Jed cook LECTURE NOTES ON THE AFRICAN ot : yer = RAMILY PREPARED BY IMORO, RAZAK JAHAL — UNIT ONE INTRODUCTION Nature of the Traditional African Family Family is considered a basic cell of the society. All social and cultural practices find their connection with a notion of family. Family plays a crucial role in Aftica. Mbiti says that “each person in African traditional life lives in or as a part of the family” (1975). Also Kisembo (1998) asserts that “the family community was the fundamental element of the African”. Despite the changes takin place in sub Saharan African societies due to the moderniz mm_process, the family still remains fa prominent nexus in the social life of Africans. African commur es are ‘characterized by the prevalence of collectivism as opposed.to individuality. Paulina Makinwa- ‘Adebusoye (2001) outlined the major characteristic features of African household to be that they are mostly rural, patriarchal and hierarchical, polygamous and open to kinship networks, and finally they attach substantial importance to lineage continuation. . The social organization of most African families is embedded in a patriarchal and hierarchical system, At marriage women tend to have lower status than all the members of their husband's family (Makinwa-adebusoye (20016). In traditional rural societies in most sub Saharan societies, ‘women were voiceless and powerless. There is the existence of substantial cultural importance attributed to fertility and lineage continuation, tight patriarchal traditions, wide rate of polygamy prevalence. These are the prominent features that characterized most traditional African societies. Nuclear family in the African context would consist of parents and their own children. Shorter (1998) sees such a family as autonomous and operating without reference to other relatives. Often their place of residence would be neolocal. Extended/wider family comprises more people. Mbiti (1969) says that “for African people the family has a much wider circle of members than the word suggests in Europe or North America. In traditional society, the family includes children. parents, grandparénts: uncles. aunts. brothers and sisters who-may have theircvwn children and other immediate relatives” The reiationships within extended family would be bused on Kinship (biological or putative blood relationship) and affinity (relationship between bleod relationships of one marriagé partner ar. those of the other martiage partner). Such a Family would include adopted and fostered children. in the traditional society polygamous marriages are a preferred form of marri ge (Waruta. 2005). Such marriages contributed to the extension of relationships of the family by incorporating more people. Characteristics of the traditional African family include: + Importance of the larger kin'group (extended family) beyond the nuclear family. + Dedication of the extended family to the raising and support of children. + Lack of public display of affection. + Care and respect for the elderly. + Marriage as a series of interrelated ceremonies. + Polygamy as a desired measure of social success or status: male access to younger women and female di ion of labor. + Less prominence of romance in courtship and marriage. + _ Constraified communication between parents and children, ‘Changing forms of the faniily'in Africa ‘Western Society seems to Hiave this idea that there is only one type of family, that of the nuclear formn. which consists of a mother. father. and children, This belief is an incredibly misinformed one as across the globe at any point in our social history there have been all sorts of views on ‘what families are and how they should be composed. The family as a social institution has been undergoing change. The modern families radically differs from. that of the traditional one. According to Talcott Parsons (1951) the family is losing many of its traditional: functions However. Parsoris maintains that the family is still very important. Its role is becomi 1g more=) © c L specialized. Its main contemporary function is the structuring of the personalities of young people and their stabilization as adults. The family is more specialized than before, but not in any general sense. because society is de cndent more exclusively on it for the performance of certain vital functions. According to Kilbride, Philip Leroy and janet Caprioti (1990) families are also essential to people's inner needs for instance marriage has become the only institution in which the individual can expect esteem end love, The family has never been at rest. Both in its structure and finetions changes have taken place. Therefore any discussion of the changing forms of the family must be premised these changes. + Some of these changes may be examined here; some of the functions of families have radically changed today while some others have received more attention ofthe public. A glance at these changes would clarify this point. The sexual regulation function of the family has not changed much, The family through its agent, marriage, still regulates the sexual impulse of the people Illicit sexual behavior is fairly uncommon. But it is true that in the western societies, pre-marital and extra marital sex relations are on the increase. The reproductive function of the family has suffered particularly in the western societies. In the western societies, it is said, parents no longer desire more children. Absence of children has become the most glaring feature of the western families. However, itis impossible to take away this reproductive function of the family particularly in Africa even though this is gradually also changing. The very survival of the human race is based on reproduction. In the past years the parental and the educational functions of the family have been shifted to certain external agencies like hospitals, outpatient clinics for mothers, maternity homes, the baby clinics, nurseries and kindergartens ete. The modem home is not equipped to train children for their adult careers. because the specialized division of labor requires specialized training which only the specialized gency of the schoo! can supplyThe productive functions of the family have declined particularly in the west. Famities are no more the places of protection for the physically handicapped. mentally retarded. aved. diseased in firm and insane people. Other azencies have taken over this function. But. for the young children it continues to provide physical and emotional protection. The economic funetion of the family has been disturbed a great deal, The family is no longer the economic unit, neither is i self-sufficient. It is no longer united by shared work, for its members work separately. It is more a consuming unit than a producing center. However, the family is not completely losing its functions but it is transforming this function to some external agencies. ‘The above explanations show the changing functions of the family in contemporary times mote particularly compared to the western societies. However the changes in the family as mentioned earlier is not only to the functions but also to the form or structure of the family. Therefore the discussion is incomplete on the changing nature of the family without looking at the changing forms or structures, Some of these changes in the form of the family worldwide include change in the nuclear family and the extended family systems. Some of the factors that orchestrate this change are thus discussed below. Fertility Rates: Fenility behaviour in sub-Saharan Africa, like other parts of the world, is determined by biological and social factors. Several factors have contributed to sustain relatively high levels of fertility in most of sub-Saharan Africa. These faetors include high levels of infant and child mortality. early and universal marriage, early child bearing as well as child bearing within much of the reproductive life span, low usé of contraception and ch social value placed ‘on child bearing. These factors have engineered an increas the familial relations creating more complex network of relationship and breaking closely knit family ties to more extended ones. Pulygyny: A critical continuity in African family patterns relates to the persistence af polyyynous practices. The much-anticipated decline in po! /nous households is still far from a social realitytat Le bL. in most Aftican countries. In rural areas. polygyny survives largely because of the imperatives established by the Sexual division of labor that marks the sphere of agriculture. Multiple wives. and by extension. inany children, are valued because they continue to provide essential labour services in rural agricultural production. But in most African urban areas, polygyny. once fairly common, is becoming rare, in particular among the younger generations. Comparative studies from Cameroon, Kenya, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, and Tanzania show that monogamous households hhave-taken a greater hold on society. Also the advent of religion has increase monogamy in the African family setting. : Single-Parenthood: Another factor that is undermining Kinship-based family structures is the prevalence of single parenthood, particularly among young urban females. As increasing numbers of women have joined the labour force, single and female-heatled households have become a discernible pattern on the African social landscape. Although some societies. continue ee rr——C"EEEE—_— singlehood, this new trend reflects attempts to adapt to secular changes in educational status, employment and occupational mobility, and in some cases, the decline of marriageable men. However, studies from most African cities have also shown that female-headed households are overrepresented among the poor. Africa's unplanned urban: sprawls are populated . with unmarried single and poor women who face considerable obstacles in overcoming dislocation, migration, and deprivation, . Fosterage: Fosterage constitutes part of the trend where the welfare of rural dwellers depends on their solidarity ties with urban kin families. A key component of this practice is the channeling of remit nces from urban workers to rural areas through educational support. By conferring parental responsibilities to their urban relatives, fosterage guaranteed the mobility of children from rural fa niles. Over the years. the fosterage of African children had important demographic and economic consequences. It subsidized high fertility among rural and poor families and gavepoor families the means of defraying child-rearing costs. In addition, when poor and large families transferred the guardianship of their chiltiren to smatler dnd wealthier families. fosterage mitigated inequalities in resource endowment among childre Changes in Rural Areas This economy has gradually been making way for wage earning family households whereby both the husband and wife have to strive to earn income primarily in the agricultural sector. Yet the transition to wage-earning households has occurred without corresponding shifts in power relations between the sexes, producing tensions that further . Silberschmidt’s work on the Kisii isi Kenya demonstrates the momentous changes in household structures as control over resources has shifted gradually away from men to women, With rampant unemployment and dwindling resources, men’s central roles as breadwinners have been redefined, meking it impossible for most men to fulfil these roles. New Trends Affecting Families Social changes together with reorientation of social values and increased participation of women in production of economic goods and services promoted functional and structural changes in the institution of the family. New patterns of marriages emerged superseding arranged marriages. A tendency on the part of younger generations, to overlook the consent of the “procreated” family for conduct of sexual behaviour; divorce and remarriage gained grourid in most countries, especially in the Western World. Children born out of wedlock became a common phenomenon, Cohabitation became popular among the young generations (De Silva, 1998). Some of them tended to think of such sexual behaviour as some Kind of pre-matriage experiment. This situation poses @ strong potential to change the attitudes. particularly of the younger generation. who experience and experiment with the changes, causing a pattern of delayed marriage. A resultant outcome is the decline in birth rate. Another issue arising out of such situations is the absence of 2 legal heir for property if one of the partners met an accident. Increases in divorce rates almost in every region of the world from the 1960's are another important development in the£ cs t= demographic sphere, Two major reasons can be identified for this trend. New legislation had been enacted making the procedures associated with the act of divorce easier, to meet the newly | ‘emerging economic and development needs. The attitudes towards women and the social status ‘of women underwent a change. Comprehension and conceptualization of gender equity and gender based discussions occurred during the period. Economic empowerment of women through employment tended to loosen their bonds to the patriarchal family and gave them the taste of economic independence. Women experienced a greater confidence to discontinue a bad relationship with a married partner. Increases in divorce rates imply that-the number of single parent families also] increases. This situation severely affects the socio-economic conditions of fami with children which means that security, education and welfare of these children would hardly be met. Most frequently single parent families are headed by women. Another new trend is the increasing number of el less families, improvernent in social status of women from about 1970's, partly as a result of increased access to higher education and the labour force have changed fundamentally family roles. Newly married couples have greater choice, thanks to the availability of various contraceptive methods, to have fewer children, or to delay child birth until they have their careers well established. ‘The family and social change in Africa ‘ ‘There is no society in which change of one kind or the other has not taken place