Chapter 2: Culture and Socialization

The Concept of Culture

Before going any further, it may be important to note that common people often misuse the
concept of culture. Some misconceptions about the term culture include:

1. Many people in the western world use the term culture in the sense that some people are more
"cultured" than others. This basically emanates from the idea associated with the root word of
the term culture, “kulture” in German, which refers to “civilization". Thus, when one is said to
be “cultured”, he or she is said to be civilized. For sociologists and anthropologists, "culture
includes much more than refinement, taste, sophistication, education and appreciation of the
fine arts. Not only college graduates but also all people are ‘cultured’” Kottak (2002: 272).

2. A second commonly used misconception is that which equates “culture" with things which are
colorful, customs, cloths, foods, dancing, music, etc. As Kottak (op. cit p.525) argues, “… many
[people] have come to think of culture in terms of colorful customs, music, dancing and
adornments clothing, jewelry and hairstyles…. Taken to an extreme, such images portray culture
as recreational and ultimately unserious rather than something that ordinary people live
everyday of their lives not just when they have festivals” (Ibid. P. 525).

3. A third misconception about what culture is and what it constitutes is that which may be
entertained by many common people here in Ethiopia. This misconception is similar to the
second one, but it differs from it in that most people here think culture (as conceptualized in
its local language for example, bahil in Amharic) is that which pertains to unique traditional
material objects or non – material things of the past. According to this view, the cultural may not
include things (material or non – material), which are modern, more ordinary, day-to – day, life
aspects. Here, the simple, ordinary social, economic and other activities, ideas and affairs
are regarded as not cultural or somewhat “less cultural" although not clearly stated.
The concept of culture is one of the most widely used notions in sociology. It refers to the whole
ways of life of the members of a society. It includes what they dress, their marriage customs and
family life, art, and patterns of work, religious ceremonies, leisure pursuits, and so forth. It also
includes the material goods they produce: bows and arrows, plows, factories and machines,
computers, books, buildings, airplanes, etc (Calhoun, et.al, 1994; Hensiln and Nelson, 1995).

The concept of culture has been defined by hundreds of times by sociologists and
anthropologists, emphasizing different dimensions. However, most often scholars
have focused on eh symbolic dimension of culture; that culture is essentially symbolic (see
below).

Basic Characteristics of Culture

1.Culture is organic and supra-organic: It is organic when we consider the fact that there is no
culture without human society. It is supra organic, because it is far beyond any individual
lifetime. Individuals come and go, but culture remains and persists Calhoun (op cit).

2. Culture is overt and covert: It is generally divided into material and non-material cultures.
Material culture consists of any tangible human made objects such as tools, automobiles,
buildings, etc. Non material culture consists of any non-physical aspects like language, belief,
ideas, knowledge, attitude, values, etc.

3. Culture is explicit and implicit: It is explicit when we consider those actions which can be
explained and described easily by those who perform them. It is implicit when we consider those
things we do, but are unable to explain them, yet we believe them to be so.

4. Culture is ideal and manifest (actual): Ideal culture involves the way people ought to behave
or what they ought to do. Manifest culture involves what people actually do.

5. Culture is stable and yet changing: Culture is stable when we consider what people hold
valuable and are handing over to the next generation in order to maintain their norms and values.
However, when culture comes into contact with other cultures, it can change. However, culture
changes not only because of direct or indirect contact between cultures, but also through
innovation and adaptation to new circumstances.

6. Culture is shared and learned: Culture is the public property of a social group of people
(shared). Individuals get cultural knowledge of the group through socialization. However, we
should note that all things shared among people might not be cultural, as there are many
biological attributes which people share among themselves (Kottak, 2002).

7. Culture is symbolic: It is based on the purposeful creation and usage of symbols; it is

exclusive to humans. Symbolic thought is unique and crucial to humans and to culture. Symbolic
thought is the human ability to give a thing or event an arbitrary meaning and grasp and
appreciate that meaning

Symbols are the central components of culture. Symbols refer to anything to which people attach
meaning and which they use to communicate with others. More specifically, symbols are words,
objects, gestures, sounds or images that represent something else rather than themselves.
Symbolic thought is unique and crucial to humans and to culture. It is the human ability to give a
thing or event an arbitrary meaning and grasp and appreciate that meaning. There is no obvious
natural or necessary connection between a symbol and what it symbolizes (Henslin and Nelson,
1995; Macionis, 1997).

Culture thus works in the symbolic domain emphasizing meaning, rather than the technical/
practical rational side of human behavior. All actions have symbolic content as well as being
action in and of themselves. Things, actions, behaviors, etc, always stand for something else than
merely, the thing itself.

Elements of Culture

Culture includes within itself elements that make up the essence of a society or a social group.
The major ones include: Symbols, values, norms, and language (See Henslin and Nelson, 1995;
Calhoun et al. 1994).

Symbols

Symbols are the central components of culture. Symbols refer to anything to which people attach
meaning and which they use to communicate with others. More specifically, symbols are words,
objects, gestures, sounds or images that represent something else rather than themselves.
Symbolic thought is unique and crucial to humans and to culture. It is the human ability to give a
thing or event an arbitrary meaning and grasp and appreciate that meaning. There is no obvious
natural or necessary connection between a symbol and what it symbolizes.

Language

Language, specifically defined as a system of verbal and in many cases written symbols with
rules about how those symbols can be strung together to convey more complex meanings, is the
distinctive capacity and possession of humans; it is a key element of culture. Culture
encompasses language, and through language, culture is communicated and transmitted. Without
language it would be impossible to develop, elaborate and transmit culture to the future
generation.

Values

Values are essential elements of non-material culture. They may be defined as general, abstract
guidelines for our lives, decisions, goals, choices, and actions. They are shared ideas of a groups
or a society as to what is right or wrong, correct or incorrect, desirable or undesirable, acceptable
or unacceptable, ethical or unethical, etc., regarding something. They are general road maps for
our lives. Values are shared and are learned in group. They can be positive or negative. For
example, honesty, truth – telling, respect for others, hospitality, helping those in need, etc are
positive values. Examples of negative values include theft, indecency, disrespect, dishonesty,
falsehood, frugality, etc. The Hippocratic Oath in medical profession dictates that practitioners
should among other things, keep the secrets of patients, provide them whatever help they
can, do no harm to patients willingly, etc. This is an example of positive value.

Values are dynamic, meaning they change over time. They are also static, meaning they tend to
persist without any significant modification. Values are also diversified, meaning they vary from
place to place and culture to culture. Some values are universal because there is bio-
psychological unity among people everywhere and all times. In other words, they emanate
from the basic similarity of mankind’s origins, nature and desires. For example, dislike for
killing people, concepts and practices of disease management, cleanliness, personal hygiene,
cosmetics, incest taboo, etc.
Norms

Norms are also essential elements of culture. They are implicit principles for social life,
relationship and interaction. Norms are detailed and specific rules for specific situations. They
tell us how to do something, what to do, what not to do, when to do it, why to do it,
etc. Norms are derived from values. That means, for every specific norm, there is a general value
that determines its content.

Individuals may not act according to the defined values and norms of the group. Therefore,
violation of values and norms and deviating from the standard values and norms are often
common. Social norms may be divided into two. These are mores and folkways Mores: Are
important and stronger social norms for existence, safety, well-being and continuity of the
society or the group or society. Violation of, and deviation from these kinds of norms, may result
in serious reactions form the groups. The strongest norms are regarded as the formal laws of a
society or a group.

