CHEMISTRY
CHAPTER 1 – STUDY OF CHANGE Extensive property (of a material) - depends upon
how much matter is is being considered.
The scientific method - is a systematic approach to
research. Intensive property (of a material) - does not
depend upon how much matter is being
Hypothesis - is a tentative explanation for a set of
considered.
observations.
Mass – measure of the quantity of matter. Unit: kg
Law - is a concise statement of a relationship
between phenomena that is always the same Weight – force that gravity exerts on an object
under the same conditions. weight = c x mass A 1 kg bar will weigh
on earth, c = 1.0 1 kg on earth
Theory - is a unifying principle that explains a body on moon, c ~ 0.1 0.1 kg on moon
of facts and/or those laws that are based on
them. Volume – SI derived unit for volume is cubic meter
(𝑚3 )
Chemistry - is the study of matter and the changes
it undergoes. Density – SI derived unit for density is kg/𝑚3
Matter - is anything that occupies space and has
mass.
CHAPTER 2 – ATOMS_ION
Substance - is a form of matter that has a definite
composition and distinct properties. Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808)
Mixture - is a combination of two or more - Elements - composed of extremely small
substances in which the substances retain their particles called atoms.
distinct identities. - All atoms of a given element are identical,
having the same size, mass and chemical
Homogenous mixture (solution) – The composition
properties.
of the mixture is the same throughout (at the
- The atoms of one element are different from
atomic/molecular level).
the atoms of all other elements.
Heterogeneous mixture – The composition is not - Compounds - composed of atoms of more
uniform throughout. than one element. In any compound, the
Physical means - can be used to separate a ratio of the numbers of atoms of any two of
mixture into its pure components. the elements present is either an integer or
Element - is a substance that cannot be separated a simple fraction.
into simpler substances by chemical means. - A chemical reaction - involves only the
separation, combination, or rearrangement
Compound - is a substance composed of atoms of of atoms; it does not result in their creation
two or more elements chemically united in or destruction.
fixed proportions.
- can only be separated into their pure X-ray beam - dislodges an electron from air
components (elements) by chemical means. molecules which becomes attached to an oil
droplet.
States of Matter Molecule - an aggregate of two or more atoms in a
➢ Solid - molecules are held close together in definite arrangement held together by covalent
an orderly fashion with little freedom of bonds.
motion.
➢ Liquid – molecules are close together but Monatomic ion - contains only one atom.
are not held so rigidly in position and can Diatomic molecule - contains only two atoms.
move past one another. Polyatomic molecule - contains more than two
➢ Gas - molecules are separated by distances atoms.
that are large compared with the size of the
Ion - an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net
molecules.
positive or negative charge.
Physical change - does not alter the composition Cation - ion with a positive charge: lose atom
or identity of a substance.
Anion - ion with a negative charge: gain atom
Chemical change - alters the composition or
identity of the substance(s) involved.
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CHEMISTRY
Molecular formula - shows the exact number of Actual Yield - the amount of product actually
atoms of each element in a molecule of the obtained from a reaction.
substance.
Empirical formula - shows the simplest whole-
CHAPTER 4 - Reactions in Aqueous Solution
number ratio of the atoms in a substance.
Ionic compounds - consist of a combination of Solution - a homogenous mixture of 2 or more
cations and anions. substances.
Solute - the substance(s) present in the smaller
Chemical Nomenclature
amount(s)
Ionic Compounds - often a metal + nonmetal Solvent - the substance present in the larger
Transition metal ionic compounds - Indicate the amount.
charge on the metal with Roman numerals Electrolyte - a substance that, when dissolved in
- Common names use the “ic” and “ous” water, results in a solution that can conduct
endings. electricity.
Molecular compounds - Made of nonmetals or Nonelectrolyte - a substance that, when dissolved,
nonmetals + metalloids. results in a solution that does not conduct
- the last element ends in “ide.” electricity.
Acid - can be defined as a substance that yields Hydration - the process in which an ion is
hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water. surrounded by water molecules arranged in a
Oxoacid - is an acid that contains hydrogen, specific manner.
oxygen, and another element. Precipitate – insoluble solid that separates from
Base - can be defined as a substance that yields solution.
hydroxide ions (OH–) when dissolved in water. Solubility - the maximum amount of solute that will
Hydrates - compounds that have a specific number dissolve in a given quantity of solvent at a
of water molecules attached to them. specific temperature.
Organic chemistry - the branch of chemistry that Arrhenius acid - a substance that produces H+
deals with carbon compounds (H3O+) in water.
Arrhenius base - a substance that produces OH- in
water.
CHAPTER 3 - Mass Relationships in Chemical
Reactions Brønsted acid - a proton donor
Brønsted base - a proton acceptor
Atomic mass - the mass of an atom in atomic mass
units (amu). Brønsted acid - must contain at least one ionizable
proton.
Mole (mol) - the amount of a substance that
contains as many elementary entities as there Types of Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
are atoms in exactly 12.00 grams of 12C. - Combination Reaction
- Decomposition Reaction
Molecular mass (or molecular weight) - the sum of
- Combustion Reaction
the atomic masses (in amu) in a molecule.