in its History. The year 1900 has been considered as the baseline of change in Aftica. It was roughly the time that effective colonial rule started to influence the bulk of African institutions. According to Nukunya (1992), social change involves two essential features. Fifst is an alteration in the basic elements of the social structure. The second is an extension of the scale of social relationships. The family as a primary and the most important social institution in Africa was not Sof the influence of the factors that have caused social change in the continent. The traditional Attican family had the basic funetions of providing material, moral and emotionalsupport to its members. With the advent of social change. however, serious modifications started to emerge which have resulted in the blending of some key elements of traditional system and the imported foreign family values. Breakdown of the extended family system The family is now from extended to nuclear family system. The trend towards the nuclear family system has created a condition in which socialisation of children has become the responsibility of the real parents and siblings rather than the extended family as a\whole. Education . It is generally accepted that education affects the age of first njariage and for most youths and girls it leads to the postponement of marrage. On the whole, te more classroom education one acquires, the greater the need for this delay. For the ladies, this delay can also threaten their marital prospects. Many men are unwilling to marry women whse educational attainment equal or exceeds theirs for fear that such women would find it difficult to submit to their husbands wishes. ‘Single parenthood Another factor that is contributing to the change in the family is the prevalence of single parenthood, particularly among young urban females. As incteasing number of women have joined the labour force, singlé and female-headed households have become a discernible pattern on the African social landséape. A fica’s unplanned urban sprays are populated with unmarried single and poor women Who face considerable obstacles in overcoming dislocation. migration. and deprivation. Inter-ethnic marriages Another area in which social change has aflected the family is the increasing rate of inter-ethnic marriages: The most important factors that have contributed to'this trend are western educatfonbet be f mmm ee and urbanisation and to some extent religion, There is also a diminishing role of parents and extended family in the selection of marital partners. Religious Influence African families have undergone significant transformation caused by the influence of indigenous and modern religions (Christianity and Islam) adopted by the ancestors during the colonial era. ‘Modernisation and Urbanisation Another factor responsible for changes in the family structures is modemisation, urbanisation and migration of families across the continent (People were taken away as slaves and those who migrated to other cities or countries to trade began to imbibe the family patterns of other people).UNIT TWO HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES OF FAMILIE Introduction The history of the family concerns the socio-cultur! evolution of kinship groups from prehistoric to modem times. The family has a universal and basic role in all societies. Research on the history of the family crosses disciplines and cultures. aiming to understand the structure and function of a family from many viewpoints. Study of the family has been integrated into multiple discipline chief among them are anthropology. demography, history, sociology, and social work. From a historical perspective, family has been studied extensively for their role in shaping the direction of social, economic, and demographic change. Any adequate historical understanding of family must acknowledge its central role in social and political as well as personal_ relationships, in societal as well as biological reproduction. Although regularly classified as a natural or biological unit, the family is also very much a social construction. Despite it’s seemingly trans-historical elements,"its meaning is grounded in specific cultures and their historical objectives. From a sociological/anthropological orientation the discussion on the historical perspectives of the family would look at the early types of societies and how these operated as families. Hunting and Gathering Societies ‘The members of hunting and gathering societies primarily survive by hunting animals, fishing, and gathering plans. The vast majority of these societies existed in the past, with only a few (perhaps a million people total) living today on the ver ge of extinction. To survive, early human societies completely depended upon their immediate environment. When the animals left the area, the plants died, or the rivers dried up. the society had to relocate to an area where resources were plentiful, Consequently. hunting and gathering societies. which were typically small. were quite mobile. [n some cases. where resources in a locale were extraordinarily plemtitil. small villages might form But most hunting and gathering societies were nomadic. moving constantly in, search of food andbe be 7} ao Oks oS water. Labour in hunting and gathering societies was divided equally among members. Because of the mobile natufe of the society. these societies stored little in the form of surplus goods | Therefore. anyone Who could hunt, fish. oF 2 her fruits and vegetables did so. These societies probably also had at least some division of labour based on gender. Males probably traveled long distances to hunt and capture larger animals. Females hunted smaller animals, gathered plants, made clothing, protected and raised children, and helped the males to protect the community from rival groups. Hunting and gathering societies were also tribal. Members shared an-ancestral heritage and a common set of traditions and rituals. They also sacrificed their individuality for the sake of the larger tribal culture. Ties of kinship are vitally important in most hunting and gathering groups and social iteration usually organized ‘around kinship roles. Kin groups are of two types: nuclear and extended families. A nuclear family includes a man, his wife or wives, and their unmarried children; an extended family contains multiple nuclear families linked by a part-child relationship although the first is often inclusive in the latter, The extended family is important because it encourages sharing and serves as a welfare institution Pastoral Societies : Members of pastoral societies, which first emerged 12,000 years ago, pasture animals fof food and transportation. Pastoral societies still exist today, primarily in the desert lands of North Aftica where horticulture and manufacturing are not possible. Domesticating animals allows for ‘a more manageable food supply than do hunting and gathering. Hence, pastoral societifs are able to produce a surplus of goods, which makes storing food for future use a possibility. With storage comes the desire to develop settlements that permit the society to remain in a single place for longer periods of time. This also made families more regular and stable. And with stability comes the trade of surplus goods between neighbouring pastoral communities. Pastoral societiesallow its members to engage in non survival activities: traders, healers. spiritual leaders. crafispeople, ete. Horticultural societies Unlike pastoral societies that rely on domesticating animals. horticultural societies rely on cultivating fruits, vegetables, and plants. These societies first appeared in different parts of the planet about the same time as pastoral societies. Like hunting and gathering societies. horticultural societies had to be mobile. Depletion of the land's resources or dwindling water supplies, for example, forced the people to leave. Horticultural Societies occasionally produced a surplus, which permitted storage as well as the emergence of other professions not related to the survival of the society. Agricultural Societies Agricultural societies use technological advances to cultivate erops (especially grains like wheat. rice, com, and barley) over a large area. Sociologists use the phrase Agricultural Revolution to refer to the technological changes that occurred as long as 8,500 years ago that led to cultivating crops and raising farm animals. Increases in food supplies then|led to larger populations than in earlier communities. This meant a greater surplus, which resulted in towns that became centers of trade supporting various rulets, educators, craftspeople, merchants, and religious leaders who did not have to worry about locating nourishment. Greater/degrees of social stratification appeared in agricultural societies. For example. women previously had higher social status because they shared labour more equally with men. In hunting and gathering societies, women even gathered more food than men. But as food stores improved and women took on lesser roles in providing food for the fa /. they became more subordinate to men. As lages and towns expanded into neighboring areas. conflicts with other communities inevitably occurred, Farmers provided warriors with food in exchange for protection a tulers with high social status also appeared. This nobility ory nized warriors to protect the 12 inst invasion by enemies. A system ofsociety from invasion, In this way. the nobility managed 10 extract goods from the “lesser’ persons of society. Feudal Societies From the 9th to 15th centuries. feudalism was a form of society based on ownership of land Unlike today's farmers. vassals under feudalism were bound to cultivating their lord's land. In exchange for military protection, the lords exploited the peasants into providing food, crops, crafis, homage, and other services to the owner of the land. The caste system of feudalism was often multigenerational; the families of peasants may have cultivated their. lord's land for generations. Between the 14th and 16th centuries, a new economic system emerged that began to replace feudalism, Capitalism is matked by open competition ina free market, in which the means of production are privately owned. Europe's exploration of the Americas served as one impetus for the development of capitalism. The introduction of foreign metals, silks, and spices stimulated great commercial activity in Europe. . Industrial Societies Industrial societies are based on using machines (particularly fuel-driven ones) to produce goods. Sociologists refer to the period during the 18th century when the production of goods in mechanized factories began as the Industrial Revolution. This industrial revolution swept through Europe like storm. The Industrial Revolution appeared first in Britain, and then quickly spread to the rest of the world. As productivity increased, means of transport improved to better facilitate the transfer of products from place to place. Great wealth was attained by the few who owned factories, and the “masses” found jobs working in the factories. Industrialization brought about changes in almost every aspect of society including the basic unit of society the family. As factories became the center of work. “home cottages” as the usual workplace became less prevalent, as did the family’s role in providing vocational training and.education. Public education via schools and eventually the mass media be sme the norm and usurped the power ofthe Family in providing such functions People’s fife expectancy increased as their health improved Political institutions changed into modem models of governance, Cultural diversity increased. as did social mobility. Large cities emerged as places to find jobs in factories. Social power moved into the hands of business elites and governmental officials) leading to struggles between industrialists and workers. Labor unions and welfare organizations formed in response to these disputes and concems over workers’ welfare, including children who toiled in factories, Rapid changes in industrial technology also continued, especially the production of larger machines and faster means of transportation. The Industrial Revolution: algo saw to the development of bureaucratic forms of organization, complete with written rules, job descriptions, impersonal Positions, and hierarchical methods of management. ' Postindustrial Societies Sociologists note that with the advent of the computer microchip, the world is witnessing a technological revolution. This revolution is creating a postindustrial society based on information, knowledge. and the selling of services. That is, rather than being driven by the factory production of goods. society is being shaped by the human mind. aided by computer technology. Although factories will always exist, the key to wealth and power seems to lie in the ability to generate, store, manipulate, and sell infomation. The family therefore is atthe center of all these technological advances. Sociologists speculaté about the characteristics of Postindustrial society in the near future. They predict increased levels of education and training. consumerism, availat ity of goods, and social mobility. Whjle they hope for a decline in inequality as technical skills and “know-how” begin to determing class rather than the ownership of property, sociologists are also concerned about potential social divisions based on those who have appropriate education and those who do not. Sociologists believe society will become more Concerned with the welfare of all members of society. They hope postindustrial society will be less characterized by social conflict, as everyone works together to solve society's problems through scienceUNIT THREE, INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS. Introduction A social institution is a complex. integrated set of social norms organized around the preservation of a basic societal value or generally structured around the basic needs of society. Obviously. the sociologist does not define social institutions in the same way as does the person ‘on the street. Lay persons are likely to. use the term "institution" very loosely, for churches, hospitals, jails, and| many other things as institutions. The term encompasses