample all the individuals initially
included in the sample
 Indeterminacy principle: Sometimes we find that individuals act
differently when kept under observation than what they do when they are
non-observed
 Natural bias in the reporting of data: respondents not revealing their
true feelings/facts
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN
 Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
 Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
 Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available.
 Sample design must be with controlled systematic bias
 Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be
applied, in general, for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SAMPLE DESIGNS

There are different types of sample designs based on two factors
1. Representation basis
i. Probability sampling
Based on the concept of random selection
ii. Non-Probability sampling
Based on the concept of non-random selection
2. Element selection technique
i. Unrestricted sampling
When each sample element is drawn individually from the large
population
ii. Restricted sampling
When each sample element is drawn individually from the large
population (all other)

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

29
 Research Methodology

Non-probability sampling: (deliberate sampling or purposive sampling or

judgement sampling)
Does not have any basis for estimating the probability an item in the
population has of being included in the sample.
The items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher;
The judgement of the organizers concerning the items remains supreme.
The investigator may select a sample which shall yield results favorable to his
point of view and if that happens, the entire inquiry may get vitiated.
Sampling error in this type of sampling cannot be estimated and the element of
bias, great or small, is always there.
This sampling design in rarely adopted in large inquires of importance; but can
be used in small inquiries because of the relative advantage of time and money
Quota sampling is also an example of non-probability sampling, where
interviewers are simply given quotas to be filled from the different strata, with
some restrictions on how they are to be filled.
The actual selection of the items for the sample is left to the interviewer’s
discretion.
Probability sampling: (random sampling or chance sampling)
Every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample i.e a
lottery method or some mechanical process.
The results obtained from probability sampling can be assured in terms of
probability i.e., we can measure the errors of estimation
It ensures the law of Statistical Regularity: the random sample will have the
same composition and characteristics as the universe.
Simple random sampling:
(a) It gives each element in the population an equal probability of getting into
the sample
(b) It gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being
chosen.
In a finite population of N elements a sample need to be chosen of n elements
then there will be NCn possible samples among which one is chosen randomly
1/NCn.
Eg: in a finite population consisting of six elements (say a, b, c, d, e, f ) i.e., N =
6. Suppose that we want to take a sample of size n = 3 from it. Then there are
6C3 = 20 possible distinct samples and they consist of the elements abc, abd,
abe, abf, acd, ace, acf, ade, adf, aef, bcd, bce, bcf, bde, bdf, bef, cde, cdf, cef,
and def. If we choose one of these samples randomly then 1/20.
COMPLEX RANDOM SAMPLING DESIGNS
1. Systematic sampling: select every ith item on a list, randomness is
introduced into this kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the
unit with which to start. Eg: the first item would be selected randomly from the
first twenty-five and thereafter every 25th item would automatically be included
in the sample.
Advantage:
Systematic sample is spread more evenly over the entire population.
It is an easier and less costlier method of sampling
Manjunatha E , BITM Page
30
 Research Methodology

Disadvantages:
If there is a hidden periodicity in the population then will be an inefficient
method of sampling.
2. Stratified sampling: This technique is if a population from which a sample
is to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group
The population is divided into several sub-populations that are individually
more homogeneous than the total population (‘strata’) and then we select items
from each stratum to constitute a sample.
Stratified sampling results in more reliable and detailed information
How to form strata?
The strata can be formed based on the common characteristic(s) of the items to
be put in each stratum such that elements being most homogeneous within
each stratum and most heterogeneous between the different strata.
How should items be selected from each stratum?
Usual method of simple random sampling for selection of items for the sample
from each stratum
How many items to be selected from each stratum or how to allocate the
sample size of each stratum?
i. proportional allocation
The sizes of the samples from the different strata are kept proportional to the
sizes of the strata.
That is, if Pi represents the proportion of population included in stratum i, and
n represents the total sample size, the number of elements selected from
stratum i is n * Pi.
Eg: sample of size n = 30 to be drawn from a population of size N = 8000 which
is divided into three strata of size N1 = 4000, N2 = 2400 and N3 = 1600.
Adopting proportional allocation for strata with:
N1 = 4000, we have P1 = 4000/8000 and hence n1 = n * P1 = 30 (4000/8000) = 15
N2 = 2400, we have P2 = 2400/8000 and hence n2 = n * P2 = 30 (2400/8000) = 9
N3 = 1600, we have P3 = 1600/8000 and hence n3 = n*. P3 = 30 (1600/8000) = 6

In cases where strata differ not only in size but also in variability and it is
considered reasonable to take larger samples from the more variable strata and
smaller samples from the less variable strata
Disproportionate sampling design
Sample design when both (differences in stratum size and differences in
stratum variability
Optimum allocation in the context of disproportionate sampling
n1/N1o1 = n2 /N2o2 =..............= nk /Nkok
Where:
o1, o2 , ... and ok denote the standard deviations of the k strata
N1, N2,…, Nk denote the sizes of the k strata
n1, n2,…, nk denote the sample sizes of k strata.

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

31
 Research Methodology

Eg:
A population is divided into three strata so that N1 = 5000, N2 = 2000 and N3
= 3000.
Respective standard deviations are:
o1 = 15, o2 = 18 and o3 = 5
How should a sample of size n = 84 be allocated to the three strata, if we want
optimum allocation using disproportionate sampling design?
Solution: Using the disproportionate sampling design for optimum allocation,
the sample sizes for different strata will be determined as under:

In addition to differences in stratum size and differences in stratum variability,

we may have differences in stratum sampling cost, then we can have cost
optimal disproportionate sampling design

Where

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

32
 Research Methodology

C1 = Cost of sampling in stratum 1

C2 = Cost of sampling in stratum 2
Ck = Cost of sampling in stratum k
(iii) Cluster sampling: If the total area of interest happens to be a big one;
then divide the area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas (clusters)
and then to randomly select n samples from each of these clusters
Eg: Suppose we want to estimate the proportion of machine parts in an
inventory which are defective. Also assume that there are 20000 machine parts
in the inventory at a given point of time, stored in 400 cases of 50 each.
Now using a cluster sampling, we would consider the 400 cases as clusters and
randomly select ‘n’ cases and examine all the machine parts
It is less precise than random sampling but is used only because of the
economic advantage it possesses
(iv) Area sampling: If clusters happen to be some geographic subdivisions, in
that case cluster sampling is better known as area sampling
(v) Multi-stage sampling: Multi-stage sampling is a further development of the
principle of cluster sampling.
Eg: Suppose we want to investigate the working efficiency of nationalized banks
in India
Two-stage sampling
The first stage is to select large primary sampling unit such as states in a
country. Then we may select certain districts and interview all banks in the
chosen districts
Three-stage sampling
If instead of taking a census of all banks within the selected districts, we select
certain towns and interview all banks in the chosen towns.
Four-stage sampling
If instead of taking a census of all banks within the selected towns, we
randomly sample banks from each selected town
Multi-stage random sampling
If we select randomly at all stages
Advantages
 It is easier to administer than most single stage designs
 A large number of units can be sampled for a given cost because of
sequential clustering
(vi) Sampling with probability proportional to size: In case the cluster
sampling units do not have the approximately the same number of elements
then list the number of elements in each cluster and sample systematically the
appropriate number of elements from the cumulative totals.( how many from
the cluster)
Manjunatha E , BITM Page
33
 Research Methodology