Formal laws are written and codified social norms. The other kinds of mores are called
conventions. Conventions are established rules governing behavior; they are generally accepted
ideals by the society. Conventions may also be regarded as written and signed agreements
between nations to govern the behaviors of individuals, groups and nations.

Folkways: Are the ways of life developed by a group of people. They are detailed and minor
instructions, traditions or rules for day-to-day life that help us function effectively and smoothly
as members of a group. Here, violating such kinds of norms may not result in a serious
punishment unlike violating mores. They are less morally binding. In other words, folkways are
appropriate ways of behaving and doing things. Examples may include table etiquette, dressing
rules, walking, talking, etc.

Conformity to folkways usually occurs automatically without any national analysis and is based
upon custom passed from generation to generation. They are not enforced by law, but by
informal social control. They are not held to be important or obligatory as mores, or moral
standards, and their violation is not as such severely sanctioned. Although folkways are less
binding, people have to behave according to accepted standards. Some exceptional behaviors are
regarded eccentric behaviors. Folkways are distinguished from laws and mores in that
they are designed, maintained and enforced by public sentiment, or custom, whereas laws are
institutionalized, designed, maintained and enforced by the political authority of the society.
Folkways in turn may be divided into two sub types: fashion and custom.

Fashion: Is a form of behavior, type of folkways that is socially approved at a given time but
subject to periodic change. Adherents combine both deviation and conformity to norm of a
certain group.

Custom: Is a folkway or form of social behavior that, having persisted a long period of time, has
become traditional and well established in a society and has received some degree of formal
recognition. Custom is a pattern of action shared by most or all members of a
society. Habit is a personality trait, whereas the custom is a group trait. Fashion and customs can
be differentiated in that while custom changes at slower rate, fashion changes at a faster rate.

Culture Variability and Explanations

Cultural variability refers to the diversity of cultures across societies and places. As there are
different societies, there are different cultures. The diversity of human culture is remarkable.
Values and norms of behavior vary widely from culture to culture often contrasting in radical
ways (Broom and Sleznki, 1973).

For example, Jews do not eat pork, while Hindus eat pork but avoid beef. Cultural diversity or
variability can be both between societies and within societies. If we take the two societies,
Ethiopia and India, there are great, sharp cultural diversities between the two societies. On the
other hand, within both societies, there is remarkable cultural variability. Cultural variability
between societies may result in divergent health and disease conditions. For example, variations
in nutritional habits are closely linked to the types of diseases. The prevalence of tapeworm
among raw-meat eating people may be a case in point.

We use the concept of subculture to denote the variability of culture within a certain society.
Sub culture is a distinctive culture that is shared by a group within a society (Stockard, 1997).
We call it sub culture, because groups (with their sub cultures) exist within and as a smaller part
of the main, dominant culture. Examples of subculture could be the distinctive culture of
university students, street children and prostitutes in Addis Ababa, the culture of medical
professionals, etc.

Why cultures vary from society to society? Sociologists, anthropologists, cultural geographers
and other social scientists have studied the causes for cultural variations among (between)
societies. Various arguments have been provided the variation, including geographical factors,
racial determination, demographic factors, span of interest and mere historic chances. Those who
argued for racial determination believe that cultural variation is genetically determined.
Geographic factors include: climate, altitude, and so forth. Included in demographic factors are
changes in population structure, population increase, etc., whereas by span of interest is meant
cultures vary as people's interest in life also varies. Cultural variation is due to mere historical
chances; a particular group of people may develop a culture as it is exposed to certain historical
circumstances and opportunities.

However, no one explanation is sufficient by itself; anthropologists now reject particular

deterministic explanation such as those based on race; rather cultural variations are accounted for
by more holistic explanations.

Ethnocentrism, Cultural Relativism and Culture Shock

Ethnocentrism: we often tend to judge other cultures by comparison with our own. It is not
logically possible and proper to underestimate or overestimate or judge other cultures on the
basis of one's cultural standard. Ethnocentrism, in general, is an attitude of taking one's own
culture and ways of life as the best and the center of all and on the other hand, regarding other
ethnic groups and cultures as inferior, bad, full of errors, etc. It is the tendency to apply one's
own cultural values in judging the behavior and beliefs of people raised in other cultures. It is a
cultural universal. People everywhere think that familiar explanations, opinion, and customs as
true, right, proper and moral. They regard different behavior as strange or savage (Macionis,
1997; Hensllin and Nelson, 1995).

Cultural Relativism

Every society has its own culture, which is more or less unique. Every culture contains its own
unique pattern of behavior which may seem alien to people from other cultural backgrounds. We
cannot understand the practices and beliefs separately from the wider culture of which they are
part. A culture has to be studied in terms of its own meanings and values. Cultural relativism
describes a situation where there is an attitude of respect for cultural differences rather than
condemning other people's culture as uncivilized or backward (Stockard, 1997). Respect for
cultural differences involves:

• Appreciating cultural diversity;

• Accepting and respecting other cultures;
• Trying to understand every culture and its elements in terms of its own context and logic;
• Accepting that each body of custom has inherent dignity and meaning as the way of life of one
group which has worked out to its environment, to the biological needs of its members, and to
the group relationships;
• Knowing that a person's own culture is only one among many; and
• Recognizing that what is immoral, ethical, acceptable, etc. in one culture may not be so in
another culture.

Cultural relativism may be regarded as the opposite of ethnocentrism. However, there is some
problem with the argument that behavior in a particular culture should not be judged by the
standards of another. This is because in its extremeness, it argues that there is no superior,
international or universal morality. To sum up the issues of ethnocentrism and cultural
relativism, the concepts involve difficult choices, dilemmas and contradictions regarding cultural
exchanges and relationships between and within societies. The dilemmas and contradictions
become clear when we see that the traditional anthropological position maintains that every
cultural beliefs and practice, including for example the ones which are termed as “harmful
traditional practices” in Ethiopia, are part and parcel of the general cultural system of a society
and therefore they should not be judged and undermined by any outsider. On the other hand, the
dilemma is taken to the extreme cultural relativism appears to entail a fallacy, in that it implies
that there are no universal cultural or moral standard by which actions and beliefs have to be
judged. Yet still, even cultural anthropologists accept the idea that there are some cultural
standards which are universally found everywhere, expressed for example in the world’s major
religions. In any case there may be no ready-made solutions to this dilemma; however, what we
can at present maintain is that cultural diversity has to be respected and yet international
standards of justice and human rights have to be taken into account.

Culture Shock

Culture shock is the psychological and social maladjustment at micro or macro level that is
experienced for the first time when people encounter new cultural elements such as new things,
new ideas, new concepts, seemingly strange beliefs and practices. No person is protected from
culture shock. However, individuals vary in their capacity to adapt and overcome the influence
of culture shock. Highly ethnocentric people are exposed widely to culture shock. On the other
hand, cultural relativists may find it easy to adapt to new situations and overcome culture shock
(Henslin and Nelson, 1995).

Cultural Universals, Alternatives and Specialties

Cultural Universals

Although there are as many different and unique cultures as societies, there are some cultural
practices that are universal. Amid the diversity of human cultural behavior, there are some
common features that are found in virtually all societies. Cultural universality refers to those
practices, beliefs, values, norms, material objects, etc., which are observed across all societies in
the world, or across different social groups within a society.