everything from marriage, to schools, celebrations, rituals, sporting events, organised social groups, and various religions. It is these institutions thet provide opportunities for social interaction and development and which frequently regulate our daily lives. Sociologists often reserve the term “institution” to describe normative systems that operate in six basic areas of life, which may be designated as the primary institutions. (1) In determining Kinship (Family); 2) in providing for the legitimate use of power (Political); (3)'in regulating the distribution of goods and services (Economy); (4) in transmitting knowledge from one generation to the next; (Education) (5) in regulating our relation to the supernatural (Religion) and (6) in keeping society's members in good health (Health). In shorthand form, or as concepts, these six basic institutions are called the (PREMEH) Political, Religion, Education, Marriage or Family, Economy and Health. With this understanding of social institutions an authoritative definition of what social institutions are would help ground the subject matter. According to P. Horton (1958) social institutions are an organized system of social relationships which embodies certsin common values and procedures and meets certain basic needs of the society. In this definition therefore values refer to shared ideas and goals of society. They can also refer to common procedures and standard behaviour pattern of a group. This further implies that institut are systems of Social relations and network of roles and status through which behaviour is carried outOther Types of institutions However in a wider and broader sense institations ean be seen as the following + Marv and Family | + Religion + Education + Scientific institutions + Hospitals + Legal systems + Penal systems + Psychiatric hospitals and Asylums + + Military +” Mass media and News media + Factories and Corporations + Organisations Nature of social Institutions Social institutions are better understood by their nature or through the ways that they work. This means once social institutions are not visible it is their nature that helps to clearly identify how and when they are at work. Daily activities involve the working of social institutions by individuals and groups carrying out their daily lives and activities. Therefore social institutions first by their nature are structured around the basic universal concerns of social life. This means that the daily norms values and behaviours of individuals in I institutions and each in society are structured by these soci tion has prescribed what is normal. and, abnormal for their functions in each institution. Therefore certain acts that may be permissible in one institution may not be accepted in another institution given the impression that every stitution has what it has sanctioned as the rightful condugt and behaviour within it, Butin all these the purpose is that they should help in the smooth and acceptable functioning of society. They equally provide for the basic universal concem of society and by which individuals should adhere 1. Onee th se institutions are of general concems to) society there must be rules orguidelines for people to follow. Fherelore these rules are distinctive characteristics which cannot be explained biologically or psychologically Secondly social institutions are ulso static ane dynamic. That is they are static in orientation and dynamic in form and content. These institutions do not change in their states. For instance consider all the social institutions mentioned earlier there can be no deliberate action or inaction of individuals or groups to collapse them or eliminate them as the case may be. They are generally statics in'society and they partitioned society into recognizable identities. For instance the rharriage institution would be there even if some individuals decide not to marry and same for all other institutions. However their contents or what makes these institutions functional would always change. This explains their dynamic nature. The content would always change. People in other words would always constantly change their behviour and hence changing the content of these institutions. For instance marriage would always be there as an institution but people would divorce and new borns would always be added to populations, take the political institution government would always change but the state would continue to exist, same for the religious institution leadership in the church would continue to change but the church as an institution would always be there: So in content institutions would change but they would remain static over time. Thirdly, social institutions are also functionally related. This implies the interdependence of these institutions. They are linked to each other functionally. The operations and norms ds well as values in one, help in the smooth functioning of the other. The family defines rolgs for its members but these roles also helps individuals to perform well as members of other igstitutions for instance the political institution. or religious institution or even the economy. The fourth factor in identifying sovial institutions are that they are independent of the individual er but have coercive power 10 compel the individual to conform. They are social facts in,the words of Durkheim they are independent of the individual but coercive +o the individual They have invisible powers which force the individual to conforth to societal norms and values. ‘The fifth factor is that by the nature of social institutions they ppssess distinctive character ies which cannot be explained biologically or psychologically. Social institutions have no genetic characterization. Therefore it is not the conscious creation jof one individual or society Sociologically we have only discovered it as social static and|law that governs the rules and behaviour of indi duals in society. “General Funetions of social institutions | Generally, social institutions have been defined earlier to] imply established principles, conditions, procedures and processes that determine the nature and pattems of behaviour, conduct and modes of interactions that are of significant contern to the larger society. This implies individual must observe some principles and procedures society for society to run smoothly. For instance governance is important therefore jindividuals must observe the governance of society for accountability and control. Therefore who determine who gets to that governance position and what type of relationship to expect fiom those in power and those governed are therefore within the framework of social institutions. Same way in the family it is the family that determines the type and kind of sexual relationship one can engage in and those that are abhorrent to the family. | This further implies that social institutions perform general functions for society to run smoothly. These functions are the latent and manifest functions. The latent functions of social institutions are the unintended functions that such institutions perform in sogiety. The manifest functions are obvious. admitted and generally applauded. Latent functions aje unrecognized and unintended functions. These are the unforeseen consequences of institutions. For example schools not only educate «young they also provige mass entertainment. According to Robert Merton (1957) manifest functions are those that are intended and recognized. These are functions which people{ assume and espect the institutions to fulfil, For example schools are expected to educate the children in the knowledge and skills that they need. Therefore a critical glace at the six basic institutions expitined earlier would clearly demonstrate these latent and manitest functions of social inst Specific functions of social Institutions Much of the general functions of social institutions give a general understanding of society. Therefore the specific functions would then narrow the discussion to the various manifest functions of the basic institutions in society. This does not only clarify th¢ important role of these institutions but also show how social institutions operate to make society worth living. The specific functions of the family 1. The control and regulate of sexual behavior. 2. To provide for new members of society (children). To provide for the economic and emotional maintenance of individuals. 4, To provide for primary socialization of children. The specific functions of religion |. Providing solutions for unexplained natural, phenomena. Supplying a means for controlling the natural world Religion tends to support the normative structure of the society. Furnishing a psychological diversion from unwanted life situations. f 2 3 4. 5. Sustaining the existing class structure. 6. Religion serves as an instrument of socialization, 7. Religion may both promote and retard social change. 8 Religion may both reduce and encourage conflict groups. The specific functions of government 1. The Institutionalization of norms (Laws). 2. The enforcement of laws. sdjudication of conflict (Court) 4, Provide for the welfare of members of society. ction of Society from evtemsl threat, 19The specific functions of education 1. Transmitting culture 2. Preparation for occupational 3. ['valuating and selecting competent individuals 4, Transmitting functional skills for members in society Specific functions of economy |. Provide methods for the production of goods and services Provide methods for the distribution of goods and services. | 3. Enable society's members to consume goods and services which are produced. eee olee we oe Lee ee) ioe ct cn of mo UNIT FOUR THE FAMILY AS A SOCIAL INSTITUTION: THE AFRICAN CONTEXT The institution of family is a basic wiit in the society. and the multifaceted function performed by it makes it @ much-needed institution in the African society. Everyone looks to his family for guidance. support, and a sense of belonging. Family is the most important social institution as it is our first encounter with socialization processes. An institution such as the family socializes individuals to be productive members of society. Family has within its boundaries.a set of norms, values, statuses, and rolés which are organi: xd or designed to guide or meet specifi¢ goals for the overall society. Some of the important functions performed by the family include reproduction of new members and socializing them, and provision of emotional and physical care for older persons and young. ‘The Family infact is an institution which resolves or eases a large number of social problems. According to sociologist William F. Ogburn (1930). the family under the pressures of urbanization and industrialization has been stripped of many of traditional functions until its only remaining functions were psychological: "to socialize children and to provide. emotional sustenance and support for family members. Talcott Parsons treated the family as a small group that served basic functions for the larger society, including reproduction, regulation of sexual behavior, socialization into adult roles, and emotional support (Parsons, 1957). He argued that small, isolated nuclear families in which men specialized in instrumental, goal-oriented activities and women specialized in expressiv relationship oriented activities were particularly well adapted to the demands of an urban, industrial society. George Murdock (1985) advanced that the family was a universal social institution found in all societies, His claim was based on his study of 250 societies of all kinds - from small hunting communities to industrial societies. His definition of a family indicates that it is a social group wl lives together. shares resources. works as a unit and rears children. In a family there are at 2least two adult members that conduct 4 sexual relationship that is tolerated by the norms of the society they live in. The smattest family unit is known as the nuclear family and consists of a husband and wife and their children. If other individuals are jincluded in the family. then the family is called an extended family. Theoretical Definitions of the Family The family even though universal has no one definition which is universally accepted. However as we critically examine the various definitions we ultimately |come to the conclusion that the definers are saying just about the same thing. This problem of definition as you will subsequently experience applies to all other social concepts. According to Burgess and Locke (1960) the family refers to a group of persons united by ties of marriage, blood and aioption, constituting a single household, interacting and inters communicating with each other jn their respective roles as mother and father, brother and sister husband and wife. The Anthropologist Lucy Mair (1986) defined the family simply as a domestic group in which parents and children live together and in its elementary form it cor ists of the couple and their children. Accérding to Elizabeth Colson (1958) the family is @ group sharing a common residential space and cooperating for the purpose of daily life. According to Murdock (1949), “a family is a social group chatacterised by common residence, ‘economic cooperation and reproduction. It contains adults of Hoth sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship, and one or mofe children. owned or adopted. of the sexually cohabiting adults.” Burgess and Lock (2006) define family as “a group of persons lnited by ties of marriage. blood or adoption constituting a single houschold interacting with each other in their respective social 2od se ie Characteristics of the African Family The common characteristics of the Affican family focused on in this volume include mate selection and marriage. multiple marriage systems. childbeatiny. gender roles, and intergenerational relationship. We believe most African families have sho resilience in the face of challenges with regard to these characteristics and have continued to adapt their activities to changing circumstances. Mate Selection and Marriage One of the key findings about African societies is the existence of a pro family and martiage ideology (Bledso¢ 1990; Gage, 1998). Because African women and men are expected to marry and have children, it has been suggested that marriage is nearly universal, and voluntary celibacy is virtually nonexistent (Kayongo-Male & Onyango, 1984; Caldwell & Caldwell, 1987; van de Walle, 1993). While marriage is supposedly universal in Africa, there is an ongoing debate as to the mate selection process itself. Ethnographic studies. for instance. point to the influence of parents, and often members of the extended Kin group, rather than the individual in the selection of a mate, The input of extended kin in mate selection is consistent with what has been reported in the fiterature regarding the dominant role of Kin and lineage in the Afri mn Family (See €.8 Caldwell et al, 1989; Lockwood 1995). In relation to marriage, this view suggests ha the concept of romantic love and individuation, which are believed to serve as the basis offmate selection in Western societies, are less relevant tothe realities of most AMican societies. Family involvement in marriage negotiations and decision making is aimed at networking, keeping self-acquired property in the family, and ensuring the survival of the marriage (Rattray, 1929; Nukunya, 1969; Assimeng, 1981). Different kinship groups and corporate clans in Aftica build alliances through the institution of marriage. Thus, marriage contracts are gipposed to serve the-emotional and financial interests of members of the families of the bride and the groom as well, Up to about the 1950s. a system of marriage involving betrothals was used in some parts 23OF Alfica a> another way of locating @ prospective wile (Sarah. 