(vii) Sequential sampling: This sampling design is somewhat complex sample

design. The ultimate size of the sample under this technique is not fixed in
advance, but is determined according to mathematical decision rules on the
basis of information yielded as survey progresses. This is usually adopted in
case of acceptance sampling plan in context of statistical quality control.
Measurement and Scaling Techniques
Properties like weight, height, etc., can be measured directly with some
standard unit of measurement, but it is not that easy to measure properties
like motivation to succeed, ability to stand stress and the like
Measurement is a process of mapping aspects of a domain onto other aspects
of a range according to some rule of correspondence.
In measuring, we devise some form of scale in the range and then map the
properties of objects from the domain onto this scale.
Eg:
Male to female attendance ratio: male, assign to “0” and if female assign to “1”.
Marital status: as 1, 2, 3 or 4, depending on whether single, married, widowed
or divorced
MEASUREMENT SCALES
The most widely used classification of measurement scales are: (a) nominal
scale; (b) ordinal scale; (c) interval scale; and (d) ratio scale
(a) Nominal scale: assigning number symbols to events in order to label them
eg: assignment of numbers of basketball players in order to identify them
It is a least powerful level of measurement. It indicates no order or distance
relationship and has no arithmetic origin. They are useful and are widely used
in surveys and other ex-post-facto research when data are being classified by
major sub-groups of the population.
(b) Ordinal scale: The ordinal scale places events in order. Eg: A student’s
rank in his graduation class. Frequently used in qualitative phenomena
Ordinal scales only permit the ranking of items from highest to lowest. All that
can be said is that one person is higher or lower on the scale than another, but
more precise comparisons cannot be made.
(c) Interval scale: In the case of interval scale, the intervals are adjusted in
terms of some rule for making the units equal.
Interval scales can have an arbitrary zero, Eg: The Fahrenheit scale is an
example of an interval scale one can say that an increase in temperature from
30° to 40° involves the same increase in temperature as an increase from 60° to
70°, but one cannot say that the temperature of 60° is twice as warm as the
temperature of 30° because both numbers are dependent on the fact that the
zero on the scale is set arbitrarily at the temperature of the freezing point of
water.

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

34
 Research Methodology

Interval scales provide more powerful measurement than ordinal scales

statistical measures can be used with interval scales like Mean, standard
deviation
(d) Ratio scale: Ratio scales have an absolute or true zero of measurement.
The term ‘absolute zero’ is not as precise but can conceive of an absolute zero
Eg: the zero point on a centimeter scale indicates the complete absence of
length or height. But an absolute zero of temperature is theoretically
unobtainable.
The ratio allows a kind of comparison which is not possible in case of an
interval scale like weight, height, distance, etc. all statistical techniques are
usable with ratio scales.
Note:
Nominal scales merely classify without indicating order, distance or unique origin.
Ordinal scales indicate magnitude relationships of ‘more than’ or ‘less than’, but
indicate no distance or unique origin.
Interval scales have both order and distance values, but no unique origin.
Ratio scales possess all these features.

Sources of Error in Measurement

Measurement should be precise and unambiguous in an ideal research study
The following are the possible sources of error in measurement
(a) Respondent: The respondent may be reluctant to express strong negative
feelings or have very little knowledge or fatigue, boredom, anxiety, etc. may
limit the ability of the respondent to respond accurately and fully.
(b) Situation: Any condition which places a strain on interview can have
serious effects on the interviewer-respondent rapport.
For instance, if someone else is present, or if respondent feels that anonymity
is not assured.
(c) Measurer: The interviewer behaviour, style and looks, rewording or
reordering of questions mechanical processing may distort the findings can
introduce errors.
(d) Instrument: Error may arise because of the defective measuring instrument,
use of complex words, ambiguous meanings, poor printing
Tests of Sound Measurement
Sound measurement must meet the tests of validity, reliability and practicality.
1. Test of Validity*
Validity indicates the degree to which an instrument measures what it is
supposed to measure
Three types of validity:

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

35
 Research Methodology

(i) Content validity is the extent to which a measuring instrument provides

adequate coverage of the topic under study. If the instrument contains a
representative sample of the universe, the content validity is good.
(ii) Criterion-related validity relates to our ability to predict some outcome or
estimate the existence of some current condition.
The concerned criterion must possess the following qualities:
Relevance, Freedom from bias, Reliability, Availability
Predictive validity: usefulness of a test in predicting some future performance
Concurrent validity: usefulness of a test in closely relating to other measures
of known validity
(iii) Construct validity: Construct validity is the degree to which scores on a
test can be accounted for by the explanatory constructs of a sound theory
For determining, the results of our measurement instrument is associated with
a set of other propositions
If measurements on our devised scale correlate in a predicted way with these
other propositions, we can conclude that there is some construct validity.
2. Test of Reliability
A measuring instrument is reliable if it provides consistent results. Reliable
measuring instrument may not be always valid and vice versa.
Two aspects of reliability
Stability: securing consistent results with repeated measurements of the same
person and with the same instrument
Equivalence: how much error may get introduced by different investigators or
different samples of the items being studied.
Reliability can be improved in the following two ways:
By standardizing the conditions under which the measurement takes place
By carefully designed directions for measurement with no variation from group
to group
3. Test of Practicality
The practicality characteristic of a measuring instrument can be judged in
terms of economy, convenience and interpretability
Economy consideration is some trade-off is between the ideal research project
and budget can afford
Convenience test suggests that the measuring instrument should be easy to
administer
Interpretable: (a) detailed instructions for administering the test; (b) scoring
keys; (c) evidence about the reliability and (d) guides for using the test and for
interpreting results.

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

36
 Research Methodology

TECHNIQUE OF DEVELOPING MEASUREMENT TOOLS

The technique of developing measurement tools involves a four-stage process,
consisting of the following:
(a) Concept development: the researcher should arrive at an understanding of
the major concepts pertaining to his study
(b) Specification of concept dimensions: the researcher to specify the
dimensions of the concepts accomplished by deduction by empirical correlation
of the individual dimensions with the total concept
(c) Selection of indicators: Indicators are specific questions, scales, or other
devices by which respondent’s knowledge, opinion, expectation, etc., are
measured
(d) Formation of index: combining the various indicators into an index,
provide scale values to the responses and then sum up the corresponding
scores
Scaling
In research we want a valid measurement but may not obtain it, specially the
complex and abstract concepts do not possess the standardized measurement
tools.
This brings us to the study of scaling techniques.
Scaling is a procedure for the assignment of numbers (or other symbols) to a
property of objects in order to impart some of the characteristics of numbers to
the properties in question.
Scale Classification Bases
The scaling procedures may be broadly classified into:
(a) Subject orientation; (b) response form; (c) degree of subjectivity; (d) scale
properties; (e) number of dimensions and (f) scale construction techniques.
(a) Subject orientation:
Scale designed to measure characteristics of the respondent presuming that
the stimuli presented are sufficiently homogeneous and variation is small
Scale designed to measure respondent while judging the object which is
presented in terms of one or more dimensions and we presume that the
between-respondent variation will be small
(b) Response form: two types categorical and comparative.
Categorical scales (rating scales): A respondent scores some object without
direct reference to other objects.
Comparative scales (ranking scales): the respondent is asked to compare two
or more objects.
(c) Degree of subjectivity:
Subjective personal preferences: respondent is asked to choose which person
he favors or which solution he would like to see
Manjunatha E , BITM Page
37
 Research Methodology