For example, every culture has a grammatically complex language. All societies have some
recognized form of family system in which there are values and norms associated with the care
of children. The institution of marriage, religious rituals, and property rights are all cultural
universals. All societies have some form of incest prohibition. Anthropologist have identified
variety of more cultural universals including the existence of art, dancing, bodily adornments,
games, gift giving, joking and rules of hygiene. Cultural universals condition behavioral
similarity among individuals in a given society or across societies. They do not allow differences
in actions and behaviors, lifestyle, attitude, behaviors, etc (Broom and Selzenki, 1973).
Cultural Alternatives and Specialties

There are many different options for doing the same thing. For example, care for a patient is a
universal aspect of cultures; but the way people care for patients varies. There are many diverse
ways of doing the same thing. This is called cultural alternative. In other words, cultural
alternatives refer to two or more forms of behavior in a particular society which are acceptable in
a given situation. These alternatives represent different reactions to the same situations or
different techniques to achieve the same end. Cultural alternatives are (also) the types of choices
that allow for differences in ideas, customs and lifestyles. Modern industrialized societies
offer far more cultural alternatives than had many societies of the past.On the other hand,
cultural specialties refer to the specific skills, training, knowledge, etc. which is limited
to a group or specific members of society. They are those elements of culture which are shared
by the members of certain social groups but which are not shared by the total population.
Cultural specialties cause behavioral differences among people as opposed to cultural universals.

Socialization

The Concept of Socialization

In any society there are socially recognized ways in which the norms and values of the society
are inculcated in the human infant who comes into this world as a biological organism with
animalistic needs or impulses. Individuals learn group-defined ways of acting and behaving, and
what they socially learn becomes part of their personality.

Socialization is a process of making somebody social and fully human. Or more appropriately, it
is a process whereby individual persons learn and are trained in the basic norms, values, beliefs,
skills, attitudes, way of doing and acting as appropriate to a specific social group or society. It is
an on-going, never ending process- from cradle to the grave. That means an individual person
passes through various stages of socialization, from birth to death. Thus, we need socialization as
infants, preschool children, schoolboys/girls, adolescents, adults and older persons. From the
point of view of individual persons, especially a newly born baby, socialization is a process
whereby a biological being or organism is changed into a social being. In terms of the group,
society or any professional organizations, socialization is a process whereby the organizations',
social groups' and society's structure and well-being are kept and sustained. It is the process
whereby the culture, skills, norms, traditions, customs, etc., are transmitted from generation to
generation – or from one society to another.

Socialization may be formal or informal. It becomes formal when it is conducted by formally

organized social groups and institutions, like schools, religious centers, mass media universities,
work places, military training centers, internships, etc. It is informal when it is carried out
through the informal social interactions and relationships at micro-levels, at interpersonal and
small social group levels. The most important socialization for us is that we get through informal
agents like family, parents, neighborhood and peer group influences. It has a very powerful
influence, whether negative or positive, in our lives.

The process of socialization, whether it is formal or informal, is vitally important to both

individuals and society. Without some kind of socialization, society would cease to exist.
Socialization, thus, can be labeled as the way by which culture is transmitted and individuals are
fitted into the society's organized way of life

The Goals of Socialization

In terms of individual persons, the goal of socialization is to equip him or her with the basic
values, norms, skills, etc, so that they will behave and act properly in the social group to which
they belong. Socialization has also the following specific goals (Broom and Sleznki, 1973):

 To inculcate basic disciplines by restraining a child or even an adult from immediate

gratification; a child who is toilet-trained will delay relieving himself/ herself until the
proper environment is created.
 To instill aspirations;
 To teach social roles;
 To teach skills;
 To teach conformity to norms; and
 To create acceptable and constructive personal identities.
Despite the inculcation of values and norms is significant in the process of social integration, we
need to also note that social values are not equally absorbed by members of a society or group.
The integrative function of socialization is also not equally beneficial to all people. There is
always the question of whose values have to be inculcated? This question particularly
becomes crucial in an increasingly globalizing society. Hence, the ideological role of
socialization with the issues of differential power, control, domination and conflict become
important.

Human Biological Bases of, and Capacity for, Socialization

From among the animal kingdom, humans are the only ones who are capable of socialization
because they are endowed with the necessary biological bases that are lacking in other animals.
The following are the key biological characteristics of human beings on which socialization is
based: Absence of instincts, social contact needs, longer period of childhood dependence,
capacity to learn and language (Broom and Sleznki, 1973; Henslin and Nelson, 1995).

Absence of Instincts: The term "instinct" in its current social science usage refers to the
complex behavior patterns for which some animal species as biologically programmed. For
example, nest-building among birds is an indistinct. But humans have no comparable behavior
patterns which are biologically fixed, although they have innumerable built-in physiological
reflexes. Human have biological drives or impulses such as hunger, thirst, sex, etc, rather than
instincts. This absence of instincts makes humans dependent on social direction and their
behaviors are amenable to such direction. The open ended nature of humans is thus the biological
ground for social conformity.

Social Contact Needs: Humans need sustained social contacts. Studies conducted on primates
and human infants revealed that lack of body stimulation and contact in infancy appear to inhibit
and prevent the development of higher learning functions. Satisfaction of the social contact and
initiations needs in humans is a strong biological imperative.

Longer Period of Childhood Dependence: A third biological condition that makes extensive
socialization essential for humans is that the human infant need much longer period of physical
dependence and sexual immaturity than other animals. The need to acquire the techniques and
skills of social living further prolongs the dependence. Such longer period of dependence, during
which the child is cared for and controlled by others, results in an intense emotional dependence
that remains throughout life.

Capacity to Learn: A high level of intelligence is an innate human biological potential. Hence,
humans are highly educable; they can learn much more than other animals and can continue to
learn more over a longer period of time.

Language: Man's ability to learn is a function of his capacity for language. Other animals may
have some degree of intelligence but only humans have reasoning capacity because they have
language. Language expresses and arouses emotion; conveys feelings, values and knowledge.
Whether as vehicle for knowledge or for attitude, language is the key factor in the creation of
human society. Symbolic communication, which is possessed only by humans, makes language
possible. Humans innately possess the potential and capacity to create culture and to be guided
by cultural and social norms. At the center of all these is language.

Modes of Social Learning

What are the mechanisms by which socialization is accomplished? Fuller answer is not yet found
to this question. Sociologists have, however, identified four modes of social learning. These are:
conditioning, identity taking, modeling-after and problem solving.

Conditioning: This involves learning based on the principle of association. Conditioning refers
to the response pattern which is built into an organism as a result of stimuli in the environment.
There is what is called classical conditioning in which the response remains constant while the
stimuli vary, as in Pavilovian experiment. In contrast, in operant or instrumental conditioning,
response is controlled. The term "operant" signifies a behavior which is guided by an
anticipated result. Thus, operant conditioning entails the "creation of built-in responses a result
of systematic reinforcement. Conditioning is important in socialization in that through classical
conditioning children learn to respond to various social and man-made stimuli; and through
operant conditioning, they learn to inhibit certain response and adopt others as habitual.
Identity Taking: Studies show that children begin to identify themselves and others by sex and
learn to behave in the normative gendered ways according to the society of which they parts.
This happens by age five. Researchers of socialization believe that sex-type behavior emerges
through operant conditioning. However, it is not the case that conditioning alone accounts for
sex-differences in behavior, although the individuals take their identity of maleness and
femaleness through approval and disapproval as well as reward and punishment. As their
linguistic and cognitive skills gradually develop, children begin to learn that they are being
called boys or girls, accept what others label, learn by observation, and report what boys and
girls do and behave accordingly.