1904. p. 41, as quoted in Kuenyehia, 1978. p. 319: Goode. 1963; Gibbs, 1965: Fimwoo. 1578). Before marriageable age is attained. the family of the bride-to-be accepts money or toke’ is with the understanding that in the future their daughter will become the wife of the party for whom the alliance is sought. In contrast to the ethnographic view there are studies that suggest that the traditional rules and norms which guided mate selection practices of earlier generations are less evident now due to the forces of social change. Given that Aftican societies have undergone significant \wansformations since the colonial era, these researchers argue that current practices may be converging to the Euro-American model (see, e-g., Oppong, 1974, 1981; Aryee, 1985). Due in large part to structural changes such as urbanization, increated schooling, and economic independence of young adults, the role of kin in mate selection, the incidence of child betrothal. and arranged marriages in general have been.on the decline in Africa (Goode, 1963; Oppong. 1983: Aryee. 1985) Jn spite of all the variations in marriage ceremonies in Africa, a common element in most marriages is the payment of bride wealth (Fortes, 1950; Nukunya, 1978; Lesthaeghe, 1989; Beckwith & Fisher, 1999): This practice involves complex nego}iation of exchanges involving such; items as moneyy-dffnks, Kola nuts, jewelry, clothing, cate, sheep, and goats. The bridegroom may also provide services to the prospective in-laws as a form of bride wealth Payment, Seen as a legal bond uniting two families, the act provides protection and gives public Fecognition to the marriage, while also guaranteeing productive and reproductive services for the couple (Radcliffe-Brown & Forde, 1950; Fiawoo, 1978; Assimeng| 1981; Khapoya, 1998). Marriage’ forms in Aftica are significantly impacted by the extent to which both the individual and the family have adjusted to the influences of the triple heritage of A fricanity. Arabic/Islamic, and, Europea hiristian practices, Just as foreign cultural and refigious beliefs have coexisted ‘with Africanity. Atiican Catholics and Protestants have lived with customary marriage practices 24a eee a ww co [ such as payment of bride wealth. full family involvement in mate selection, matri-/patri-focal residence, polygyny, and outside wifeship (Aryee. 1985). Furthermore, the marriage form that individuals decide 10 undertake may be a function of a combination of factors cluding their econ mic situation (e.g., formal education, occupation. income, wealth, family background, and residential and geographical location Multiple Marriage Systems In many parts of Aftica, a multiplicity of marriage forms is recognized under the law. These include customary or traditional law marriages, marriage under Islamic rules and regulations, marriage under the ordinance (civil or church), consensual unions, polygynous marriages, and “outside wifeships,” The flexit y of marriage and the variety of marriage forms in African societies is often justified to sustain the universality of marriage, o continue the family lineage through reproduction, to Keep family property, to protect and care for the economically vulnerable (women, children, and the elderly), and to ensure the stability’of the family. 1. Customary or Traditional Marriage. Among, several Aftican groups, marriage under the customary Jaw is the most common system of marriage and the most flexible, Often there is no single form of marriage because of significant regional and ethnic differences in marriage rituals and practices. Customary marriages could include such forms as sororate, in which’ a mari marries his wife’s sister; widow inheritance, in which a family member of the deceased remsrries the widow but the children born in the remarriage belong to the successor himself; Jevirate, in which the successor of a deceased husband may continue to bear children with the deceased's wife in the name of the deceased: womun 1 woman marriage, in which an inferite woman performs marriage ceremonies for another woman to have children for her; and ghost marriage, in which @ relative of a deceased young man who did not have a chance to marry and have children matries for the deceased and has children in his name (Fortes, 1950: Gluckman. 1965; Kayongo-Male & Onyango. i984: Cadigan, 1998: Khapoya, 1998),2. Marriage under the Islamic !env. As expected. Islamic manage forms entered Africa with the introduction of the Muslim religion and the Arab culture. Guided by the Koran and Shur laws, Islamic law marriages derive their legitimacy from religious beliefs that are part ot islamic norms and allow the application of Islamic rules for divorce. child custody. and succession 3. Marriage under the Ordinance or Civil Law. Ordinance and/gr civil law marriages have their | ins in Eurd-Christian tradit ions, Although members of sev ‘African Christian Churches have i tendency to marry according to local customs and wratpns prior to going to the church andlor civil court to contract the mariage, the contractual |status of the ordinance takes precedence over the customary law. Contrary to the customary apa Islamic law mar ges, which allow husbands to legally marry more than one wife, marriage contracted under the ordinance is supposed to be monogamous by law. 4, Consensual Unions. This mairiage form, also referred to] as cohabitation. may be more ‘common in predominantly urban areas of Africa where traditional rules and norms are not strictly enforced and the role of kinsmen in mate selection has|been weakened by the forces of social change (Aryee. 1985; Pool, 1972). Since they do not have the extended family support network and legal recognition, consensual unions are often short-lived. Nevertheless. consensual couples may eventually regularize their relationships one way or the other to receive acceptance and recognition with full rights and obligations. 5. Polygynous Marriages. African marriages contracted under customary or Islamic laws have the tendency to be polygynous in nature with levels varying fram anywhere between 20 percent and 50 percent of all marriages (Welch & Glick. 1981; Caldwell et al.. 1991: Bledsoe. 1990: Takyi, 1998: Timaeus & Reynar. 1998). First, it has been suggested that having more wives is a status symbol for community leaders. Second, although the evidence is not. very. conclusive. polygyny may be linked to high fertility. Third. it is argued that the presence of co-wives increases the agricultural workforce. Fourth. the sharing of domestic responsibilities and 26—— een, ea L see) household chores could help tree women from male dominance (Boserup. 1970, 1985: Pool. 1972; Nukunya, 1978: Brabin. 1984; Greenstreet. 1987: Singh & Morey, 1987: Dorjahn. 1988: Khapoya, 1998), 6. Outside Wifeship. Legally contracted polygynous marriages may be declining in African societies due to increasing urbanization, industialization, formal education. and other modemization and westernization influences. Karanja (1994) documents that sexual relations with multiple partners have continued with a growing phenomenon called “outside wifeship” or “private polygyny”. Under this system, monogamous men and/or married men who contracted their marriages under ordinance or civil laws resort to acquisition of girlfriends, concubines, or mistresses, Women in these private relationships, described as “gold-diggers” by Dinan (1983), often receive their economic support from the merried men in their lives. In spite of its lack of legal status, ouiside wifeship has been used particularly by educated African men as an altemative to divorce and remarriage. This practice, thus, enables the elite men to put up with the Euro-Christian notion of monogamous marriage. while privately admiring the African traditional idea of polygynois relationships (Morgan, with Ohadike, 1975; Bleek, 1987; Karanja, 1987, 1994; Mann, 1994; Oheneba-Sakyi, 1999). Childbearing Africa experienced high growth rates throughout the 20th century due mostly to high feptility. coupled with a general decline in mortality. Aftica’s estimated population of about 224 million population reached 758 million by 1997 (United Nations, 1999). African parents have been known to have several children for reasons such as the accumulation of wealth, security in old ave. labor force, marriage stability, lineage con wity, companionship, and prestige (Caldwell. 198; Boserup, 1985; Akuffo. 1987; Lesthaeghe. 1989; Dasgupta, 1994). Although Cohen (1998) reports that a fairly widespread dectine in fertility is under way in Africa. the size of the decline is quite small in most cases. Since total fertility rates (TER) on the continent have PYremained high and only a few countries have a TFR rate below tive children per woman. there is momentum for further growth. Due in large part to the emphasis on childbearing and pressures tor large families. it is no wonder that birthrates have remained|relatively high and few people Male & use family planning methods in many parts of Africa to regulate {heir fertility (Kayor Onyango, 1984; Caldwell & Caldwell. 1987: Population Council. 1998: Population Reference Bureau, 1998). Because of the importance of children for the family in traditional African societies, men: are allowed to marry more than one woman to peo against the possibility of childlessness. Kayongo-Male and Onyango (1984) note that, in| Aftica a childless marriage is Viewed as a troublesome one, since the marriage seems meaningless without children. However, there ‘are variations in the number of children ‘born and desired by African couples by such factors as age at first marriage, rural urban residence. level of educ: mm, occupation. and religious background, Segregated Gender Roles Alrican households are for the most part influenced by traditional gender role expectations of division of labor. Both reproductive and productive roles have been performed through membership in lineages and family groups. Although roles may te gender-specific, Oppong and ‘Abu’s (1984) study show that the African plays seven overepsing roles: individual, conjugal, pareital, domestic, kin, community, and occupational. Local| traditions and customs often Proseribe these roles for both men and women with builtin) mechanisms for rewards and punishments for nonconformity. However. men are generally expgcted to head the household and provide shelter and financial support. while women are expected to be responsible for basic household needs involving cleaning. washing. cooking. and taking care of dependents. And if they work, traditional Affican women are employed in large) numbers in farming, fishing. weaving. pottery. and trading activities either on: their own of jointly with husbands or kin (Oppong. 1970: Fiawoo. 1978: Kritz and Gurak. 1989: Lesthdeghe. 1989: Blane and Lloyd. 28 |=) ce ] J 199u; and UNICEF. 1990). The need for women to secure independent sources of income and control of camings is linked to the “unreliability of financial contributions from husbands, may come about as a result of death, dive: ness. or even an unanticipated polygyny (Clark. 1994), While segregated gender roles date back to Africa's own indigenous cultural practices, the colonial experience and conservative religious practices in Islam and Christianity reinforced segregation and unequal access to schooling. The ideologies supported disparity between the sexes in educational attainment: that leads to feminized occupations with little money and minimum benefits from the enlarged bureaucracies in the modem economy (Hart, 1973; Date-Bah, 1982; Akuffo, 1990; Mikell, 1997). Following political independence, however, several contemporary African societies have invested heavily in universal primary school education especially for girls (Goliber, 1989; Mazrui, 1994), Similarly. there has been progress in women’s employment outside the home and in the nonagricultural sector over the years. Intergenerational Relationship Historically, the relationship between the generations in African societies has been developed around the value of the knowledge, respect, and experience that the younger generation receives from the older generation. It is not uncommon throughout Africa to have multiple generations living in the same household. A sizable proportion of the elderly population lives with. their. children, in-laws, or extended family members. Such arrangements provide the elderly with plenty of opportunities to participate in family life such as assisting young couples in infanvchild care and carrying on family traditions. Responsibility to provide support to the élderly and other family members is taken seriously. even among those who have relocated away from their ancestral homes or are not living with their parents (Oppong. 