Non-preference judgments: respondent is asked to judge which person is

more effective in some aspect or which solution will take fewer resources
(d) Scale properties: Considering scale properties, one may classify the scales
as nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales.
(e) Number of dimensions:
Uni-dimensional: consider only one attributes of the respondent or object
Multidimensional: consider attribute space of ‘n’ dimensions
(f) Scale construction techniques:
Following are the five main techniques by which scales can be developed.
(i) Arbitrary approach: It is an approach where scale is developed on ad hoc
basis.
(ii) Consensus approach: Here a panel of judges evaluates the items chosen
for in terms of relevancy and unambiguous
Item analysis approach: number of individual items is developed into a test
which is given to a group of respondents the total scores are calculated for
everyone. Individual items are then analyzed to determine which items
discriminate between persons or objects with high total scores and those with
low scores.
(iv) Cumulative scales: are chosen on the basis of their conforming to some
ranking of items with ascending and descending discriminating power.
(v) Factor scales: may be constructed on the basis of inter correlations of
items which indicate that a common factor accounts for the relationship
between items.
Important Scaling Techniques
1. Rating scales: qualitative description of aspects of a thing or of traits of a
person.
Categorical scales are used to judge an object against some specified criteria
These ratings may be in such forms as “like-dislike”, “above average, average,
below average”, “like very much—like somewhat—neutral—dislike somewhat—
dislike very much”
The graphic rating scale: rater indicates his rating by simply making a mark
at the appropriate point on a line
The itemized rating scale (numerical scale): presents a series of statements
from which a respondent selects one as best reflecting his evaluation
2. Ranking scales: Under ranking scales (comparative scales) we make relative
judgments against other similar objects.
a) Method of paired comparisons: the respondent can express his attitude by
making a choice between two objects but when there are more than two objects
to judge, the number of judgments required is
N=n(n-1)/2
Manjunatha E , BITM Page
38
 Research Methodology

N = number of judgments
n = number of stimuli or objects to be judged
When N happens to be a big figure, there is the risk of respondents giving ill
considered answers or they may even refuse to answer
So reduce the number of comparisons per respondent or by choosing a few
objects which cover the range
Paired comparison provides ordinal data, but the same may be converted into
an interval scale by the method of the Law of Comparative Judgement
Eg: Suppose there are four proposals which some union bargaining committee
is considering. The committee wants to know how the union membership ranks
these proposals. For this purpose a sample of 100 members might express the
views as shown in the following table:

Comparing the total number of preferences for each of the four proposals, we find that C is the most
popular, followed by A, B and D respectively in popularity
Steps to develop an interval scale from the paired comparison ordinal data
Find the column mean
Where:

Mp = the mean proportion of the columns

C = the total number of choices for a given suggestion
n = number of stimuli (proposals in the given problem)
N = number of items in the sample.
When the Mp value is less than .5, the Z value is negative and for all Mp values higher than
.5, the Z values are positive.

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

39
 Research Methodology

As the Zj values represent an interval scale, zero is an arbitrary value. Hence we can eliminate negative
scale values by giving the value of zero to the lowest scale value. This scale has been shown in Rj row in
the above table.

(b) Method of rank order: the respondents are asked to rank their choices.
Scale Construction Techniques***
Not required
Methods of Data Collection
The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined
and research design/plan chalked out.
Researcher should keep in mind two types of data viz., primary and secondary.
The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time,
and thus happen to be original in character.
The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been
collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the
statistical process.
COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA
We collect primary data during the course of doing experiments in an
experimental research but in case we do research of the descriptive type and
perform surveys
Several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in surveys and
descriptive researches:
Observation Method
The information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct observation
without asking from the respondent
Advantages
 Subjective bias is eliminated
 The information relates to what is currently happening not dependent on
past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes
 Independent of respondents willingness to respond
Disadvantages
 Expensive method. Secondly,
 The information provided by this method is very limited
 sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task
structured observation: In case the observation is characterized by a careful
definition of the units to be observed, the style of recording the observed

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

40
 Research Methodology

information, standardized conditions of observation and the selection of

pertinent data of observation.
Unstructured observation: if above is not followed
Participant observation: If the observer observes by making himself a member
of the group
Non-participant observation: when the observer observes without being part
of the group but by experience of what others feel
Uncontrolled observation: If the observation takes place in the natural setting
Controlled observation: when observation takes place according to definite
pre-arranged plans, involving experimental procedure
Interview Method
The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal
stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses
(a) Personal interviews: face-to-face interview between a person and
interviewer
Personal investigation: the interviewer has to collect the information
personally from the sources concerned.
Indirect oral investigation: the interviewer deputes other persons who
have knowledge about the problem under investigation and the
information, obtained is recorded
Structured interviews Personal interviews is usually carried out in a
structured way and have predetermined questions and of highly
standardized techniques of recording
Unstructured interviews are characterized by a flexibility of approach to
questioning they do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and
standardized techniques of recording
Focused interview is meant to focus attention on the given experience of
the respondent and its Effects
Clinical interview is concerned with broad underlying feelings or
motivations or with the course of individual’s life experience
Non-directive interview: the interviewer’s function is simply to
encourage the respondent to talk about the given topic
Advantages

 More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.

 Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance of the
respondents
 There is greater flexibility under this method to restructure
questions

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

41
 Research Methodology

 Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal

answers
 Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this
method.
 Samples can be controlled more effectively
 The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the
questions.
Disadvantages
 It is a very expensive method
 There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as
that of the respondent
 Certain types of respondents may not be easily approachable
 more-time-consuming when the sample is large
 The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the
respondent and may give imaginary information
 Selecting, training and supervising the field-staff is more complex
 Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic errors
(b) Telephone interviews: This method of collecting information consists in
contacting respondents on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method
Advantages
 flexible faster cheaper easy than other methods
 higher rate of response
 Replies can be recorded
 No field staff is required.
 Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.
Disadvantages
 Little time is given to respondents
 Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost
considerations
 It is not suitable for intensive surveys
 Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.
 Questions have to be short and to the point

COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH QUESTIONNAIRES

In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons
concerned with a request to answer the questions and return the
questionnaire. Usually employed in various economic and business surveys
Advantages
 Low cost, free from the bias of the interviewer
 Respondents have adequate time
 Respondents can also be reached conveniently
Manjunatha E , BITM Page
42
 Research Methodology