Modeling After: Children learn to model their behavior after someone who is an admired, loved
or feared figure. This is considered as a typical stage in personality formation and in the
development of personal autonomy and social involvement. Through modeling after someone,
our behavior acquires meaning and coherence.

Problem Solving: The above three mechanisms of social learning are ways in which individuals
internalize the values and norms of society. They may be termed as modes of internalization.
However, social learning transcends beyond simply internalizing values and norms. It also
includes learning to involve in cooperative and conflict-ridden activities, to cope with new
situations and to achieve one's goals. Problem solving mode of social learning is essential
particularly in societies where complexity and fluidity dominate the social world. Problem
solving is not to be understood as a kind of mathematical puzzle solving, but it is one which is
applied to a problematic social situation in which individuals find themselves uncomfortable and
need a context -based response. While each mode of social learning is important, it is to be noted
that each has its own limitation. No single mode of social learning thus fully accounts for
socialization.

Patterns of Socialization

There are two broadly classified patterns of socialization. These are: Repressive and
participatory socialization. Repressive socialization is oriented towards gaining obedience,
while participatory socialization is oriented towards gaining the participation of the child.
Punishment of wrong behavior and rewarding and reinforcing good behavior are involved in
the two kinds of socialization, respectively. The following is a tabular representation of the two
modes of socialization.

Major Types of Socialization

There are different types of socialization; the major ones include: primary or childhood
socialization, secondary or adulthood socialization, de-socialization and re-socialization.
Other minor types of socialization include: anticipatory socialization and reverse socialization
(Calhoun et al, 1994; Henslin and Nelson, 1995; Soroka, 1996; Macionis, 1997).

Primary or Childhood Socialization

This is also called basic or early socialization. The terms "primary", "basic" or "early" all signify
the overriding importance of the childhood period for socialization. Much of the personality
make-up of individuals is forged at this period in life. Socialization at this stage of life is a
landmark; without it, we would cease to become social beings. The human infant who
is a biological being or organism is changed into a social being mainly at this early stage. Hence,
children should be appropriately socialized from birth up to particularly five years of age,
because this period is basic and crucial one. A child who does not get appropriate socialization at
this stage will most likely be deficient in his/her social, moral, intellectual and personality
development. Some grew up developing anti-social attitudes, aspirations and practices.

Secondary or Adult Socialization

While socialization is an overbidding issue for children and adolescents, it is a never-ending

process that continues throughout life. Secondary or adult socialization is necessitated when
individual take up new roles, reorienting themselves according to their changes social statuses
and roles, as in starting marital life. The socialization process at this stage may sometimes be
intense. For example, fresh college graduates entering the world of work to start their first
jobs, there are quite many new roles to be mastered. Intense adult socialization may also occur
among immigrants. When they go to other countries, they may need to learn the language,
values, norms, and a host of other custom and folkways, coupled with experiencing economic
hardships may prove to be truly stressful and most challenging. Although it may be fairly stated
that childhood socialization experiences what kind of people we become, the challenges of
socialization thus continues in late adolescent and adult stages. This happens to be so particularly
in the context of fast changing world in complex societies.

Re-socialization and De-socialization

In the lives of individuals, as they pass through different stages and life experiences, there is the
need for re-socialization and de-socialization. Re-socialization means the adoption by adults of
radically different norms and life ways that are more or less completely dissimilar to the previous
norms and values. Re-socialization signifies the rapid and more basic changes in the adult life.
The change may demand abandonment of one lifeway with a new one, which is completely
different from, and also incompatible with, the former. This quite so often happened as adult life
in modern society’s demands sharp transitions and changes.

De-socialization typically precedes re-socialization. De-socialization refers to stripping

individuals of their former life styles, beliefs, values and attitudes so that they may
take up other partially or totally new life styles, attitudes and values. The individuals have to
abandon their former values and take up new ones in order to become part of the new social
group.

De-socialization and re-socialization often take place in what is called total institutions, which
are an all-encompassing and often isolated from the community. They demand a thorough de-
socialization of the new entrants before they assume full-fledged membership. Total institutions
include: mental hospitals, prisons, religious denominations and some other political groups,
and military units. In each case, persons joining the new setting have first to be de-socialized,
before they are re-socialized. Re-socialization may also mean socializing individuals again into
their former values and norms, after they rejoin their former ways of life, spending a relatively
longer period of time in total institutions. This is because they might have forgotten most of the
basic values and skills of the former group or society. This kind of re-socialization may also be
regarded as reintegration, helping the ex-community members renew their memories of their
former life ways, skills, knowledge, etc.
Anticipatory Socialization

Anticipatory socialization refers to the process of adjustment and adaptation in which individuals
try to learn and internalize the roles, values, attitudes and skills of a social status or occupation
for which they are likely recruits in the future. They do this in anticipating the actual
forthcoming socialization. It involves a kind of rehearsal and preparations in advance to have a
feel of what the new role would look like. However, anticipatory socialization may not be
adequate when the nature and scope of life transition is complex. It may be difficult to
fully anticipate what will happen.

Reverse Socialization

Reverse socialization refers to the process of socialization whereby the dominant socializing
persons, such as parents, happen to be in need of being socialized themselves by those whom
they socialize, such as children. This idea seems to be associated with the fact that socialization
is a two-way process. It involves the influences and pressures from the socializees that directly or
indirectly induce change the attitudes and behaviors of the socializers themselves. In reverse
socialization, children, for example, may happen to socialize their parents in some roles, skills,
and attitudes which the latter lack.

Agents and Components of Socialization

Agents of socialization are the different groups of people and institutional arrangements which
are responsible for training new members of society. Some of them could be formal, while others
are informal. They help individual members get into the overall activities of their society.

There are three components to socialization process. There is the socializee who could be either a
newborn child, a recruit to the army or the police force or a freshman in a college or an intern in
medical service. Then again there are the socializers who may be parents, peer groups,
community members, teachers or church members. Both the socializee and the socializer
interact with one another not in a vacuum but in a social environment which plays an important
role in the socialization process. These different socializing environments are called socialization
settings. The most socializing agencies are the family, peer relationships, schools, neighborhoods
(the community), the mass media, etc.

The institution of family is generally regarded as the most important agent of socialization. In the
process of socialization, the most important contacts are between a child and his/her parents and
siblings. The contacts could also be between the child and surrogate parents when actual parents
are not available. Besides the child's parents, there are other agents of socialization (in modern
societies) such as day-care-centers, nurseries and kindergarten, as well as primary and secondary
schools and universities. It seems that these various agents of socialization have partially taken
over the function of the parents, particularly in modern societies, where women are increasingly
leaving their traditional home-based responsibilities by engaging in employment outside home.
The school represents a formal and conscious effort by a society to socialize its young. Other
than parents and schools, peer groups play very significant roles in the socialization process.
Sometimes, the influence of the peer group, be it negative or positive, can be as powerful as that
of parents. The peer group may transmit prevailing societal values or develop new and distinct
cultures of its own with peculiar values.

The mass media such as television, radio, movies, videos, tapes, books, magazines and
newspapers are also important agents of socialization. The most crucial effect on children comes
from television, as studies show. The effects are both negative and positive. Negative impact
seem to be greater that parents and other concerned bodies worry about the way television
is socializing children. For example, studies show that watching violence on television can
encourage aggressive behavior in children

Multiple and Contradictory Influences of Socialization

So far, the picture of socialization presented may seem to be biased towards the structural
functionalist view of society and socialization. Hence, it would be useful to add few ideas that
may help balance the picture. In a critical conceptualization of socialization, the contradictory
and ambiguous sources and influences of socialization need to be highlighted.