1977). More than any other instinution. the family provides the bulk of social support for old age and retirement throughout Alfica, Government-sponsored social security benefits for old age are limited and cover the 29small number of people who wis'sed for governmental agencies|or in the formal sectors of the economy. Family support is especially important for older wore and widows, who in most cases have fewer assets or resources and have a history of work outside a government ayency Intergenerational benefits of family life in Africa are extended jo activities surrounding death Reverence is given to the dead and lavish funeral celebrations are organized (Sai, 1976; ROG & UNICEF, 1990). Not surprisingly. funeral celebrations function s reunions for members of the extendéd family, the clan, and the lineage and provide occasions for social networking. In recent decades, However, elderly support, while expected, may be urider stress in Aftican societies because of economic difficulties. Brown's (1992) study. in Ghana shows that the onus of responsibility forthe care of the eldely has sified ffom the extended family toward the nuclear family, with children and spouses playing the most important role. He argues that the shift has ‘eroded roles.to such a point that the only common thing among the extended family members is. perhaps, the shared responsibility of a decent burial for their members. As the economic means of the family shrink, African governments and other nongoverentl organizations are called on to provide the needed infrastructure and financial assistance 4 ‘enable family members to care for the elderly in their homes, a notion consistent with Aftican trpditional values about caring for the aged. Specific Characteristics of the Family | The characteristics of the family are looked from the context and within the kind of social institution that the family operates. According to Levi-strauss (1949) a social group offering at least three characteristics namely: | a) the family finds its origin in marriage | b) ttconsist of the husband. wife, and children bor out of their wedlock. although it is possible that other relations (such as brothers, sisters. cgusins and uncles) of the couple— may live with the nuclear group ( that is husband wife and children) thus constituting what is generally referred to as the extended family. c) The family members are united together by social and psychological bonds. Sucial bonds such as the legal nod. economic bond, the religious bond and a precise nework of sexual rights and prohibitions. Psychological bonds such as love, respect affection and awe Types of Families The different types of families occur in a wide variety of settings, and their specific functions and meanings depend largely on their relationship to other social institutions. Sociologists have a special interest i the function and status of these forms in stratified (especially capitalist) societies. The family can generally be classified into two main forms. These are the nuclear family and the extended family. The nuclear basically consist of the father, mother and children. It is also regarded as the Sgpaneieinstgattitinenimmedeiyy.On the other hand the extended family consist of the father, moter, children and other relatives of bah the father and mothe. However, in a wider explanation and discussion families are classi based on several circumstances which consist of the ff. On the basis of marriage: Family has been classified into three major types: ‘+ Polygamous or polygynous family = Polyandrous family + Monogamous family On the basis of the nature of residence family can be classified into three main forms. + Family of matrilocal residence . + Family of patrilocal residence + Family of changing residence On the basis of ancestry or descent family can be classitied into wo main types + Matrifineal family axtilineal family hasis of size or strueture and the depth o snerations family’ can be elassified into two Nuclear othe single unit family. The term "nuclear family” is commonly used. especially in the United States and Europe, to refer to corfjugal families. «Joint family or extended family On ‘the basis of the nature of relations among the family memlfers the family can be classified into two main types: : + The conjugal family which consists of adult members ambng there exists sex relationship. + Consanguine family which consists of members among whom there exists blood relationship- brother and sister, father and son etc. Functions of the Family | 7 The family generally performs two main function namely, primary and secondary functions. Primary functions These include the universal functions of the family which consist of the creation of new smembers of the society in order to perpetuate it. This task of creation is four-folds including Reproduction, Maintenance, status ascription and socialization. | Secondary Functions | ‘The secondary functions performed by the family are such tal the family has been likened by Me Elmer to the larger society in a miniature form. In other wor. the family can be said to be @ concentrated nucleus of the larger society, maintaining and farr 1g on the procedures and provesses ofthe larger group in a miniatue and intensified fom. In this sense the family as a basic social unit can be said to replicate.the structure of society The family is comparable to the + larger society because of the functions that are pertarmed in the family ia a social structurala u u C fashion. this implies that the social structure which is made of the political, religious, economic, marriage and tamily, educational and health functions corresponding to the seven institutions which const ite the social structure, Qualities of a good fami The description of a good family may be subjective and depends on the emphasis placed on the Working relationships that go on within members of the family. Again the description of a good family may be based on the context of tradition and modernity such that what measures or factors one in a traditiénal area or setting would use to describe a good family Would obviously be different from the factors attributable to those in the urban settings. However in considering the urbanized nature of families one can attribute the following to what makes a good family. Commitment trust + honesty . + dependability + Faithfulness Appreciation and Affection ‘+ Caring for each other + Friendship * Respect for individuality + Playfulness Positive Communication + Sharing feelings + Giving compliments € + Avoiding blame ‘+ Being able to compromise + Agreeing to disagree Time Together © Quality'time in great quantity * Good things take time 33© Enjoving each other's company * Simple good times Spiritual Well-being + Hope } + Faith © Humour | + Compassion + Shared ethical values | © oneness with humankind | Ability to cope with Stress © Adaptability : © Sei crises as challenges and opportunities | + Growing through crises together | + Openness to change Resilience | : |cy eee fo Lo or a“ UNIT FIVE THEORIES OR PERSPECTIVES OF THE FAMILY Introduction In order to study anything, one must hegin by making some assumptions about the nature of what is studied. For example, the ancient Greeks believed thatthe universe was run aecording to ‘the whims of the gods. By contrast, all scientists assume that the universe is orderly, and operates in certain regular ways which we may be able to discover. Thus, Newton developed the laws of gravity after observing.that.appfes always fall down, never up. A working set of assumptions is called a “perspective, an “approach.” or sometimes a “paradigni.” In this context the family would be discussed along the various theories and perspectives from the sociological lenses. ‘The functionalists Perspective According to the functionalist perspective, also called funetionalism, each aspect of society is interdependent and contributes to society's functioning as a whole. Functionalists believe every society contributes to the smooth running of society. They believe that society is held together by social consensus or cohesion, in which members of the society agree upon, and worktogether to achive, what is best for society asa whole (RRR 1938). Functionalism takes a broad View of society and focus on macro aspect of social life. They view society asa set of elements ‘or components that are related to one another in a more or less stable fashion through a period of time. They focus on the parts ofjsociety and identify the structural characteristics of each part much as biologists deseribe the principal features of the body’s organs. They — what the functions of each component are. Functionalism addresses society as a whbfe in terms of the function of its constituent elements: namely norms. customs, traditions and institutions. Therefore the family is made of various components parts or members and these‘ members Perform certain functions for the family to run smoothly. The individual members of the family Snrele BurkleyBtsadva play vital roles for the family to survive. The family is a structural component of the society and performs certain essential functions. contributing to the survival bf society as a whole Society. thes hold, is organized due to the oe on some core values, The nuclear family is so usefil to society that itis inevitable anduniversal. The family is universal because it fulfills the following essential functions) for society. Sexual function — controls sexuality, provides stability for adults, reproductive fuhotion ~ provides new members of society. Economic function family provides for its members. Educational function- family socializes the young into society's norms and values. according (1978) there are two basic irreducible functions of the family primarily sxizaton rough which children learn to accept the values and norms of society and stabilization of adult personalities where the family gives adults the emotional support necessary to cope with the stresses of everyday life. But the YEniondlisis have been criticized in various respects and ways. [These include + Functionaliss have been accused of ideaising the family, | Ignoring conflict and abuse wi in families Ignoring gender inequality within fa Ignoring the rising divorce rates Ignoring growing family diversity Conflict Perspective The conflict perspective, which originated primarily out of gates 844) writings on class struggles, presents society in a different light than do the functionalists and symbolic oa perspectives. Conflict perspective focuses their attention on society as a whole. Conflict theorists see society as in a continuous sate of conflict between groups and classes. The stew uwgle for power and income is a continuous process but ohe in which many categories of people appear as opponents-classes. races. nationalities and bven the sexes. Society is held gether through the power of dominant wroups or classes. The shared values. which functionalist x Loews corsa 6see as.glue for holding society together, do not really form true consensus; instead this is an antficial consensus in which the dominant groups or classes impose their values and rules on the rest of the peopie. The source of contlict in society, they hold, is the scarcity of the resources people require e.g wealth, prestige and power ere always in limited supply and their gain for the individual and group are often associated with losses for others, The conflict theorists view the family as arena for domination by group over the other, The family, is also made of a dominant groups or member over other members. In the familY conflict is also seen as the situation where one spouse constantly exerts power and dominate another spouse. ‘Raggett arex ras eR ENN They a view the family institution not as a functional part of the society but a class society in miniature where one group is oppressing the other group. This society looks at family as miniature class society where dominant groups oppress the weaker sections. For example, in the family men tend to dominate the family as they are bread eamers and control the economy of the house. After mariage, women have no choice but have to live with their husbands and compromise accordingly because that is the age old practice where women are subjected to oppression. The children in the house also have to listen to parents as they ate mote experienced and their authority is legitimized by the society. Parents always have an edge over their children only because they are parents. Children do not have absolute freedom in this situation. Such situations lead to conflict in the family. Sometimes there are fights in the family between es wife, or parents and children that is necessary to bring the social change. But estheory is criticized by a lot of sociologists. saying that it is over negative and cannot address social harmony and cohesion effectively. It also fails to look micro level phenomenons and generalizes things to the extreme points& Syevbeue Meepangy Symbolic Interactionist Perspective The symbolic interactionist perspective. also known as syftbolic interactionism, directs sociologists to consider the symbols and details of ev diay life shat these symbols mean, and how people interact with each other. Although symbolic interactionism traces its origins to Max Weber's assertion that individuals act according to their interpretation of the meaning of their world, the American philosopher George H. Mead (1863-1931) introduced this perspective to American sociology in the 1920s. EArinn Gavy Symbolic interactionism is base on some three core wm {WEE We respond to things in ‘our environment on the basis of théir ieanings. SRR. meanings are not inherent in things, but emerge from social interaction. G&Pbecause we are continuglly interacting, shared altel meanings are continually emerging and changing. The inteactionist perspective is’ more er pursonet Pes oncemed with the micro or small-scale aspects of social life. They concentrate their attention on Letiondhig’ interaction between individuals and groups. They noted that people interact mainly through BRWBE which include signs, gestures, and most importantly, through written and spoken words, The words have no inherent meanings. It is simply a noise, but it becomes a