 Large samples can be made use

Disadvantages
 Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires
 used only when respondents are educated and cooperating
 ambiguous replies or omission of replies
 slowest of all
Before using this method, it is always advisable to conduct ‘pilot study’
Three Main aspects of a questionnaire
1. General form:
 Structured questionnaires are those questionnaires in which there are
definite, concrete and pre-determined questions
 The question type may be closed with only ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers or open
(i.e., inviting free response) either MCQ or one word answers
2. Question sequence:
 The question-sequence must be clear and smoothly-moving, there should
be relation from one question to another
 question-sequence should usually go from the general to the more
specific
3. Question formulation and wording:
 Should be easily understood
 Should be simple i.e., should convey only one thought at a time;
 Should be concrete and should conform to the respondent’s way of
thinking
 The question type can be yes no type or MCQ or descriptive
Essentials of a good questionnaire:
 The questionnaire should be short and simple
 Questions should proceed in logical sequence moving from easy to more
difficult questions.
 Personal and intimate questions should be left to the end.
 Technical terms and vague questions should be avoided

COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH SCHEDULES

This method similar to questionnaire method the schedules (proforma
containing a set of questions) are being filled in by the enumerators who are
specially appointed for the purpose.
These enumerators along with schedules go to respondents, put to them the
questions from the proforma in the order the questions are listed and record
the replies
Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the investigation and also remove
the difficulties of respondents

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

43
 Research Methodology

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUESTIONNAIRES AND SCHEDULES

 The questionnaire is generally sent through mail but the schedule is
generally filled out by the research worker or the enumerator
 To collect data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical
but to collect data through schedules is relatively more expensive
 Non-response is usually high in case of questionnaire non-response is
generally very low in case of schedules because these are filled by
enumerators
 In case of questionnaire, it is not always clear as to who replies, but in
case of schedule the identity of respondent is known
 The questionnaire method is likely to be very slow but in case of
schedules the information is collected well in time as they are filled in by
enumerators
 Personal contact is generally not possible in case of the questionnaire
method but in case of schedules direct personal contact is established
with respondents
 Questionnaire method can be used only when respondents are literate
and cooperative but schedules the information can be gathered even
when the respondents happen to be illiterate
 Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong information is relatively more
under the questionnaire but in case of schedules, the information
collected is generally complete and accurate
 The success of questionnaire method lies more on the quality of the
questionnaire itself, but in the case of schedules much depends upon the
honesty and competence of enumerators.
SOME OTHER METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
1. Warranty cards: Warranty cards are usually postal sized cards which are
used by dealers of consumer durables to collect information regarding their
products. The information sought is printed in the form of questions on the
‘warranty cards’ which is placed inside the package along with the product with
a request to the consumer to fill in the card and post it back to the dealer.
2. Distributor or store audits: Distributor or store audits are performed by
distributors as well as manufactures through their salesmen at regular
intervals to get information to estimate market size, market share, seasonal
purchasing pattern and so on.
3. Pantry audits: used to estimate consumption of the basket of goods at the
consumer level. The investigator collects an inventory of types, quantities and
prices of commodities consumed. Objective in a pantry audit is to find out what
types of consumers buy certain products and certain brands.

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

44
 Research Methodology

4. Consumer panels: An extension of the pantry audit approach on a regular

basis sample of consumers who are interviewed repeatedly over a period of time
who maintain detailed daily records of their consumption and the same is
made available to investigator
5. Use of mechanical devices: mechanical devices like Eye camera, Pupilo
metric camera, Psycho galvanometer, Motion picture camera and Audiometer
are the principal devices so far developed and commonly used by modern big
business houses, mostly in the developed world for the purpose of collecting
the required information.
6. Projective techniques: (indirect interviewing techniques) developed by
psychologists to use projections of respondents for inferring about underlying
motives, urges, or intentions which are such that the respondent either resists
to reveal them or is unable to figure out himself
Important projective techniques:
(i) Word association tests (ii) Sentence completion tests (iii) Story completion
tests (iv) Verbal projection tests (v) Pictorial techniques (vi) Play techniques (vii)
Quizzes, tests and examinations (viii) Sociometry
7. Depth interviews: Depth interviews are those interviews that are designed
to discover underlying motives and desires and are often used in motivational
research. Such interviews are held to explore needs, desires and feelings of
respondents.
8.Content-analysis: Content-analysis consists of analysing the contents of
documentary materials such as books, magazines, newspapers and the
contents of all other verbal materials which can be either spoken or printed.

*********************End of Module 3*****************************

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

45
 Research Methodology
Module 4:
Interpretation and report writing - Techniques of interpretation - Structure and
components of scientific reports - Different steps in the preparation - Layout,
structure and language of the report - Illustrations and tables - Types of report
- Technical reports and thesis

 4:Interpretation and report writing

After collecting and analyzing the data, the researcher has to accomplish the
task of drawing inferences followed by report writing. This has to be done very
carefully, otherwise misleading conclusions may be drawn and the whole
purpose of doing research may get vitiated.
Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts
after an analytical and/or experimental study
Interpretation has two major aspects viz.,
(i) Incremental research: linking the results of a given study with those of
another
(ii) The establishment of some explanatory concepts.
WHY INTERPRETATION?
Because of the following reasons:
(i) To understand the abstract principle that works beneath his findings. Then
link up his findings with other studies, having the same abstract principle, and
thereby can predict world of events. This way the continuity in research can be
maintained.
(ii) Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts that can
serve as a guide for future research studies
(iii) To make others understand the real significance of his research findings.
(iv)To transit from exploratory to experimental research The interpretation of
exploratory study act as input to be proved through hypothesis called as ‘post
factum’ interpretation.
TECHNIQUE OF INTERPRETATION
Interpretation is an art that one learns through practice and experience. The
researcher can seek the guidance from experts.
The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps:
(i) Researcher must interpret and give explanations of relationship in terms of
the underlying processes which he has found and he must find out the thread
of uniformity that lies under the surface layer of his diversified research
(ii) Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered
while interpreting the final results of research study
(iii) Before final interpretation consult someone having insight into the study
and who is frank and honest point out omissions and errors in logical
argumentation.
(iv)Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering
all relevant factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization. (without
hurry)
PRECAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION
Manjunatha E , BITM Page
46
 Research Methodology
Researcher must pay attention to the following points for correct interpretation:
(i) Researcher must confirm that (a) the data are appropriate, trustworthy and
adequate for drawing inferences; (b) the data reflect good homogeneity; (c)
proper analysis has been done through statistical methods.
(ii) The researcher must be cautious of errors in the process of interpreting
results due to false generalization or wrong interpretation of statistical
measures
(iii) The researcher must always keep in view precautions concerning analysis
viz., the reliability of data, computational checks, validation and comparison of
results.
(iv) Broad generalization should be avoided as most research may be restricted
to a particular time, a particular area and particular conditions. Such
restrictions, must invariably be specified and the results
(v) There should be constant interaction between initial hypothesis, empirical
observation and theoretical conceptions.
DIFFERENT STEPS IN WRITING REPORT
1. Logical analysis of the subject matter: It is the first step primarily
concerned with development of a subject.
There are two ways in which to develop a subject
(a) Logically: made on the basis of mental analysis of associations between the
one thing to another
(b) Chronologically: based on a connection or sequence in time or occurrence
2. Preparation of the final outline: It is the next “Outlines are the framework
upon which long written works are constructed. They are an aid to the logical
organisation of the material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the
report.”
3. Preparation of the rough draft: Now write down the procedure adopted in
collecting the material, various limitations faced, the technique of analysis, the
broad findings and generalizations and the various suggestions regarding the
problem concerned.
4. Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft: The careful revision and
polishing check the report for weaknesses in logical development or
presentation, check unity and cohesion, exhibit a definite pattern, grammar,
spelling and usage.
5. Preparation of the final bibliography: The bibliography appended to the
research report, It should contain all those works, which the researcher has
consulted. The bibliography should be arranged alphabetically and may be
divided into two parts
The first part may contain the names of books and pamphlets
The second part may contain the names of magazine and newspaper articles
For books and pamphlets the order may be as under:
1. Name of author, last name first.
2. Title, underlined to indicate italics.
3. Place, publisher, and date of publication.
4. Number of volumes.
Example
Manjunatha E , BITM Page
47
 Research Methodology