If we take a good example interesting for health science students, it would be important in this
regard. A case in point could be alcohol and tobacco consumption. Evidences show that the
consumption of tobacco and alcohol is rapidly increasing in the Third world. There are
underlying and contradictory processes of socialization behind this phenomenon. The conflicting
influences arise when on the one hand, families, schools, and medical institutions warn
youngsters not to consume these products; and on the other hand, the global companies
producing these products are powerfully waging the war of getting the products to the youth,
through the lure of television advertisement. This example shows us that often conflicting,
competing messages pass from the various sources of socialization. The various agents of
socialization are also not accorded balanced share of power, control and domination. The
international companies, who forcefully promote the culture of consumerism thorough the aid of
the powerful global media, tend to play dominating roles in influencing the attitudes and
lifestyles of youngsters.

Chapter 3: Social Structure and Social Interaction

Social Structure: The Building Blocks of Social Life

Social life is composed of many levels of building blocks, from the very micro to the very
macro. These building blocks combine to form the social structure. Social structure refers to the
social patterns through which a society is organized and can be horizontal or vertical. To recall,
horizontal social structure refers to the social relationships and the social and physical
characteristics of communities to which individuals belong, while vertical social structure, more
commonly called social inequality , refers to ways in which a society or group ranks people in a
hierarchy. This chapter’s discussion of social structure focuses primarily on horizontal social
structure since the vertical structure will be discussed in social stratification.

Social Interaction and Social Relationship

Sociologists study social structures and the function of social events and processes. This involves
studying social interaction and relationships at broader (macro) and micro levels. Social
interaction and relationship may be studied as they occur between the whole societies linked in
the world system down to those between two individuals. Here our focus is on social interaction
and relationship in the everyday life of individuals.
Individuals are the main components of society; they make up the building blocks; as, in a very
important sense, society is the product of the actions of individuals. We may further state that
society is a representation of the collective behavior of individual actors. It is the product of
decisions people make concerning when, how, and with whom they are going to interact.
However, individuals are social actors who act in a social environment; their social interactions
are influenced by the social environment and existing social pattern. In other words, the actions
of individuals are not haphazard ones; they take place in patterned relationships.

Social relationship refers to any routinized, enduring patterns of social interactions between
individuals in society under the limits and influences of the social structure. The term "social
relationship" elicits two important questions: between whom does social relationship take place?
About what are social relationships? Answers to these questions lead us to the concepts of social
status and role (Henslin and Nelson, 1995).

Social Status and Social Roles

The Concept and Types of Social Status

In the social structure of a society or a group, there are various defined positions to be occupied
by a group of individuals. This position in termed as social status. It is the position or ranks a
person or a group of persons occupy in the social system. Some of these positions are naturally
given and they are called ascribed social status. They are acquired by birth. For example, being
a male or female, boy or girl, black or white person, son or daughter, father or mother, etc. Some
positions in society are to be attained by competitions, making efforts, commitments, choices,
decisions, and other mechanisms. Such kinds of status are called achieved statuses. Examples
include being a husband or wife, a student or teacher, a physician, a nurse, an athlete, etc.
However, there are some of the statuses which may be both ascribed and achieved. For example,
one can be an Ethiopian by birth or through other mechanisms.

Achieved social status may be regarded as the characteristics of modern, industrial societies. In a
traditional society, most social statuses are naturally acquired. E.g. a potter family may produce
potter son or daughter. But in modern society, this is not usually the case. Every person has at
least two social statuses. A person, for example, may be at the same time a student, a daughter, a
mother, an employee, etc. Of these various statuses, one or two may be more dominant than
others. The most dominant of all is called a salient status. It is that which defines a person’s
position in most cases at most occasions Calhoun et al., 1994; Rosenberg, 1987; Stockard, 1997).

The Concept of Social Roles

Social roles are the expectations, duties, responsibilities, obligations, etc, which are associated
with a given social status. Every person/ group of persons is/ are expected to behave, act and
demonstrate skills, knowledge and attitude that are fitting to the given status or statuses. Every
person is expected to play two or more roles.

Multiple statuses are associated with multiple roles. The different roles associated with a single
status are called role set. Sometimes, there are role conflicts, meaning the clashing of one role
with the other. These role conflicts may be inter-role, i.e. conflict between two or more roles.
There are also intra-role conflicts, i.e. conflicts that occur when a person feels strains and
inadequacies in accomplishing a certain role, or when there is a gap between what a person does
and what a group expects of him or her. Intra-role conflict may also be called role strain. In other
words, there is a clash between ideal role, that which a person is expected to perform
theoretically, and actual role, that a person accomplishes according to his or her level of
understanding, capacity and personality.

Social Interaction in Everyday Life

Micro-sociology focuses on understanding and analyzing the processes and dynamics of social
interaction in everyday life. Social interaction may simply mean what people do when they are in
the presence of one another. Four symbolic interactions, micro-sociological perspectives are
developed to understand social interaction in everyday life (Henslin and Nelson, 1995). These
are:
1. Symbolic Interaction

Symbolic interactionism as indicated earlier focuses on social interaction as the most significant
part of life in society. What interest scholars in this perspective are symbols people use to define
their worlds. Here, three important concepts are used to explain the symbolic basis and nature of
social interaction; these are: stereotypes in everyday life, personal space, and touching.
Stereotypes in Everyday Life: Stereotypes are the assumptions we have about people; they
determine and shape our reactions and behaviors towards people. Our first impressions about
people are shaped by the assumptions we make about such characteristics as the person's
sex, age, skin color, physical appearance, social status, etc. The assumptions not only influence
our ideas about the person, but the way we interact with that person.

Personal space: Individuals have, and maintain, an important sense of personal space in social
interaction; every person has thus personal space. Our personal spaces are open to only
those whom we are intimate with such as children, parents, close friends and spouses.
Otherwise, we keep others out of this personal space making sure that we do not touch, and are
touched by, others. Anthropological research findings show that the use of personal space
varies from culture to culture; four different distance zones are identified, for example, as
used in North America (Ibid). These are:

I. Intimate Distance (50 centimeter from our bodies; reserved for lovemaking, wrestling,
comforting, protecting, etc.);
II. Personal Distance (extends from 50 centimeter to 120 centimeter surrounding our
bodies; these spaces are reserved for friends, acquaintances and conversations);
III. Social Distance (extends from 120 centimeter to 3.6 meters for impersonal or formal
relationships; e.g., for job interviews); and
IV. Public Distance (this zone extends from 3.6 meters; it marks a more formal relationship.
This is used to separate dignitaries and public speakers from the general public.)

Touching: Each society has rules about touching in social interaction. Frequency of touching
and the meaning people attach to it vary between and within cultures. However, in impersonal
social interactions, higher status individuals are more likely to touch those of lower status; e.g.
teacher his/ her students; a boss his secretary, etc.

2. Dramaturgy

Symbolic interationists use the term “dramaturgy” to refer to the way individuals present
themselves in everyday life. The term was coined by sociologist Erving Goffman (1922 – 1982)
to refer to dramaturgical analysis of how people act and behave in social situations. Thus, social
life is likened to a drama or stage. Individuals are born into the stage of everyday life. Our
everyday social life consists of playing our assigned roles. Every person learns how to perform in
the stage. Our everyday life is filled with stages where we perform; each person is expected to
play his/ her drama taking many roles; e.g. a student, a wife, a mother, a daughter, a worker, etc.
The actions and roles played on the stage are called role performances (Ibid.).