word when people reach agreement that this noise carries a special meaniig. Thus “yes,” “no,” “go,” and thousands of other sounds became symibols as meaning is attached to each. People do not respond to the world directly; they respond to meanings they impute to the things and happenings around them; a traffic light, a lineup a ticket w indo in considering the application symbol we to the institution of marriage or fami 12> wedding‘bands, vows of life-long commitment, a white bridal lyin general symbols may include (: a wedding cake, a Church ceremony, and flowers and music. Society attaches general recnings to these symbols, but individuals also maintain their own perceptions of what thes and other symbols mean. For example. one of thé spouses may see their circular wedding, rinks as symbolizing “never ending love.” while the other may see them as a mere financial expeyse Much faulty communication 38 Gs edcan result from differences in the perception of the same events and symbols. Crities claim that symbolic interactignism neglects the macro level of social interpretation—the ” ig picture.” in other words, symbolic interactionists may mtiss the larger issues of society by focusing two closely on the “tees” (for exampie, the size of the diamond in the weddin ring) rather than the “forest” (lor example, the quality of the marriage). The perspective also receives criticism lor slighting the influence of social forces and institutions on individual i The Sociological Study of Families Early sociologists were primarily interested in Umderstanding processes of modemity, the massive reorganization of society caused by industrialization and resulting in migration, urbanization, greater racial and ethnic diversity, and processes of assimilation. They saw social institutions, including families, as being transformed by these new economic and social forces and, given escalating rates of family instability, divorce, and non-marriage in the late nineteenth century. many feared the demise of families. Moreover, families seemed to be losing important functions as societies modemized and marriage became optional rather than essential for survival. By the mi 1940s, with the American economy back om track and experiencing massive growth, concem over the demise of families was slowly being replaced by a celebration of the superiority of modern families as inherently middie class and based on a breadwinner- homemaker division of labor. Talcott Parsons, perhaps the best-known family sociologist of the era. surmised that while the economic instability of the early twentieth century had adversely affected families. it had ultimately given rise to stronger. more specialized families (Parsons and Bales Whereas kinship structures dominate in primitive societies becat sy are ecessaty for survival, Parsons theorized that advanced societies underwent a process of structural differentiation that resulted in the creation of more non-kinship structures ( churches, states. schools). each of whieh perf ned specialized functions (Parsons and Bales 1935-91, In the process, families J released most of their macro- oF societal-level functions andwere now fiee to take on more specialized micro-level. fun development of children and the social and emotional needs of psychology and emer y research on the adverse consequences was persuaded that the human personality was not inborn. but. elaborate family socialization processes, and that families al stabilize adult personalities. Families that functioned well were tions. namely. the personality pouses. Influenced by Freudian bf maternal deprivation. Parsons rather was constructed through 50 functioned to maintain and lalso specialized internally inter- nally, with men taking on an occupational role and women a role. Although women may be in the labor market, especially those who are single, ivorced, widowed, or childless, Parsons argued that there could be “no question of symmetry between the sexes in this respect, and . .. there is no serious tendency in this direction” (Parsons a id Bales 1955:14).UNIT SIX MARRIAGE, KINSHIP AND DESCENT IN THE AFRICAN CONTEXT Concept of Marr Sociologists understand families to be social institutions that perform vital functions tor their members and societies: They produce, nurture, and socialize children; care for frail and elderly family members: provide the laborers needed for the economy; and meet the emotional needs of family members. To describe families as social entities recognizes the fact that they are socially created and defined and vary across cultures; to refer to them as institutions means that they embody a set of interrelated roles and responsibilities. Cross-cultural differences, the changing nature of families, and political forces often have made defining the family a matter of some contention. Empirical evidence on the origins of ma ¢ is scant, as it evolved cross-culturally,at different times and has been defined in various ways. There is considerable agreement that es an institution, marriage is not as old as families. For example, Friedrich Engels, argued that maternal families existed in early primitive societies, where property was held communally, sexual relations were casual, and the family, when it was distinct from the larger group, was defined as mothers and their children (Adams and Steinmetz 1993). Conversely, more religiously based theories held that male-dominated, monogamous marriages were God-ordained and had always existed. For many, such issues were important in understanding family change: Marriage Se The survival of the family in the African context largely depends on marriage since it is marriage that legitimatizes the family as a social unit, A complete and acceptable definition of marvia hard to come by and therefore various authors have tried to restrict their definitions to specific contents and situations and layi mphasis on operational factors at the time of the definitions, 41We will take a look at some of these definitions and try to situ 1e them to the African context. Marriage is an institution with different implications in differer:|cultuces. Its purposes. functions and forms may differ fiom society to society but it is preseift everywhere as an institution Westermarck (1921) in ‘History of Human marriage’ defines marfiage as the more or less durable connection between mate and female lasting beyond the mere ject of propagation till after the birth of offspring. According to Malinowski (1930) marriage is @ contract for the production and maintenance of children. Robert Lowie (1960) describes marriage as a relatively permanent bond between permissible mates. For Horton and Hunt (1984) marriage is the approved social pattern whereby two or more persons establish a family. However this the definition of Notes and Queries (1958). iscussion would be premised on According to Notes and Queries (1958) marrage isa union GY « 8 and 2 ER such * z thacesddgamatagy to the woman are recognize as legitimate off springs of the man. Meanwhile in looking at this definition from the African context one raises definitional problems in terms of the fact that the definition is incomplete and do not encapsulate all aspects of marriage in the African setting. Some of the problems with this definition are as| 7K1. Marriage is not only between man and woman | 2. Marriage is not only for the purpose of children Families marry not individuals 4, There is also the issue of same sex marriage follows. | A Children can be ligitimatise not only through mariage 6. Children are born to both man and woman | In the wake of these problems in the definition by notes and queries Nukunya (2000) has defined marriage as any union in which the couple has gone through all the procedures recognize in the society as such, =)Types of marriages Polygyny: {isa form of marriage in which one man mavries siove than one Woman at a given time. Its of ‘so types — Sororal polygyny and non sorara! pols Sororal polygyny: Iisa type of marriage in which the wives are invariably the sisters. Iti often called sororate Non-sororal polygyny: It is @ type of marriage in which the wives are not related as sisters. Polyandry: . It is the marriage of one woman with more than one man. It is less common than polygyny. It is of two types~ Fraternal Polyandry and non fraternal polyandry. Fraternal polyandry: ‘When several brothers share the same fe the practice can be called alelphic or fraternal polyandry. This practice of being mate. actual or potential to one’s husband's brothers is called levirate. Itis prevalent among Todas. Non - fraternal polyandry: In this type the husband need not have any close relationship prior to the marriage. The wife goes to spend some time with each husband. So long as a woman lives with one of her husbands; fhe ‘others have no claim over her. Monogamy: It isa form of mariage in which one man marries one woman tis the most common Sh acceptable form of marriage. Serial monogamy: In many societies individuals are permitted so marry again often on the death ofthe first spouse fier divorce but they cannot have more than one spouse at one and the same time. 43Group Marriage: It means the marriage of to oF more women with two or more men. Here the hushands are common husbands and 1vises are’ common wives. Children are sdgarded as the children of the entire group as a whole Rules of Marriage No sovety gives absolut rsdom to its member to ele thei partners. Endogamy and exogamy are the two main rules that condition marital choice. | Endogamy: Itis.a rule of marriage in which the life-partners are to be selected within the group. It is. marriage within the group and the group may be caste, class, tril race, village. religious group ete, We have caste endi ny, class endogamy. sub caste endogdmy. race endogamy and tribal endogamy etc. In caste endogamy marriage has to take place within the caste. * Exogamy: It is @ rule of marriage in which an individual has to marry outside his own group. It prohibits, marrying within the group. The so-called blood relatives shall neither have marital connections or sexual contacts among themselves. Procedures Common to Most African Marriages | ‘There are basically three procedures involve in marriage process in the African context. These | are Mate selection | 2. Payment 3. Official Handing over ceremony |Mate selection The selection of @ partner demands a lot of tact time and energy. In the Affican comext male selection is influenced by m. factors such as the woman's strength. disease pattern. criminal record, occupation and demeanor. However these factors have changed with the advent of religion and education and therefore in contemporary Aftica some of these factors may not play an active role in mate selection. Some of the factors that influence mate selection in contemporary times include the following: religion, occupation, level of education, age, physical attractiveness, persoriality and life style etc. . Payment/Bride wealth This is the exchange of items between kin groups. Itis the transfer of symbolic goods from the husband's family to the bride's family. Theré,two forms of marriage payments. mae isa practice in which the bride's family gives the bride property (the dowry) to bring to the marriage. In indirect dowry, the recipient is still the bride, but the donor is the groom's family. This is also called BERG Bridal rtiage custom), i also payment made by a groom or his kin to the kin of the bride in order to ratify a marriage. In societies that practice bridewealth the groom gives property or service (also known as bride service) to the bride's family, in exchange or in compensation for their daughter. These terms have largely replaced the older term bride price, following disagreements between anthropologists over the economic logie at stag Soth practices are symbolically complex and enable a range of transactions, as well as conversions off goods and prestige. This form of economic exchar is most often found in agricultural and x pastoral patrilineal societies. though it is not limited to those lifestyles. Usually, bridewealth represents some form of compensation to the bride's family from the husband's family. for their loss of her labor and abilir them children. This is because when a woman marries. she woes 10 live, produce chilure sind work with her husband's family, leaving her own. In many caves, bridewealth also serves to create a positive rel ationship between the families of the 45husband and wife. When the wife's family receives the bride wealth. they use the goods they receive for their daughter to find her brother a wife. Some examples of the goods which are | rds to bridewealth are: exchanged in re =A bridewealth consisting of animals. such as cattle or goats. in northern Ghana, east and South Africa + Abbridewealth of cash in the Democratic Republic of Congo. + Tabianu (meaning knocking) and Sronu (ma smong the Anlos- 12 bottles of assorted drinks and cash + Among the Gonjas 13 shillings and 12 pieces of cola) This also applies to the Lo- Dagaaba | +° Lo-Willi includes 350 coweries, 3 cows.” goats ete. 1. To serve as a symbolic representation 2. To also serve as acknowledgement and respect for the receiving group and their roles played 3. To show seriousness or determination of the groom to assume role of a husband | ~ 4, To give support and a legal backing to the fnaringe 5. Ie leptimatizes the relationship between the two families The payment of bridewealth also gives basis for the rendering of services from the woman to the man and there are two types of services which the man is etitled to afier the payment of bridewealth these are the rites ingentricem, and the rites inuxorem. The rites in genetricem include the-rites to all domestic services that the wife perfarms whiles the rites inuxorem includes the’ sexual rites of the man over the woman,l ‘The official handing over ceremony This stage in the marriage process is marked by eventful social ceremonies that bring together any people. It also includes feasting marked with definite social rituals and performances. This eerie ST Oem NRAC can take different forms, With reference to Ghana differences exist in how cultures carry out this ceremony. Theories of Mate Selection Family researchers have developed a number of theories over the