Kothari, C.R., Quantitative Techniques, New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House

Pvt. Ltd., 1978.
For magazines and newspapers the order may be as under:
1. Name of the author, last name first.
2. Title of article, in quotation marks.
3. Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics.
4. The volume or volume and number.
5. The date of the issue.
6. The pagination.

6. Writing the final draft: The final draft should be written in a concise and
objective style and in simple language, avoiding vague expressions such as “it
seems”, “there may be”, must avoid abstract terminology and technical jargon.
Illustrations and examples must be incorporated.
LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT
Anybody, who is reading the research report, must be conveyed enough about
the study, judge the adequacy of its methods. For this purpose there is the
need of proper layout of the report.
A comprehensive layout of the research report should comprise:
(A) Preliminary Pages
Preliminary pages of the report should carry a title and date, followed by
acknowledgements. Then table of contents followed by list of tables and
illustrations so that anybody can easily locate the required information in the
report.
(B) Main Text
The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with
all details. Title is repeated at the top of the first page and then follows the
other details on pages numbered consecutively; each main section of the report
should begin on a new page.
The main text of the report should have the following sections:
(i) Introduction: to introduce the research project to the readers. It should
contain:
 Objectives of research
 Why the problem was considered worth investigating
 Summary of other relevant research in that context
 The hypotheses of study
 Methodology adopted
 How was the study carried out? What was its basic design?
 What were the experimental manipulations?
 The statistical analysis adopted
 The scope of the study and limitations
(ii) Statement of findings and recommendations: After introduction, the
research report must contain a statement of findings and recommendations in
non-technical language. If the findings are extensive put in the summarized
form.

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

48
 Research Methodology

(iii) Results: A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with

supporting data in the form of tables and charts together with a validation of
results. This is the main body of the report, extending over several chapters.
This section should contain statistical summaries and reductions of the data
rather than the raw data. All the relevant results should be presented in logical
sequence and spitted into readily identifiable sections.
(iv) Implications of the results: At the end of the main text again put down
the results clearly and precisely.
State the implications that flow from the results of the study
Such implications may have three aspects as stated below:
(a) The inferences drawn from the research and its application in similar
circumstances.
(b) The conditions of the present study which may limit the extent of
generalizations of the inferences drawn.
(c) The relevant questions that still remain unanswered or new questions raised
by the study along with suggestions for further research.
Finish the report with a short conclusion which summarizes and recapitulates
the main points of the study. The conclusion should be related to the
hypotheses stated earlier and future enhancement.
(v) Summary: It has become customary to conclude the research report with a
very brief summary, resting in brief the research problem, the methodology, the
major findings and the major conclusions drawn from the research results.
(C) End Matter
At the end of the report should contain appendices of
All technical data, sample information, mathematical derivations
Bibliography of sources consulted
Index (an alphabetical listing of names, places and topics numbers of the
pages)
TYPES OF REPORTS
Research reports vary greatly in length and type depending on the problems at
hand. Ph.D. theses and dissertations are also a form of report-writing.
The results of a research investigation can be presented in a number of ways
viz., a technical report, a popular report, an article, a monograph or oral
presentation.
(A) Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on (i) the methods employed,
assumptions made (iii) the detailed presentation of the findings including their
limitations and supporting data.
A general outline of a technical report can be as follows:
1. Summary of results: A brief review of the main findings just in two or
three pages.
2. Nature of the study: Description of the general objectives of study,
formulation of the problem in operational terms, the working hypothesis,
the type of analysis and data required, etc.
3. Methods employed: Specific methods used in the study and their
limitations.
Manjunatha E , BITM Page
49
 Research Methodology

4. Data: Discussion of data collected their sources, characteristics and

limitations, suitability of secondary data to the problem and in case of a
survey, the manner in which data were collected.
5. Analysis of data and presentation of findings: with supporting data in
the form of tables and charts be fully narrated usually extending over
several chapters.
6. Conclusions: A detailed summary of the findings and the policy
implications drawn from the results Bibliography: Bibliography of various
sources consulted be prepared and attached.
7. Technical appendices: Appendices be given for all technical matters
relating to questionnaire, mathematical derivations, elaboration on
particular technique of analysis
8. Index: Index must be prepared and be given invariably in the report at
the end.
The order of presentation different sections may not necessarily be the same in
all the technical reports but simple presentation and ready availability of the
findings, liberal use of charts and diagrams is considered desirable.

(B) Popular Report

It gives emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness through clear writing,
minimization of technical, mathematical, details and liberal use of charts and
diagrams. Attractive layout with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon
A general outline of a popular report:
1. The findings and their implications: Emphasis on the most practical
interest and the implications of these findings.
2. Recommendations for action: Recommendations for action on the basis
of the findings of the study
3. Objective of the study: A general review of how the problem arises and
specific objectives of the project under study.
4. Methods employed: A brief and non-technical description of the
methods and techniques used
5. Results: The results of the study are presented in clear and non-
technical terms with liberal use of all sorts of illustrations such as charts,
diagrams
6. Technical appendices: More detailed information on methods used,
forms, etc. is presented in the form of appendices.
ORAL PRESENTATION
During oral presentation of the results of the study is considered effective,
particularly in cases where policy recommendations are indicated by project
results.
The advantage is it provides an opportunity for give-and-take decisions which
generally lead to a better understanding of the findings and their implications.
The disadvantage is the lack of any permanent record concerning the research
details

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

50
 Research Methodology

To overcome this difficulty, a written report may be circulated before the oral
presentation and referred to frequently during the discussion. Oral
presentation can be supplemented by various visual devices like slides, charts
and blackboards.