3. Ethno-methodology

literally means the study of people’s methods. Ethno-methodologists study how people make
sense of life. Ethno-methodology involves uncovering people’s basic assumptions as they
interpret their everyday world. Sociologists like Harold Garfinkel (who coined the term) have
made extensive studies of how people use commonsense understandings to make sense out of
their lives. What form the bases of social interaction in our everyday life are the assumptions
individual actors have about the way life is and the way things ought to work.

4. The Social Construction of Reality

Symbolic interactionist argue that individuals define their own reality and try to live according
that definition. Reality is not something that exists “out there”, independently. It is created
socially. By “social construction of reality“, we mean the process by which we take the various
elements available in our society and put them together to form a particular view of reality.
Every individual’s definition of realities derives from his/ her society’s own definition. The
definitions we learn from our cultures form the basis of not only what we do, but also what we
perceive, feel or think.

Social Institutions

Social institutions may be defined as practices based on similar principles that display some
degree of regularity. More specifically, a social institution is an interrelated system of social
roles and social norms, organized around the satisfaction of an important social need or social
function (Team of Experts, 2000).

In general, a social institution is an established pattern of behavior that is organized to perpetuate

the welfare of society and to preserve its form. From the above definition, we can observe that
social institutions have got some important functions. Three of such main functions are: (a)
perpetuation of the welfare of society, (b) preservation and maintenance of the form of society,
and (c) meeting the major needs of the members of society. A society is functionally integrated
and held together by social institutions.

Social institutions are universal. They vary from time to time and across cultures, in terms of
complexity, specialization, scope, formality and organization. But their basic nature and purpose
are similar everywhere. These features are particularly true regarding the five major social
institutions discussed below. Social institutions are resistant to change; they tend to persist.
However, once a change occurs in particular social institution, it tends to affect the other
institutions as well.

Major Types and Functions of Social Institutions

There are many principles around which institution are organized. The five social institutions of
major significances are:

1. Economic institutions: those that deal with economic and property relations;

2. Policy and law: Those that are concerned with social control with politics and law
government, the police, court, etc;

3. Religious institutions: Those concerned with the supernatural magic and religion;
4. Family: those based on principles of kinship, meaning, social relations created by descent and
marriage; and

5. Educational institutions: those that deal with the need for training individuals in the roles,
values, skills, knowledge, attitudes etc. which are associated with being a citizen and a worker.

Each institution performs two types of social function. These are: (a) primary functions, which
are also called manifest, explicit, or direct functions; and (b) secondary functions, which are
also called indirect, hidden, or latent functions. Through these functions, social institutions fulfill
important needs in the society. The primary functions of the five major social institutions are
as follows.
 1. The Family

The family is the most important social unit in any society. It is the building block of any society.
The family fulfills two basic functions. These are reproduction and socialization. Society
reproduces or recreates itself through the family. Children are born in the family to
join the society. Parents play the roles of nurturing, caring for, teaching and training children;
children are expected to play the roles of good and teachable trainees.

The way parents nurture, train and care for their children vary according to forms of family
organization. Nuclear family is a dominant form of family organization in modern,
industrialized and urban societies. It usually consists of husband wife and dependent children. In
traditional, agrarian and rural societies, Extruded family form dominates. It consists of husband,
wife/ wives, their children, and other relatives (Henslin and Nelson, 1995; Calhoun et al.
1994)

2. Economic Institution

Every society needs to make effective use of the scarce resources. Goods and services have to be
produced to meet the basic needs such as food, clothing, shelter, etc. Economic institutions are
responsible for organizing the production, exchange, distribution and consumption
of goods and services.

3. Religious Institution

This asocial institution is responsible for meeting (providing) spiritual needs of the members of
the society. There are puzzling questions about the meaning of the human life, human destiny,
the universe, and other questions. Religion and related institutions like magic provide
explanations for these puzzling paradoxes of life and provides meaning and purpose for life. It
helps people to cope with purposelessness, meaninglessness and sense of alienation and
frustration. These institutions also help members of society conform to social values
and norms, and play their expected social roles appropriately. They also provide a sense of social
solidarity among members of society.
4. Political Institution (Government and Law)

These social institutions are responsible for protecting the society from internal disorder, crime
and chaos; as well as from external threats and invasion. They are responsible for maintaining
peace and order at micro and macro levels; enforcing social control; and maintaining the welfare
and well-being of society.

5. Educational Institution

This social institution is responsible for providing training for the members of society. It serves
as center of knowledge production, exchange, and distribution. Generally, educational
institutions are responsible for the vertical and horizontal transmission of material and
non-material cultures. Vertical transmission means over time from one generation to another
generation; whereas horizontal transmission means over geographical space or from one society
to another. Educational institutions also play the role of preparing members of society for the
statuses and roles that re associate with being good citizens and workers, holding various
occupations.

Before ending this section it is important to note that although the foregoing way of presenting
the nature and function of social institutions is often common in some of standard text books in
introductory sociology, we also need to view them in a critical and conflict theory approach.
From such perspectives, social institutions may be functional for some and dysfunctional
(meaning positively harmful and damaging) for other individuals and groups in a society. This is
partly because they often exist and operate in the context of class division and social
stratification, unequal access to power and resources. From this point of view, social
institutions may not be functional to all members of society equally. They may exist to promote
the interests and privileges of some sections of society.
 Chapter 4: Group and Social Organization

The Concept of Social Organization

The health science student should be introduced to the idea of how we as social beings organize
ourselves and how individual persons, communities and societies are related to one another.
Human beings are social animals by nature and whatever we do or say are related to social
environment. Our lives as human beings have their meanings in organized relationships.
Whether we eat, drink, work, play, worship, recreate or learn, we do it in social group context.
No one enjoys alone outside organized network of social interaction and relationships. Although
we have the capacity for privacy, no one can enjoy him / herself for a sustained period of time,
without inflicting upon oneself adverse effects.

By social organization, we refer to the pattern of individual and group relations. The term
"organization" signifies technical arrangement of parts in a whole, and the term "social",
indicates the fact that individual and group relations are the outcomes of social processes (Broom
and Slezinky, 1973). Thus, one of sociology's main concerns is to study and analyze the behavior
of human society as it appears in its structured and organized ways and relationships.
Specifically, sociologists are here interested in discovering and analyzing:

• The personal and group relations that influence individual behavior and social institutions;
• How persons and groups relate to each other;
• How people organize themselves in various social situations, whether consciously or
unconsciously;
• What kind of social relationships occur in their organized behaviors; and
• How these social relationships are maintained; how they decline or disintegrate.

Social Groups

In our day-to-day life and social activities, we interact with each other, belonging to a group of
some kind. The study of group is central to any sociological investigation.

The term group has a special meaning in sociology because it represents a concept that is central
to any sociological analysis. Quite several definitions have been given to the term group by
different sociologists. Generally, a social group is defined as the collectivity or set of people who
involve in more or less permanent or enduring social interactions and relationships. Members
of a social group have common basis for interaction and shared characteristics, a feeling of
identity or belongingness, shared psychology or consciousness and a definite set of norms to
govern the behaviors of the individual participant in the group.