years to explain how and why individuals’ choose a particular partner. No single theory appears to answer these questions completely, but several shed light on the subject. SE vers: TERE Family theories have maintained that people tend to marry others like themselves .This tendency ‘o marry others of the same ethnic group, educational level, socioeconomic status, seligion and values is called homogamy. Robert Winch (1958) spurred up debate among social theorists when he proposed that people are attracted to those whose personalities are very different. from their own, Winch called his idea the complementary needs theory because it asserted that opposi s attract. That is people are attracted to someone whose personality complements their own. He proposed that a dominant person and a submissive person would be attracted to each other. Many family researchers tried to resolve the two theories and found very litle support for Witt eas. Although there is evidence that people are attracted to those with similar background characteristics, there is little evidence faery or the other that speaks t0 the influence of personality on mate selection. Bemard Murstein's (1970) filter theory. suggests that partners are first selected based on obvious stimulus characteristics. such as attractiveness. and are then passed through finer filtefs,hased on a7similar values and role compatibili Fitter theory proposes that ocial structure narrows the poot of eligible candidates. in filter theory people tend to go through a filtering process 10 stow the pool of possible mates to ¢ few prospective candidates. The influence of propinquity or theamess in time and space is the first filter. In other words the pool of available partners consists of those living within the same seographic area or people with whom one is likely to come in contact. The intemet is however changing the pool of posible dating pariners. The potential poo is now less restricted to those physically nearby. A’ growing number of people are chatting on-line through subscription setviees or directly on the internet and connecting with others of]similar interest from across the country or world. This trend would increase as on-line commercial dating services and other intémet services help people meet a broader cross-section of potettial partners. (Cay determines the ethnic group. sotioeconomie status and age of potential partners, Individuals who believe marriage outside their own socioeconomic group is unacceptable wilf eliminate people who are not of their group from the pool of eligibles. (GeaumiaiigieadiieeetAiDy. interests and values acts as another filter in the mate selection process. At this more'advantaged stage individuals select from a Smaller pool of eligible partners which increase the poSStbility of finding an acceptable partner, Finally, people use the SRR sheet tay ‘They evaliate’What they e 1g and what theyegentng in the relationship. Ifthe and take is balanced, they‘often move on to a mutually committed relationship. Changing patterns of tifate selection in Africa | Sixty years ago if you were of marrying age. you'd most key select someone based on how ‘your parents felt about him or her. how healthy the person appeared to be. how good/moral his or her character appeared to be. and how stable his or her econdmic resources appeared to be. Today we search for soul mat Look around you in the classroom, How many potential mates ae sitting there? In other words. how many single females or mates are there in the samecoc ae ‘, classroom? Now, of those. how many would you be attracted 0 as a date and how many can you tell just by watching them that you'd probably never date? These are the types of questions and answers we consider whea we study dating and mate selection. Mate selection has undergone major changes in recent decades. First non- marital relationships. such as cohabitating unions, have become increasingly common and, for some individuals, have replaced marriage as the natural developmental endpoint of a lifelong relationship. Educational background has changed the nature of mate selection. O'Neil (2006) explained that education is an important factor in marriage partner choice in ‘many societies. Buss and Schmitt (1993) Posited that in marriage partner choice surveys women consistently express @ preference for marriage partners who are of high educational background and of the same educational ualification as themselves. Also Kalmijn (2001) revealed that college graduates prefer to marry college graduates like themselves. However, female graduates also like to marry men that are educationally advanced than thein. Corroborating Kalmijin (2001). Torr (2005) in his stidy of undergraduates’ mate choice indicated that they prefer coilege graduates with good eaming capacity. Similarly Gage and Hancock (2002) posited that undergraduates prefer partners of similar educational qualification and background. Koehler (2005) predicted that female undergraduates may have a stronger preference for partners who are college graduates to non college graduates while male undergraduates indicated that it is not too important thet their partners should be college graduates. Thirdly western religion has also change the way and nature in which mate selection was carried out in African cultural setting. Levi-Strauss (2006) posited that people are so particular about the demographic characteristics of their prospective spouses. College students surveyed indicated that they will not marry from another religious group that is not theirs but from the same religious groupFourthly modern occupation change can also be explained as coperiburory 10 this modern nature of mate selection. In mate choice surveys women consistently ekpress a pret ence for partners who have high status profession (Buss and Schmitt, 1993). Women place high value on men who posses a promising career orientation. industriousness and amtjtion. Women are significantly more likely to discontinue relationships with males who become unemployed. lack career motivation or show laziness (Betzig, 1989) | ‘This is another important component of the family in Affica. Every society in Africa is guided by the system of kinship and its this kinship that determines mest to a particular group or Vineage. Kinship therefore fundamentally defines membership of society and is therefore central to explaining the African family in contemporary times. Basically by definition it ean be said that Kinship explains the social relevance of biological relationships within different societies. In a more general definition kinship is a relationship between any entities that shere a genealogical origin, through biological, cultural, or et descent. However kinship can authoritatively be defined as social relationships derived from consanguinity (ie blood). affinity (je Marriage) and adoption (ie owned through laid down procediire), Kinship thérefore refers t6 the culturally distinct relationships between individuals who are most likely rdught of having family ties. Societies use kinship as a basis for forming social groups or for classifying people into roles and categories. In anthropology! inship includes people who are related by lineage and marriage. In many societies. kinship provides a way for transmitting status and property from one generation to the next. An ethnographic| example of kinship would be in today’s Affica. where the way in which kinship works can be seen when it comes to inheritance and-the wills of the deceased. The in groups such as the uncles and fathers decide on the inheritance before the closest Kins such as spouse or the children, tend to receive the inheritance. An example of kinship in the Hindu religion is afier the death of a family member. the rest of thefamily Jocsu't bath for sometimes ten or eleven days. After that period is up the family then ineets for a ceremonial meal and many times will offer gitts to charity Types of Kinship The two types of Kinship which exist are sanguinial (related by blood) or affinal (related by lewimactiage). Through kinship there is a transmission of goods. ideas and behavior. Kinship is defined as a sense of being related to a person or people through descent, sharing or marriage. This provides the base for an examination of different styles of parnership, community and reproduction across the globe. . Kinship System Kinship systems as defined in anthropological texts and ethnographies were seen as constituted by pattems of behaviour and attitudes in a given society. Kinship systems emphasize the standard of behaviour pattem among members of a society. This behaviour is guided by values and rules as well as procedures and processes. Therefore in every kinship system there is an expected behaviour pattern from members who form part of the kin group. This also includes expected shared values, procedures and process which guide the network of relationships within the defined kin group. There are different ways kinship can be recognized. First by Affinity which is a relationship created by marriage. For example, two close friends could become siblings, through the marriage of their parents. Secondly by Consanguinity whichis a relationship created by blood and thiedly by adoption. ER RSRCE TET 1. Members of society are provided with defined and limited altematives regarding Who in the wider society they may recognize as kin relations and those they can exclude, 2. Kinship also provide a system oF security for the rdividual members of society3. The system of inheritance. property relations and jatterns of residence are defined within the kinship system | 4. Kinship system also performs some religious functions 5. Political affiliation is also determined by kinship | Descent The tracing of kinship demonstrates descent, Therefore desceht is the direct recognition of genealogical ties or connections between an individual and the forebearers for the purposes of recruitment into a kin group. Alternatively descent can also be looked as the structural principles of genealogical connection by which attainment to a particuldr ancestral group-is achieved. Descent can be traced through two lines these are according tothe father line which is Patritineal and through the mother line which is Matrilineal. | Different Types of Descent | Patrilineal Descent | Jn the patrilineal system the child is linked with the group through male sex links only: the lineage of his/tier father. Within this type of descent it is the men who own the property. have political power, and hold status even though their livelihood depends on the women of their society for children: Daughters are often discriminated against within their own families because any investment made in them by the family will be lost when she is married. In most cases the daughters of a lineage will marry into another lineage and be exchanged for a brideweddth. The ewes. the Dagaabas. and most northern tribes are a good example of patrilinear descent Matrilineal Descent The child of a matrilineal system is linked to the group throgh the lineage of their mother Contraty to Patrilineal descent. matrilineal descent is not a monarchy. Within this type of descent it is the women who own the property. Examples include the Ashantis. Akins, Kwahus. Bonos Aygens| | and the Fantes. Other examples in Africa include th ‘Ovambo of Namibia, Bemba of Zambia and the Yao of Malawi Unitineal Descent Unilineal decent groups can be found in many different places around the world. This principle is based on the fact that people belive that they are related to their kin through either their mother OR father, not both. They base this descent of the belief that the parent-child relationships are more important than any other type of relationship. Unilineal descent groups that are made up of links from the father’s side of the family are patrilineal; and descent groups that are made through links of the mother’s side are matrilineal. Bitineal Descent/Bilateral Bilineal decent is most familiar to the western cultures. This particular group links individuals with the lineage of both the mother and father (relatives). For example, | would trace my family line through my Father's side of the family. as well as my Mother's, with both having equal importance to myself. Anthropologists also refer to bilineal descent as bilateral descent, which is the principle that a descent group is formed by people who believe they are related to each other by connections made through their mothers and fathers equally. Another form of bilineal descent is the bilateral kindred. This group is much mote common and consists of the relatives of one person or-group of siblings and is the kinship group. Ambilineal descent/Double Unilineal Individuals are descended from both parents, but are able 10 RS from which group they would like more affiliation. For example. include Igbo-Nigeria, Nuba hills-Sudan, Lo-Dageaba Northem Ghana and the MO. Anata regionResidential Patterns in Marriage Patritocalizy is 4 vesiden neat thy husband's ial pattern in which a married couple fives with o family. Matrilocality is a residential pattern in which a married couple lives with or near the wife's family Neolocality refers to a residential pattern in which a married couple lives apart from the parents of both spouses. hey eit. Wha. E hese(heme Uxori-local where the woman creates @ house and the man joins the woman at the woman's house. Avucu-local where the couple joins the maternal uncle that is the brother of the woman (wife) 54es UNIT SEVEN CONFLICTS IN MARRIAGE, Introduction Marital confticts combine problems of communication. alienation or some thivat to the relationships security which lead to h anxiety and erosion of the marital system. There is a growing sense of disillusionment due to feelings of neglect, disrespect, and feeling unloved Feelings of anger or even rage, feelings of betrayal - whether real or perceived, loneliness, Abandonment and growing feelings of inadequacy all contribute to the breakdown in the marriage. Definitions Definitions of conflict that assume the interdependence of individuals make note of the presence of differences between the two parties. Donohue and Kolt (as cited in Hocker & Wilmont, 1998, P.113) define conflict as “a situation in which interdependent people éxpress (manifest or latent) differences in satisfying their individual needs and interests, and they experience interference from each other in accomplishing these goals”. Likewise, Jordan (as cited in Hocker & Witmont, 1998, p.116) states that “conflict arises when a difference between two or more people necessitates change in at least one person in order for their engagement to continue and develop. The differences cannot coexist without some adjustment”. Galtung, (1996) defines the term conflict generally as incompatibility of goals, or a clash of goals or ‘miere’ disagreement. Coser (1995) also defines social conflict broadly “as a struggle over values or claims to status. power and scarce resources. in which the aims of the conflicting pat are not only to gain the desired values. but also to neutralize, injure or eliminate their rivals, Buehler et al. (1998) defines marital conflict as the existence of high levels of disagreement. stressful and hostile interactions between spouses, disrespect. and verbal abuse whiles Cummings (1998 ».60) interprets it as “any major or minor interpersonal interaction that involved a difference of opinion. wh ther it was mostly n tive or even mostly positive. 