MECHANICS OF WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT

There are set rules which should be followed in the actual preparation of the
research report or paper and no deviation permitted.
The following are mechanics of writing a report:
1. Size and physical design: The manuscript should be written on unruled
paper 8 ½’’ × 11’’ in size. A margin of 1 ½’’ at the left hand, ½’’ at the right
hand, 1’’ at top and bottom of the paper. all typing should be double-spaced on
one side of the page.
2. Procedure: Various steps in writing the report should be strictly adhered
3. Layout: Keeping in view the objective and nature of the problem, the layout
of the report should be thought of and decided and accordingly adopted.
4. Treatment of quotations: Quotations should be placed in quotation marks
and double spaced, forming an immediate part of the text.
5. The footnotes: Regarding footnotes one should keep in view the followings:
(a) The footnotes serve two purposes viz., the identification of materials used in
quotations and supplemental materials not immediately necessary to the body
of the research.
In other words, footnotes are meant for cross references, citation of authorities
and sources, acknowledgement and elucidation or explanation of a point of
view.
(b) Footnotes are placed at the bottom of the page separated from the textual
material by a space of half an inch and a line about one and a half inches long.
(c) Footnotes should be numbered consecutively, usually beginning with 1 in
each chapter separately. The number should be put slightly above the line.
(d) Footnotes are always typed in single space though they are divided from one
another by double space.
6. Documentation style: the first footnote reference to any given work should
be complete in its documentation, giving all the essential facts about the
edition used.
The common order may be described as under:
(i) Regarding the single-volume reference
1. Author’s name in normal order (and not beginning with the last name
as in a bibliography) followed by a comma;
2. Title of work, underlined to indicate italics;
3. Place and date of publication;
4. Pagination references (The page number).
Example
John Gassner, Masters of the Drama, New York: Dover Publications, Inc.
1954, p. 315.
(ii) Regarding multi volume reference
1. Author’s name in the normal order;
Manjunatha E , BITM Page
60
 Research Methodology

2. Title of work, underlined to indicate italics;

3. Place and date of publication;
4. Number of volume;
5. Pagination references (The page number).
(iii) Regarding works arranged alphabetically
For works arranged alphabetically such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, no
pagination reference is usually needed. In such cases the order is illustrated as
under:
Example 1
“Salamanca,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, 14th Edition.
(iv) Regarding periodicals reference
1. Name of the author in normal order;
2. Title of article, in quotation marks;
3. Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics;
4. Volume number;
5. Date of issuance;
6. Pagination.
(v) Regarding anthologies and collections reference
Quotations from anthologies or collections of literary works must be
acknowledged not only by author, but also by the name of the collector.
(vi) Regarding second-hand quotations reference
In such cases the documentation should be handled as follows:
1. Original author and title;
2. “quoted or cited in,”;
3. Second author and work.
Example
J.F. Jones, Life in Ploynesia, p. 16, quoted in History of the Pacific Ocean
area, by R.B. Abel, p. 191.
(vii) Case of multiple authorship
 If there are more than two authors or editors, then in the documentation
the name of only the first is given and indicated by “et al.”
 If the work is cited again without any other work intervening, it may be
indicated as ibid, followed by a comma and the page number.
 A single page should be referred to as p., but more than one page be
referred to as pp. If there are several pages referred to at a stretch, then
pp. 190ff, which means page number 190 and the following pages; but
only for page 190 and the following page ‘190f’.
 Roman numerical is generally used to indicate the number of the volume
of a book.
 Op. cit. (opera citato, in the work cited) or Loc. cit. (loco citato, in the
place cited) are two of the very convenient abbreviations used in the
footnotes. Op. cit. or Loc. cit. after the writer’s name would suggest that
the reference is to work by the writer which has been cited in detail in an
earlier footnote but intervened by some other references.

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

61
 Research Methodology

7. Punctuation and abbreviations in footnotes:

The first item after the number in the footnote is the author’s name, given in
the normal signature order followed by a comma.
After the comma, the title of the book is given: the article (such as “A”, “An”,
“The” etc.) is omitted and only the first word and proper nouns and adjectives
are capitalized. The title is followed by a comma.
Information concerning the edition is given next. This entry is followed by a
comma.
The place of publication is then stated; it may be mentioned in an abbreviated
form, if the place happens to be a famous like N.Y. for New York followed by a
comma.
Then the name of the publisher is mentioned and this entry is closed by a
comma.
It is followed by the date of publication if the date is given on the title page. If
the date appears in the copyright notice on the reverse side of the title page or
elsewhere in the volume, the comma should be omitted and the date enclosed
in square brackets [c 1978], [1978]. followed by a comma.
Then follow the volume and page references and are separated by a comma.

Certain English and Latin abbreviations are quite often used in bibliographies
and footnotes to eliminate tedious repetition. The following is a partial list of
the most common abbreviations frequently used in report-writing
8. Use of statistics, charts and graphs: A judicious use of statistics in
research reports is contributes the clarification and simplification of the
material and research results. Statistics are usually presented in the form of
tables, charts, bars and line-graphs and pictograms.
9. The final draft: before writing the final draft the researcher should put to
himself questions like:
 Are the sentences written in the report clear?
 Are they grammatically correct?
 Do they say what is meant’?
 Do the various points incorporated in the report fit together logically?
 “Having at least one colleague read the report just before the final
revision is extremely helpful.
10. Bibliography: Bibliography should be prepared and appended to the
research report as discussed earlier.
11. Preparation of the index: an index at the end of the report acts as a good
guide, to the reader.
 Index may be
 Subject index subject-topics or concepts along with the number of pages
 Author index names of authors and page numbers

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

62
 Research Methodology
anon., anonymous Intro., intro., introduction
ante., before l, or ll, line(s)
art., article loc. cit., in the place cited; used as op.cit., (when
aug., augmented new reference
bk., book loco citato: is made to the same pagination as cited
bull., bulletin in the previous note)
cf., compare MS., MSS., Manuscript or Manuscripts
ch., chapter N.B., nota bene: note well
col., column n.d., no date
diss., dissertation n.p., no place
ed., editor, edition, edited. no pub., no publisher
ed. cit., edition cited no(s)., number(s)
e.g., exempli gratia: for example o.p., out of print
eng., enlarged op. cit: in the work cited (If reference has been
et.al., and others made to a work
et seq., et sequens: and the following opera citato and new reference is to be made, ibid.,
ex., example may be used, if intervening
f., ff., and the following reference has been made to different works, op.cit.
fig(s)., figure(s) must be used. The
fn., footnote name of the author must precede.
ibid., ibidem: in the same place (when two or p. or pp., page(s)
more successive footnotes refer to the same passim: here and there
work, it is not necessary to repeat complete post: after
reference for the second footnote. Ibid. may be rev., revised
used. If different pages are referred to, tr., trans., translator, translated, translation
pagination must be shown). vid or vide: see, refer to
id., idem: the same viz., namely
ill., illus., or illust(s). illustrated, illustration(s) vol. or vol(s)., volume(s)
vs., versus: against

PRECAUTIONS FOR WRITING RESEARCH REPORTS

Research report is prepared keeping the following precautions
1. The length of the report should be long enough to cover the subject but
short enough to maintain interest.
2. A research report should not, be dull; it should be such as to sustain
reader’s interest.
3. Abstract terminology and technical jargon should be avoided in a
research report. It should be written in an objective style in simple
language, avoiding expressions such as “it seems,” “there may be” and
the like.
4. Readers are often interested in acquiring a quick knowledge of the main
findings and as such the report must provide a ready availability of the
findings. For this purpose, charts, graphs and the statistical tables may
be used for the various results in the main report in addition to the
summary of important findings.
5. The layout of the report should be well thought out and must be
appropriate and in accordance with the objective of the research problem.