Basic Features of a Social Group

In their sociological analysis of the group behavior of human society, sociologists have identified
some essential elements of a social group. For a set or collectivity of people to be a social group,
it has to have the following essential traits or features (Calhoun et al, 1994)

1. Members of the group continue to interact with one another;

2. Membership requires living by norms that are special to the group;
3. Members view each other as part of the group; members feel some sense of identification with
the group and with one another; and there is a social boundary between members and non-
members;
4. Members are functionally integrated through role and status relationship in the group
structure; and
5. Others see members as group.

Social interaction among the members is relatively permanent; it is not causal. Common interests
should characterize as a basis for interaction. There are shared values, beliefs and lifestyles. The
emotional, shared consciousness is also important. The feeling of belongingness is very
important. Social norms and values govern behavior of group members.

All of the following are examples of social groups, from the smallest possible level to the largest
possible. A dyad (made up of two persons like fiancés, husband and wife), a family, a group of
students in a dormitory, peer group, a friendship, an ethnic group, a community, a nation, a
continent, a university, an organization, etc.
Classification of Groups

Sociologists have classified groups into two basic classifications, namely, primary and
secondary groups. The classification of groups into primary and secondary is mainly based on:
(a) the quality of relationship between or among the members of the group, and (b) the degree of
group identity. People, for example, generally feel more loyal to their family and close friends
than to the companies for which they work (Henslin and Nelson, 1995).

Primary Groups and Their Main Features

Charles H. Cooley was the first sociologist to use the term primary groups to describe such
groups as family, neighborhood and children's play groups. Such groups were the ''nursery of
human nature'' where the essential sentiment of human group loyalty and concern for others
could be learned. Primary groups are distinguished by some of the following characteristics:

• There is face-to-face interaction among members.

• There is high sentiment or loyalty.
• Identification (group identity) and close cooperation among members
• There is a high level of emotional, spiritual satisfaction to be derived from involvement in
primary social groups.
• Concern for friendly relations as an end in themselves, not as a means to an end.
• Primary groups are often small in size.
• Primary group gives its members (individuals) their ''first acquaintance with humanity''.
• Primary groups, for a child, are a school for learning the ways of human interaction and the
give and take of working and playing together.

Secondary Groups and Their Main Features

Secondary groups are the more formal types of groups to which peoples belong. To start with
clearly definitive examples, the Federal Army, Lion’s Club, Ethiopian Commercial Bank, etc,
are secondary groups. As organizations, secondary groups do not give people the feeling of close
identity that primary groups give. Considerable effort must be devoted to making people
proud of the corporation for which they work, and this type of pride, if it is achieved at all, is not
primary group sentiment. One can still be lost in the great organization; there is not the same
sense of psychological security. Main features (traits) of secondary social groups include:

• There is little or no emotional involvement.

• Members are more competitive than cooperative.
• Members are less intimate.
• Group identity is less relevant.
• Economic efficiency is given higher emphasis than psychological identity.
• The group is mainly a means to an end rather than an end in itself.
• Membership is unlimited.

Some critical observations must be made concerning the classification of groups.

i) Primary and secondary groups are ideal types, i.e. types represented as opposite
poles for the sake of analysis. In concrete life situations, most relations are not purely
primary or secondary, but come somewhere between, examples: school, church, etc.
ii) A second reservation about primary secondary group classification is that primary
groups may be formed with in secondary groups.

In other words, the classification of social groups into primary and secondary should not be taken
as a sort of dichotomy. It should rather be considered as a continuum, i.e. at the two extreme
ends, there may be crystallized primary and secondary groups, and in between the two extremes,
there are mixtures of the two types.

Quasi-Social Groups

Quasi-groups are those kinds of social groupings which lack the essential features of social
groups. In this kind of grouping, there may be no functional integration among members. There
are little or no structured and patterned social relationships. This kind of social interactions is
common in modern, industrial and complex societies. It is more common in urban heterogeneous
settings. They characterize individualistic societies. Such groups lack meaningful social
structures and social interaction. There are two types of quasi groups: aggregates and categories.
Aggregates

A social aggregate is quasi-social grouping in which two or more people are physically together
at a certain time and at a certain place. There is physical proximity without enduring social
interaction. There is no shared psychological-identity. However, out of this kind of grouping a
real social group can emerge. Examples of an aggregate include: two or more people in a- taxi,
bus, air plane, an elevator, a busy city street, in a cafeteria, a stadium, in a market, in a hospital
ward, etc.

Anonymity in the midst of crowd behavior usually characterizes aggregates. Such condition may
lead to the problem of sense of alienation, dehumanization, sense of being lost, depression, social
stress and other psychosocial problems. Suicide is very common in urban than rural areas and
mental illness is more increased in societies characterized by anonymity, individualism, and
heterogeneity.

Categories

This is a quasi-group which consists of a plurality or collectively of people who are physically
dispersed, but who share common traits and interests. It refers to a social class; or a group of
people who are more or less of similar lifestyles, and physical and psychosocial characteristics.
There may be little or no social interaction, social structure, social norms, etc. but there is the
feeling of belongingness, even though the people may never know each other. However,
gradually, a meaningful social grouping can grow out of a category. Examples of a social
category include: all female students in higher learning institutions in Ethiopia; all female
engineers in Ethiopia; all students from rural background, HIV positive persons, etc.

Chapter 5: Social Stratification and Movement

Social stratification is one of the outcomes of the continuous occurring of social processes. Every
society is segmented in to different hierarchies. In virtually all societies, some people are
regarded as more important than others (more worthy of respect than others), either within the
society as a whole or in a certain situations. Social stratification is the segmentation of society
into different hierarchical arrangement or strata. It refers to the differences and inequalities in the
socioeconomic life of people in a given society. It represents the ranking of individuals or social
positions and statuses in the social structure. The term is borrowed from geology where it is used
to explain the hierarchical arrangement of rocks and mineral in the earth’s surface. When applied
to the world of people, it refers to hierarchical arrangement of people into different classes or
strata which is the division of a population into two or more layers, each of which is relatively
homogenous, between which there are differences in privileges, restrictions, rewards and
obligations (Macionis, 1997; Henslin and Nelson, 1995; Calhoun et al 1994).

The Importance of Studying Social Stratification

The study of social stratification is particularly important for sociologists. Some of the reasons
for this may include (Giddens, 1995):

• To investigate the class membership of individuals in society with the aim of understanding the
type of life people live. That is, knowing what type of life individuals in a given social group or
stratum live is very important for sociological analysis.
• To explore the bases for the assignment of individuals into various hierarchies of the social
structure. What are the bases for stratifying individuals into a specific stratum?
• To understand the relationship between individuals assigned into different hierarchies.
What kind of interaction and relationship exist between individuals located into different strata?
• To investigate the relationship between individuals or groups belonging to the same hierarchy.
What kinds of relationship exist between people in the same stratum?
• To understand what type of social system gives rise to what or which types of hierarchies. That
is, the type of social stratification varies across cultures, times and types of social systems.

Theories of Social Stratification

There are various theories of social stratification concerning its importance, origin and value, of
which two important theories are the following.

1. The functionalist theory of social stratification

2. The conflict theory of social stratification
According to the proponents of the functionalist theory, segments or hierarchies and social
inequalities exist in all societies. Moreover, their main argument is that social stratification is
functional and purposeful and also essential in any society. They contend that no society is
classless or unstratified, and social stratification is universally necessary. Social stratification in
short is universal, functional, inevitable, and beneficial and something which can't be avoided.

The proponents of the conflict theory of social stratification also accept the fact that social
inequality exists in every society. But they do not believe that social stratification is functional.
According to conflict theorists, it is the way of oppressing one group of people by another
(Calhoun et al., 1994).