55Biological theories The bivlogical theories have given rise to the innate theory of conflict: which contends that 11 animals irfeluding human bei conflict is innate in all social interactions and amor Human beings bear or have destructive impulses in their genetic jake up. The reason is that human beings have evolved from their ancestors who were instinc}ively violent ~ Human kind is evil by nature. | ‘Thomas Hobbes, Malthus and Freud expressed the belief that human beings ae driven by a natural instinct to self — preservation, | + Hobbes described life in the “state of nature” as “solitary. poor, nasty” + Saint Augustine alludes to the linkage between violent bellavior and original sin in humanity |-to-live™ or “will-to-pawer” to seek power, personal Humans are driven by a natural quest security and survival atthe expense of others around them, In other words, like animals would fight naturally over things they cherish ‘Theologians and religious peope se an iner flaw in human kind by way of sin that brings forth bitterness, violence and conflict. Therefore. the woik of these religious people is to regulate this sinful nature. In other words, conflict in inherent in man and this| sn be explained from man’s inner properties and attributes, hormonal composition. | According to Sigmund Freud war and conflict is a necessary periodic release that helps men preserve themselves by diverting their destructive tendencies to others. It should be noted that the aggressive instinct will be provoked when man is threatened and challenged.Frustration Aggression Theory this theory appears to be the. most common explanation for violent behavior stemming from inability to fulfill needs. Psychological theories of mitivation and behavior and frustration and siggression are used by theorists who rely on this explanation, A gression is explained in terms of the difference between what people feel they want or deserve ‘0 what they actually get. ~ the “want - get ~ ration” and the difference between “expected need satisfaction’ and ‘actual need satisfaction’ Wherd expectations do not meet attainment, the tendency is for people to conffont those they hold responsible for frustrating their ambition ‘According to Ted Robert Gurr’s relative deprivation Thesis, the greater the discrepancy between ‘what is sought and what seem attainable, the greater will be the chances that anger and violence will result. | Aggression isnot just undertaken as a natal reaction or instinct as realists and biological theorist assume but that itis the outcome of frustration. Frustration occurs in situations where legitimate desires ofan individual are denied either directly or by the indirect consequence of the way the society is structures ‘The feeling of disappointment may lead such a person to express his anger through violence that may be directed at those he holds responsible or people who are directly or indirectly related to them. This theory could be used to explain the many political conflicts in Africa. For instance, Liberia, Togo. Sierra Leone and Cote "I Voire. It should be noted that people: 1. Feel frustrated because they can not make ends meet, 2. Feel cheated by the affluence of the few in the society and how society is structured 57Physiological Theories | Just as Realism and Biological theories mentions that humans haye the capability to be | aggressive, the physiological theories added that it remains idle uptil itis stimulated by necessity or encouraged by success. According to Scott (1998) aggressive behavior is learned and it is.a function of several factors, including human nature and the environment. In any real sivaton, behavior will be the result of factors. from all levels. | Paul Maclean (1978) and Lorenz (1966) studied how human brai 0 reacts when people are under stress and threat. It was noted that it is possible for a person to’ experience conflict between what he of she is fecting and what hei thinking. This then determines whether such a person feels strongly about something or not and whether they act on such feelings or not. When people are under stress and under certain conditions, their reaction ean conform or differ from what others expect. Humans are naturally capable of being aggressive bur do not display violent behavior as an instinct. When violence occurs, there is the possibility that itis being manipulated by a combination of factors within and outside the individual's control Psycho = Cultural Theory Conflicts are culturally induced. Identity is seen as the reason fot social conflicts that take long to resolve. These identities are based on people’s ethnic origin bia culture that is learnt on the basis of that origin, This is because enemy images are created fhom deep seated attitudes about human actions that are learned from early stages of growth in the explanation of conflicts. Social conflicts take long to resolve because some groups are digeriminated against or deprived of satisfaction of their basic (material) needs and psychological (non material) needs on the basis of their identityRecognition and protection of wentity are important needs for food, security, belonging, political and economic empowerment and self esteem, Out of fear of extinction. fear et dying off and fear of the future we note that social eontlicts that take long to resolve are identity driven and grow out of feelings of powerlessness and memories of persecution, ‘The psycho ~ cultural theorist identified the “pathological dimensions of ethnicity’. They explained it as a history of oppression, victimization, feelings of inferiority and other forms of ‘experiences which wear away a person's dignity and self-esteem and lead people to resort to vengeance. . Self esteem is an unshakable sense of self worth, which makes life meaningful and includes the feeling that one is physically. socially and spiritually safe. The sense of security and safety includes the need for love, self esteem and non ~ material needs. Causes Marital conflicts can be about virtually anything. Couples complain about sources of conflict ranging from verbal and physical abusiveness to personal characteristics and. behaviors Perceived inequity in a couple's division of labor is associated with mat I conflict and with a tendency for the male to withdraw in response to conflict. Conflict over power is also strongly related to marital dissatisfaction. Spouses’ reports of conflict over extramarital sex, problematic drinking, or drug use predict divorce, as do wives’ reports of husbands being jealous and spending money foolishly. Greater problem severity increases the likelihood of divorce. Even though it is ofien not reported 10 be a problem by couples. violence among newlyweds is a predictor of divorce. as is psychological aggression (verbal aggression and nonverbal aggressive behaviors that are not directe: al the partner's body’, 59How do spouses behave during conflict? | Stimulated. in part by the view that “studying what peopl ut themselves is no substitute for studying how they behave” (Raush. Barry. Hertel. & Swain. 1974. p. 5). psychologists have conducted observational studies. with the underlying hope of identifying dysfunctional behaviors that could-be modified in couple therapy. This research has focused on problem-solving discussions in the laboratory and provides detailed information aout how maritally distressed | | and non distressed couples behave during conflict. | During conflict, distressed couples make more negative statements and fewer positive statements than non distressed couples. They are also more likely to respond with negative behavior when their partner behaves negatively. Indeed, this negative reciprocity, as it is called, is more consistent across different types of situations than is the amount of negative behavior. making it the most reliable overt signature of marital distress. Negative behavior is both moré frequent and more frequently reciprocated in couples that engage in physical aggression than in other couples. Nonverbal behavior, often used as an index of emotion, reflects marital satisfaction better than verbal behavior, and unlike verbal behavior does not change wtien spouses try to fake good and te arn “Impact of marital conflicts on the family The attention given marital conflict is understandable when te consider its implications for mental, physical. and family health. Marital conflict has been tnked to the onset of depressive symptoms. eating disofders. male alcoholism, episodic drinking. binge drinking. and out-of home drinking. Although married individuals are healthier dn average than the unmarried. marital conflict is associated with poorer health and with specific illnesses such as cancer. carcliac disease. and chronic pain, perhaps because hostile behaviors during conflict are related to alterations in immunological. endocrine. and cardiovascular functioning. Physical_ a ssion ‘occurs in about 30% of married couples in the United States, leading to significant phy eyinjucy in about 10% of couples. Marriuy is also the most common interpersonal context for homicide, and more women are murdered by their partners than by anyone else. Finally, marital + is associated with important fami}y outcorncs. including poor parenting, poor adjustment of children, increased likelihood of pares child conflict. and conflict between siblings. Marital conflicts that are frequent, intense. physical. unresolved, and child related have a particularly negative influence on children, as do marital conflicts that spouses attribute to their child's behavior (Grych &Fincham, 2001) Solutions Communication problems can be confusing and discouraging but there is a way out of the fog. There are positive adjustments that couples can make in how they respond to each other that can make a big difference to their relationship. In other words, when happy couples communicate, there are five times as many positive interactions between them (i.e. istening, validating the other person, using soft words. expressing appreciation, affirmation, physical affection, compliments, ete.) as there are ne} gative (ie. raising one’s voice, stating a complaint, or ‘expressing one’s anger). One way to improve the quality of your communication is to increase the amount of positive behaviors in your relationship and to decrease the amount of negatives. Reflect for a minute on what ratio characterizes your conflicts. Is there respect? Is there kindness? Do you genuinely listen to each other? Do you soften your tone with each other? Are. your intentions helpful and positive? Couples can learn to express their feelings in a safe environment where each member receives a certain amount of uninterrupted time to talk. Ground rules may be set that discourage raised voices or physical acts. Discussion remains focused on each issue and does not turn to personal atacks, Each couple must believe that a solution is possible and then participate in finding it Choose the righ time and place. establis! fighting” and never go to bed y- Putting olf a conflict only makes k more emotional and increases the tension. Putting off éles of exhaustion or physic minor matters now, may produce # major explosion later. avoid distresses. Learn to listen: Give your spouse your complete attention. and patiently hear them out. then before answering them. restate what you have “heard” the other person saying (verbally and non- verbally) and give them opportunity to correct your “understanding” of what you heard them say. “This is called active listening. It is important we state clearly what we mean, and avoid confusion of the issues. Don’t beat around the bush or play "games' Document descriptively by stating what you see happening in the conflict: name your feelings. use metaphors, similes and appropriate figures of speech, and express verbally what you feel like doing. Learn to "own" the problem ~ Identify your contributions by récognizing that in every conflict part of the problem is yours - and‘you must accept and deal with that. Focus on why you are angry instead of your spouse's anger. Use "I" messages rather than "You" messages, stating what you feel. need or want rather than ‘making accusations and pronouncing judgments that damage the other's self-esteem and the relationship. Speak just for yourself - beware of "you" messages fisguised as "I" or "we" messages. "I" messages put your own emotional “cards" on the table: "feel (feeling) when (description of problem) because it (tangible effects on me)": For example: "Ifeel hurt when you forget to kiss me good-bye bécause it makes me feel unloved ancl taken for granted." Deal with Facts. then Feelings, and then Needs. Suggest appropriate responses you are willing to undertake, and ask for your partners” opinions, observations and suggestions. Even when there are conflicts. never withhold physical intimacy from your spouse. or try to use it to manipulate, (1 Cor 7:5) And respect your partner's vulnerability in such (situations. Sometimes: recurring conflicts require a "pre-solution”, When a pattern of repeated friction develops. and destructive 62