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

63
 Research Methodology

6. The reports should be free from grammatical mistakes and must be

prepared strictly in accordance with the techniques such as the use of
quotations, footnotes, documentation, proper punctuation and use of
abbreviations in footnotes.
7. The report must present the logical analysis of the subject matter.
8. A research report should show originality and should contribute to the
solution of a problem
9. Towards the end, the report must also makes a forecast of the probable
future of the subject concerned and indicates the kinds of research still
needs to be done in that particular field.
10. Appendices should be enlisted in respect of all the technical data in the
report.
11. Bibliography of sources consulted is a must
12. Index is also considered an essential part of a good report
13. Report must be attractive in appearance
14. Calculated confidence limits and the various constraints experienced
must be mentioned
15. Objective of the study, the nature of the problem, the methods employed
and the analysis techniques adopted must all be clearly stated in the
beginning of the report in the form of introduction.

*********************End of Module 4*****************************

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

64
 Research Methodology
Module 5:

5 Intellectual Property
IPRs- Invention and Creativity- Intellectual Property-Importance and Protection
of Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs)- A brief summary of: Patents, Copyrights,
Trademarks, Industrial Designs- Integrated Circuits-Geographical Indications-
Establishment of WIPO-Application and Procedures.
Kinds of Property
 Movable Property
 Car, Pen, Furniture, Dress
 Immovable Property
 Land, Building
 Intellectual Property
 Literary works, inventions
Nature of Intellectual Property
 Creation of human mind (Intellect)
 Intangible property
 Exclusive rights given by statutes
 Attended with limitations and exceptions
 Time-bound
 Territorial
What is Invention?
 Created to make life easier, better & safe
 Anything new or different in the world made by people
 Are made to solve problems
 Are ways to have fun or good things to eat
Who is Inventor?
 Who create inventions
 Can live anywhere in the world and be any age!
 Need to plan for a long time & have to try many times before they can get
their invention to work the right way
Major Intellectual Properties
 Copyright and Related Rights
 Industrial Property
 Patents
 Industrial Designs
 Trade Marks
 Geographical Indications
 Layout Designs/Topographies Integrated Circuits
 Trade Secrets
 Protection of New Plant Varieties

Definition of Intellectual Property

IP shall include the rights relating to:
 Literary, artistic & scientific works
 Performances of artists
Manjunatha E , BITM Page
65
 Research Methodology
 Inventions in all fields of human Endeavour
 Industrial and scientific fields
 Phonograms & Broadcasts
 Trademarks, commercial names & designations
How to protect IP
The inventions can be protected through, Patents, copyright, design
registration, trademark, trade secret, geographical indication.

PATENT
Invention Protection
 Once an invention works, inventors need to get a patent
 Patent makes sure that no one can copy their idea
 A patent means the inventor can sell their invention to make money!
Types of Invention
 Simplify any process or procedure of manufacture
 Make a new item from known item(s)
 Enhance efficiency, utility of an item
 Solution to a persisting problem in the technology
 Convert an item from one form to other for some benefit
Strength of the Invention
Strength of invention depends on the following factors
 What is the expected useful life?
 Is my invention detectible?
 What is new than the prior art?
 Create a roadblock to the competition, or is design-around available?
 Make the product less expensive?
 Give the marketing advantage?

Tips for Invention Protection

• It is important to write down everything and chronologically track
findings as they happen
 What is the invention and when was it conceived?
 How does it work and how should it look?
 What does the product do, and what problem does it solve?
• Any diagrams or photos that are taken of the invention, regardless of
what stage it is in, should be retained.
• These meticulous actions, although they may seem excessive at the time,
will protect an individual from possible entanglements in the future
What is Patent?
 A patent is a legal action that grants an inventor sole rights to their
invention in return for making the invention or idea known to the
public
 It is an exclusive right to stop others from producing, marketing, selling,
importing the invention

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

66
 Research Methodology

 It is a territorial right – it can be enforced only in the country where it is

granted
 It is a time bound right – it is valid only for 20 years from the date of first
filing
Patentability Condition

The invention should satisfy 3 conditions to be patentable

1. Conditions of Patentability – Novelty
 Does not exist in the prior art
 Not previously disclosed to public
 OK if Modification/Improvement of an existing product/process, or
use of something “old” in new/different way
 It should be borne in mind that the concept of novelty is very narrow
in patent law
2. Conditions of Patentability – Inventive Step
 An invention is said to be based on an inventive step if it is not
obvious to the expert from the state of the art
 The core of the matter, therefore is that ,the invention must be
distanced from the state of the art
3. Conditions of Patentability – Industrial Application
 Must be useful
 Cannot claim an arbitrary or useless combinations of elements

Patent Terminology
Who can apply?
• True and first inventor
• Assignee of inventor
• Legal representative inventor
• A firm or Institute as assignee
• Jointly
Date of patent
• Date on which application for patent was filed in India/PCT
Term of patent
• 20 years from the Date of filing
Grant of patent
• Is granted to the Applicant

Types of Patents
1. Utility Patent
• Most common type granted
• Works to produce a useful result
 Process (ex. making a new chemical or a new business method)
 Machine (ex. camera)
 Article of Manufacture (ex. carpet)
Manjunatha E , BITM Page
67
 Research Methodology

 Composition of matter (ex. adhesive)

2. Design Patent
• Ornamental appearance of an article of manufacture
• Design and the applied object are inseparable Ex. surface ornamentation
of flatware
3. Plant Patent
• Distinct & new variety of asexually propagated plant
• Not by tuber propagation, found in an uncultivated state, or by seeds
• Ex. hybrid rose plant with a novel color
WHAT CAN BE PATENTED? “Anything under the sun that is made by man.”
Products: things, Processes: ways to make things, Methods: ways to do things,
Improvements: better things, Defined Classes, Article of Manufacture, Machine,
Composition, Process, Business Methods, Services, and Software
Patentable Subject Matter (US)
 Processes/Methods: eg. a method for making a wafer or Spinning,
depositing, heating, polishing
 Machines/Apparatus/Device: eg. A lever connected to a gear
 Signals: a signal encoded to carry Information
 Software: a program calculating optimum wafer thickness
 Methods of Doing Business: accepting real time customer orders via an
electronic network
 Compositions of Matter: useful compounds (medicine)
 Biological Materials: Genetically engineered corn
Prior Art
 Is also known as the state of the art, is the information that is
available to the public in any form before a given date relevant to
patent’s claim of originality
 If an invention is described in prior art , a patent in that invention is
not valid
 A patent cannot claim something that already exists nor can it
something obvious
Grant of a Patent
 Patents are granted by national patent offices after publication and
substantial examination of the applications
 In India provisions exist for pre-grant and post grant opposition by
others
 Patents are valid within the territorial limits of the country
 Foreigners can also apply for patents
NOT PATENTABLE - INVENTIONS
 Anticipated things/item
 Anticipated things/item
Manjunatha E , BITM Page
68
 Research Methodology