- Displacement Reaction
Formula mass - the sum of the atomic masses (in - Disproportionation Reaction
amu) in a formula unit of an ionic compound.
Concentration of a solution - the amount of solute
Chemical reaction - process in which one or more
present in a given quantity of solvent or solution.
substances is changed into one or more new
substances. Dilution - the procedure for preparing a less
concentrated solution from a more
Chemical equation - uses chemical symbols to
concentrated solution.
show what happens during a chemical reaction.
Titration - solution of accurately known
Theoretical Yield - the amount of product that
concentration is added gradually added to
would result if all the limiting reagent reacted.
another solution of unknown concentration until
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CHEMISTRY
the chemical reaction between the two solutions Exothermic process - any process that gives off
is complete. heat –transfers thermal energy from the system
Equivalence point – the point at which the reaction to the surroundings.
is complete. Endothermic process - any process in which heat
Indicator – substance that changes color at (or has to be supplied to the system from the
near) the equivalence point. surroundings.
Thermodynamics - the scientific study of the
interconversion of heat and other kinds of
CHAPTER 5 - Gases energy.
Physical Characteristics of Gases State functions - properties that are determined by
- Gases assume the volume and shape of the state of the system, regardless of how that
their containers. condition was achieved.
- Gases are the most compressible state of First law of thermodynamics – energy can be
matter. converted from one form to another but cannot
- Gases will mix evenly and completely when be created or destroyed.
confined to Enthalpy (H) - used to quantify the heat flow into or
- the same container. out of a system in a process that occurs at
- Gases have much lower densities than constant pressure.
liquids and solids.
The specific heat (s) of a substance is the amount
Gas diffusion - the gradual mixing of molecules of of heat (q) - required to raise the temperature of
one gas with molecules of another by virtue of one gram of thesubstance by one degree
their kinetic properties. Celsius.
Gas effusion - process by which gas under The heat capacity (C) of a substance is the amount
pressure escapes from one compartment of a of heat (q) - required to raise the temperature of
container to another by passing through a small a given quantity (m) of the substance by one
opening. degree Celsius.
Standard enthalpy of formation - the heat change
that results when one mole of a compound is
CHAPTER 6 - Thermochemistry
formed from its elements at a pressure of 1 atm.
Energy - the capacity to do work. Standard enthalpy of reaction - the enthalpy of a
Radiant energy - comes from the sun and is earth’s reaction carried out at 1 atm.
primary energy source. The enthalpy of solution - the heat generated or
Thermal energy - the energy associated with the absorbed when a certain amount of solute
random motion of atoms and molecules. dissolves in a certain amount of solvent.
Chemical energy - the energy stored within the
bonds of chemical substances.
CHAPTER 7 - Quantum Theory and the
Nuclear energy - the energy stored within the Electronic Structure of Atoms
collection of neutrons and protons in the atom.
Wavelength - the distance between identical points
Potential energy - the energy available by virtue of
on successive waves.
an object’s position.
Amplitude - the vertical distance from the midline
Heat - the transfer of thermal energy between two
of a wave to the peak or trough.
bodies that are at different temperatures.
Frequency - the number of waves that pass
Temperature - a measure of the thermal energy.
through a particular point in 1 second (Hz = 1
Thermochemistry - the study of heat change in cycle/s).
chemical reactions.
Electromagnetic radiation - the emission and
System - the specific part of the universe that is of transmission of energy in the form of
interest in the study. electromagnetic waves.
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CHEMISTRY
Maxwell (1873) - proposed that visible light Electron affinity - the negative of the energy
consists of electromagnetic waves. change that occurs when an electron is
Photon - a “particle” of light. accepted by an atom in the gaseous state to
form an anion.
Bohr’s Model of the Atom (1913)
1. e- can only have specific (quantized) energy
values
2. light is emitted as e- moves from one energy
level to a lower energy level
De Broglie (1924) - reasoned that e- is both particle
and wave.
Schrodinger Wave Equation
- In 1926 Schrodinger wrote an equation that
described both the particle and wave nature
of the e-
- can only be solved exactly for the hydrogen
atom.
Pauli exclusion principle - no two electrons in an
atom can have the same four quantum
numbers.
Shell – electrons with the same value of n
Subshell – electrons with the same values of n and
l.
Orbital – electrons with the same values of n, l, and
ml.
*The most stable arrangement of electrons in
subshells is the one with the greatest number of
parallel spins (Hund’s rule).
Electron configuration - how the electrons are
distributed among the various atomic orbitals in
an atom.
Pierre Janssen (1868) - detected a new dark line
in the solar emission spectrum that did not
match known emission lines.
William Ramsey (1895) - discovered helium in a
mineral of uranium (from alpha decay).
CHAPTER 8 - Periodic Relationships Among
the Elements
Effective nuclear charge - the positive charge felt
by an electron.
Cation - always smaller than atom from which it is
formed.
Anion - always larger than atom from which it is
formed.
Ionization energy - the minimum energy (kJ/mol)
required to remove an electron from a gaseous
atom in its ground state.