Forms of Social Stratification

Social Class

Social classes are groups of people who are stratified into different categories. In a more general
sense, social class can be defined as a category or level of people found in similar positions in
the social hierarchy. The criteria or the bases for dividing people in a given society into different
social classes may include wealth, occupation, education, sex, family background, religion,
income, among others. The societies in modern world have been divided usually into three; low
class, middle class and upper class. Each of these three classes is usually divided in to sub-
classes.

Social class is often characterized as an open and flexible system. Thus, we have societies which
can be characterized as open system, as opposed to societies having closed system. This form of
social class is common in industrialized, modern, heterogeneous and literate societies. Such
system generally works in most contemporary societies of the world (Stockard, 1997).

Social Caste

Another well-known form of social stratification is the caste system. The system is based on
religious and other strongly rooted traditional belief that cannot be changed or are very difficult
to change. This is the form of social stratification whereby classification of people into different
strata is made on the basis of usually religious and other very strong conventions/ traditions that
are difficult to change. Some of the features of caste system include:

• It is a very rigid and closed system.

• People belonging to the same stratum practice endogamy.
• Intermarriage between strata is not permitted.
• There are occupational differences between strata; i.e., each stratum is usually assigned a
particular type of occupation.
• Food sharing, social drinking, friendships, etc. are permitted only within a stratum, not
between strata.

This form of social stratification characterizes most traditional, agricultural societies. However,
the best example of caste is the Hindu caste system of India. This has existed for some 3000
years and was only officially nullified in 1947. Hindu caste system divides the society into five
major strata. These are Brahmans (E.g. priests, teachers, etc.), Kshatriyas (E.g. warriors,
landlords, etc.) Vaishyas(E.g. merchants, traders, etc.), Sudras (E.g. Peasants, servants, etc.) and
Haryans (Untouchables Social outcasts e.g. leather workers, sweepers, etc.) (Indrani, 1998).

In ancient Roman and Hebrew societies and other ancient and medieval civilizations, slaves,
woman and children were often given lower and stigmatized positions in society. They were not,
for example, considered when the population census was conducted. In rural Ethiopian society,
this form of stratification has existed for centuries and it still persists. Individuals in such
traditional occupations as pottery, blacksmith, tannery, weaving, carpentry, and others such as so
called slaves have been given lower places and are often denied free membership and social
participation in various social affairs. Among the Wolayta, for example, such kinds of people are
called by various names such as the chinasha (potters), degella (tanners), wogachia
(blacksmiths), shimagnia (weavers) and aylia (slaves). These groups of people are not allowed to
create marital and other important social bonds with the gokka (meaning the decent groups).
Similar types of stratification may also be found among the Sidama, Kambata, Guraghe in the
southern region of Ethiopia, and elsewhere in other regions throughout the country. It is believed
that such conditions have contributed to the slow socio-economic development of the country.

Consequences of Social Stratification on the Lives of Individuals

Social stratification has crucial implications for the health and well-being of people. Social
stratification is directly related to the issue of inequality, power imbalance etc. and these directly
or indirectly influences the life chances of individuals in the social strata. Health status of
individuals is among one of these life chances which can be significantly affected by one’s
location in the stratification system.

The different stratification systems on the basis of age, sex, gender, ethnicity, religion,
occupation, etc, directly or indirectly promote unequal chances of living standards. The key
concepts in the relation between health and social stratification are the concepts of vulnerability,
risk and hazard. Vulnerability is a sociological concept which refers to the “characteristics of
individuals and social groups [along the lines of gender, age, ethnicity, occupation etc;] that
determine [their capacity] to protect themselves, withstand and recover from disasters, including
health hazards based on their access to material and non-material resources”

Social Mobility

Every society has different strata in it. The different individuals and groups who occupy a certain
social position may not remain in that position permanently. Some may move from one position
to another, from higher social class position to lower social class position, and vice versa. Social
mobility implies a set of changes in opportunities, incomes, lifestyles, personal relationships,
social status and ultimately class membership. Social mobility is a type of movement but it is not
physical movement over geographical space although social mobility could involve, and be
brought about by, physical mobility. It is movement in the social space, the shifting or changing
of statuses or class positions. Social mobility is a social process that takes place among
individual members or groups in a society, as they interact with each other. It is a process by
which individuals or groups move from one status to another; or from one class or stratum to
another.

Social mobility describes the volume and quality of movement among strata. That is the kind of
movement that people make between the different social classes. Our unit of analysis in social
mobility may be an individual, or a social group or a nation.
Types of Social Mobility

Sociologists have identified different types of social mobility. The following is a brief discussion
of the different types of social mobility.

Vertical Social Mobility

Vertical social mobility is a type of social mobility that individuals experience when they move
from their social status to other higher or lower social status. It is a radical social change in an
individual's position. It is a movement between different social classes and it involves a change
in social position of an individual, a family or a group. It may be upward or downward.

Horizontal Social Mobility

Horizontal social mobility is also called lateral social mobility. It is movement within a social
class or a social position where the individual slightly improves and/or declines in his social
position with in his/ her class level. Unlike vertical social mobility, it doesn't involve drastic
changes.

Inter-generational Social Mobility

This type of social mobility involves the movement up or down, between the social class of one
or two generations of a family, or a social group. In this mobility, our focus of attention is a
social group, like the family. Here we look at change in the status position of the family over two
or more generations, i.e., the social position of the grandfather, the father and the son. If a child,
for example, whose father was an upper class person as a result of his wealth, becomes only a
laborer in his own time, then he has experienced a downward intergenerational social mobility.

Intra-generational mobility

This concerns individual changes in positions during one's lifetime. It may also refer to the
change that occurs in social groups or a country’s socioeconomic position over a specified period
of time. In other words, through achievement or other means one can move up from being a poor
primary school teacher to a high court judge. Unlike the Inter-generational social mobility, intra-
generational social mobility is within one generation. But like inter-generational social mobility,
it may be an upward or downward social mobility. Unlike the intergenerational social mobility,
our focus here is on a specific individual or group. Here, we observe change in the social
position of an individual or a group over the life cycle of the individual himself or the group
either upward or in some cases downward. For example, a person in his/her lifetime may rise up
from a lower position such as shoe shining, and climb up the social ladder until he or she
becomes a member of privileged social and economic position. Or, others may happen to lose
their once prestigious socio-economic position and as a result move down until they end up in
destitution.

Avenues of Social Mobility

The avenues of social mobility are the doors through which a person moves upward in the social
hierarchy. The major avenue to social mobility in most modern societies is access to appropriate
modern education. Change of profession/ occupation and geographical mobility are also avenues.
There are also some sudden or short cut avenues to social mobility. These include windfall gains
in terms of inheritance, gambling, theft or financial corruption, winning a lottery game, etc. Such
mobility is rare, bearing in mind that most inheritance is within the same social group.

The opportunities for upward social mobility are great in modern societies which have open
systems. In such societies, there is freedom of vertical social mobility, and any member of a
society may move up or down the social hierarchy. There are no legal and/or traditional
restrictions that are put on social mobility on either direction. What count a lot are personal
merits, competitions and efforts for achievement. On the other hand, in societies with closed
system vertical, especially upward, is very difficult. In such societies, individuals born to a
certain social position remain within that category for their lifetime. The most important
determinants here are not individual's achievements, merits or personal effort, but what counts
most are one's ancestry, racial background, family background, religion, sex, ethnicity, etc.
(Henslin and Nelson, 1995).