 Mixture of known things

 Mathematical algorithm/software
Filing Strategies
Picking where to file:
 Your market
 Your competitor’s market
 Your competitor’s manufacturing facilities
 Enforcement potential
 Prosecution charges (budget)
Deciding how to first file:
 Desire for speedy issuance
 Indication of patentability
 Getting filing date to reserve place in line or due to impending
public disclosure
The Patent Process
 Application Preparation
 Application
 Rejection /Granting
Application Preparation
 Loop until perfect (order may vary):
o Clarify the invention
o Draft Claims
o Prior Art Search & Review
o Describe Preferred Embodiment
o Rough drawings
 Prepare Final Drawing
 Prepare Application forms & fees “package”
Application Submission
 Submit “Application” by mail
o Get IPO receipt & acknowledgement from IPO
 Protected from date of filing: maybe
o Easier for an application to be challenged than after patent that
has been granted.
Application Rejection
 The patent examiner will review the patent application
 Patents are almost always rejected at first
 Need to respond by “overcoming” the rejection with:
 Explain why rejection is invalid
 Prior art cited does not apply
 Why it would not be obvious to one skilled in the art
 Modify, add or delete claims
 Possible to talk with examiner, best done with attorney or patent agent
(keep record of what was agreed to & copy examiner)
 May loop through this process until patent granted

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

50
 Research Methodology

What are the Parts of a Patent Application?

 Abstract
 Background of the Invention
 Summary of the Invention
 Figures with brief descriptions
 Detailed description or “specification”
o Fully discloses what the invention is
o How it is made?
o How it can be used?
 Claim(s): sets the legal boundaries of protection
o Independent
o Dependent
Claiming the Invention
 The rights conferred by a patent need to be defined well, so that it is
clear to everyone what is and is not covered by the patent.
 Every patent contains one or more so-called "claims", which provide
a definition of what is covered by the patent.
 Terms used in a claim may be defined by the whole document, but
ultimately only what is described in the claims is protected.
Patent Life Cycle
 Invention /idea
 Patentability search (2-4 weeks)
 Application Preparation (4-6 Months)
 Filing with patent Office
 Examination/prosecution 2-4 years
 Grant of patent 2-5 years
 Commercialization, Maintenance
COPY RIGHT
 Rights given to creators for their literary and artistic works
 Protected works: books; newspapers; computer programs; databases;
films, musical compositions; choreography; paintings; drawings;
photographs; sculpture; architecture; advertisements; maps and
technical drawings.
 Protects manner of expression; not the idea, process or concept
 Precludes actual copying
 Exists automatically on creation of work
o Legal registration enhances protection
 Term
o author’s life + 70 years;
o lesser of 95 years from first publication or 120 years from creation
for works for hire
 Creations and works of art
o drawings/prints, musical works, text
o architectural plans, motion pictures, software
o multimedia works internet-distributed content

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

51
 Research Methodology

Scope of Copyright
 Original Literary, Dramatic, Musical and Artistic Works
o Work: Ideas expressed in material form
o No copyright in ideas or facts
 Cinematograph Films
 Sound Recordings
What rights are granted to authors?
 Copyright protection grants to the author both moral and economic
rights.
o Economic Rights: are exclusive rights over the use and
commercial exploitation of the intellectual work.
o Moral Rights: are exclusive personal rights of the author.
 Economic Rights
 Right of Reproduction
o Making copies e.g. an edition of a novel
o Storage in computer memory
 Right of Distribution/Issuing Copies
o Digital Distribution
 Right of Communication to the Public
o Public Performance
o Internet Communication
 Adaptation Rights
o Conversion into another form e.g. literary to drama
o Abridgement
o Picturizations, comic formats
 Right to make a cinematograph film or sound recording
 Translation Rights
 Rental Rights
 Resale Rights for original artistic works.
Author as Owner of Rights: Exceptions
 Lecture delivered in public – Person delivering
 Government Work – Government
 Public Undertaking Work – public undertaking
 Work of International Organization – International Organization

TRADE Mark
 A name of an enterprise or a Mark capable of being represented
graphically, distinguishing the goods or services of one person from those
of others e. g., Apple, Godrej, TATA Motors, Ford etc
 A sign capable of distinguishing the goods (or services) produced (or
provided) by one enterprise from those of others
 Crucial to differentiate products from those of competitors
 Basic pillar of any marketing strategy

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

52
 Research Methodology

 Important for enhancing recognition and reputation of the product and

for creating a loyal clientele
 Trade Mark can be -
o sign , words, letters, numbers,
o drawings, pictures, emblem,
o colours or combination of colours,
o shape of goods,
o graphic representation or packaging or
o any combination of the above as applied to an article or a product.
 Trademark registration:
o Provides exclusive right to prevent others from making identical
or similar products under the same or a confusingly similar mark
Basic requirements for registration
 Signs must have ‘distinctive character’.
 Signs describing the good or service they cover are, generally, excluded
from trademark protection (unless they have acquired distinctive
character through use).
Registration of Trade Mark
 Trade Marks are registered by national trade mark registries and are
valid in that country
 Registration is made after examination and publication
 Period of registration is for 10 years but can be renewed indefinitely
Kinds of Trademarks
 Marks on goods
 Service Marks
 Certification trademark
 Collective Marks
 Well known marks
 Trade Names
Geographical Indication

 Geographical Indication is an indication which identifies goods as

agricultural goods, natural goods or manufactured goods as originating,
or manufactured in the territory of country, or a region or locality in that
territory, where a given quality, reputation or other characteristic of
such goods is essentially attributable to its geographical origin.
o Examples: champagne, roquefort, tequila, chianti.
Registration
 In India, geographical indications have to be registered.
 Geographical Indications Registry examines and publishes the
application before registration
 Registration is valid for 10 years but can be renewed indefinitely
Eg: Tequila
 In 1977 Tequila was registered as a geographical indication in Mexico

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

53
 Research Methodology

 Tequila registered through Lisbon agreement and mutual recognition

agreements with the EU
 Only Mexican producers from 5 specified regions of the country (where
the raw material “agave” grows) are entitled to produce Tequila
 Over 190 million liters of Tequila are produced annually, giving direct
employment to over 36,000 Mexicans

Industrial Design
 Industrial Design (three-dimensional) and Drawings (bidimensional)
protect the external appearance of an object.
 Industrial Designs and Drawings protection last 10 years from the filing
date.
 Aesthetic features of a product
 Must be new, original and have an individual character
 Adds value to the product by making it more appealing to consumers.
 Enables customization of products to specific markets or target groups
(e.g. women, children, etc.)
Design protection
 Provides exclusive rights to prevent others from making, offering,
importing or selling any product in which the design is incorporated

Semiconductor integrated circuits layout-design

 Original and novel Layout-Designs of semiconductor integrated circuits

can get protection through registration
 Registration is done after examination and publication of the application
 Registration is valid for 10 years

Non-registrable Layout-Designs
 Not original
 Has been commercially exploited anywhere in India or in a convention
country
 Not inherently distinctive
 Not inherently capable of being distinguishable from any other registered
layout-design

*********************End of Module 5*****************************

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

54
 Research Methodology

Manjunatha E , BITM Page

55