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Johanna Wolf
Linguistic perceptions on Spanglish
discourse settings
Processes of divergence in constructing identity
Abstract: By analysing four English-Spanish bilingual blogs, the present paper
demonstrates that discursive practices like code-switching play a crucial role in
constructing a divergent Spanglish identity in specific discourse settings and
that this may have effects on the epistemic structures of the Hispanic society in
its entirety. Immigrant communities need to negotiate which processes of con-
vergence or divergence would be accepted by their speakers in order to con-
struct a kind of hybrid identity that offers an appropriate frame of reference to
its members. Although the second generation of Hispanics in the United States,
and even more the third generation, will have converged to the target culture in
many perspectives (e.g. organisation of daily-life-routines), members of this group
still want to accentuate their own identity. Thus, they try to diverge in other
perspectives in order to keep a link to their origins. Above all, concerning the
Hispanic community, an idiosyncratic use of the heritage language helps to
guarantee distinctiveness by using processes of divergence in their linguistic
behaviour. In accordance with the hypothesis that language use strongly relates
to the expression of identity, this paper focuses on these processes and suggests
a more targeted use of the term Spanglish taking into account that Spanglish ful-
fils a mere emblematic function and serves as a label for the complex and multi-
faceted identity of second and third generation Hispanics in the United States.
‘This includes the dimension of language and its specific use: linguistic routines
used by Spanglish speakers are seen as a means for expressing their distinctive
identity, that is, divergence concerning linguistic behaviour in a double sense.
On the one hand divergence is created with regard to a U.S. specific culture, on
the other hand in reference to the original one, Specifically, the use of code-
switching is defined as a discursive practice which precipitates changes in socio-
cultural episteme, knowledge and understanding and is able to transport shared
epistemic knowledge, by creating linguistic divergence.
Keywords: Spanglish, Hispanic community, language contact, divergence, code-
switching, discursive practice, construction of transcultural identity
Johanna Wolf, Universitat Salzburg
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110736250-007 180 —— Johanna Wolf
1 Introduction: Hispanic population and language
behaviour
Already in 1987, Appel and Muysken pointed out that language and language be-
haviour are always closely connected to the collective identities peoples are con-
structing in the course of lifetime, because “the history of languages is tied up
with and is a reflection of the history of people [...}” (Appel/Muysken 1987, 1). For
monolingual societies this crucial function of language (as a means to express
identity) is relatively clear. The interweaving of specific linguistic features and
epistemic structures in the forging of a collective identity that includes discursive
practices, conceptual knowledge, semantic frames etc., which in turn create a
consensual understanding of shared values and the roots of the community, can
be analysed as a process of convergence in the identity construction. For mul-
tilingual communities this is not valid to the same degree ~ even more so if it
comes to immigrant communities who normally need to adapt to the majority
language if their members strive for social advancement. In communities, where
linguistic behaviour is affected by language contact, one can observe phenomena
like language loss or language maintenance — both depending on multiple factors
like prestige, status or speakers’ proficiency (cf. Apple/Muysken 1987, 11—
Negr6n 2018, 121-122). Particularly the second and the third generation of im-
migrants often have to deal with the problem that neither the target language
nor their heritage language can fulfil the function of a key element in their
construction of identity. So, they are need to find specific ways to express the
hybridity of their bicultural imprint. An example of how this requirement can
be linguistically implemented is provided by the Hispanic population’ in the
U.S. Hispanic speakers in the U.S. use linguistic practices, e.g. code-switching,
borrowings, lexical and syntactic calques, in order to create an emblematic vari-
ety (cf. Zentella 1997; Betti 2008; 2015; 2017a; 2017b) — a language use for which
the term “Spanglish” is reserved here in a restrictive way.
In the following, we will analyse this specific linguistic behaviour and lan-
guage choice as a means to create divergence with regard to the U.S. specific
culture and with reference to their heritage culture with the objective of creating
a discursive practice that is able to express their inner conflict and their desire
to construct an identity proper. Referring to Gardt, below, a discursive practice
is defined as a special use of language for the expression of social think patterns
1 Hispanic refers to any person coming from a country where Spanish is spoken whereas the
term Spanish refers to “Spaniards and people of Spanish ancestry” (Field 2011, 14; for a defini-
tion of the term Hispanic see also Garrido 2008, 18). Linguistic perceptions on Spanglish discourse settings ——= 184
and as a means to express the perception of identity of a group whose members
do not only feel interconnected by sharing the same heritage language and cul-
ture, but also, as a consequence of having the same cultural heritage, by shar-
ing, a similar way of thinking and feeling (cf. Gardt 2007).
According to the 2010 Census, the Hispanic population constitutes 16.3% of
the total population of the United States and, as shown by the latest ACS 5-Year
Population Estimate (ACS 2010-2014), this population is still growing. Conse-
quently, there has also been an increase of the use of Spanish ~ a fact that is
clearly demonstrated by the statistics of the U.S. Census Bureau. The ACS 5-Year
Estimates report places the percentage of the Spanish-speaking population at
13% (ACS), which means that approximately 38 million people over the age of
5 are using Spanish in daily communication. The majority of this 13% report
speaking English “very well” (57.1%), but 42.9% admit to having a lower profi-
ciency’ in English than in Spanish. A closer look at the age breakdown of respond-
ents who stated speaking English “not very well” offers additional information.
Only 21.4% of the youngest generation report speaking English “not very well”,
while 63% of the eldest generation (65 years and older) report the same. These
numbers highlight a generational shift within the Spanish-speaking population of
the United States and show that the typical bilingual behaviour of individuals be-
longing to this population differs by age. It also appears that what may be driving
higher proficiency in English is the loss or reduced use of Spanish by second-
generation Hispanics in the U.S. Scholars have widely noted (Hurtado/Vega 2004;
Lipski 2008; among others) that Spanish normally lasts only one generation after
immigration to the United States and a loss of Spanish competence is almost al-
ways observed in the second generation. Despite this pattern of reduced use of
Spanish by younger generations, overall, the statistics reveal a clear presence of
Spanish as an unofficial second language in the United States (cf. Montes-Alcal4
2009, 97), and in doing so they highlight the significance of bilingualism within
the Spanish-speaking population. Unlike other language contact situations, where
bilingual behaviour is considered a common and normal scenario (bilingualism is,
in fact, the norm in these situations (Gafaranga 2007), the Spanish-English contact
situation in the U.S. has been and remains in the headlines. The seemingly never-
2 Unfortunately, the Census does not distinguish between the different Spanish varieties. Only
the report of Detailed Languages Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English for the Population
5 Years and Over for United States: 2009-2013 separates Spanish from Ladino and Pachuco
(Release October 2015).
3 Regrettably the report does not explain what is understood by “very well” or “not very well”.
The statements about language proficiency depend on the self-evaluation of the interviewees
and do not, therefore, reflect a veridical view of the real proficiency level. 182 —— Johanna Wolf
ending debate about the status of the varieties resulting from this Spanish-English
contact is still controversial. As Montes-Alcala points out, the lingering controversy
often leads to a nearly “traditional stigma that Hispanics’ way of speaking” is a
“bastardised” language (Montes-Alcala 2009, 97) and not an expression of an au-
tonomous transcultural identity. To describe the continuum of linguistic behaviour
resulting from the Spanish-English contact situation in the United States, people
often use the term “Spanglish” as an umbrella term to delineate any and all varie-
ties of mixed English-Spanish language used in casual oral communication as well
as in written contexts (cf. Otheguy/Stem 2010, 86). In the following sections, we
will propose a targeted use of the term “Spanglish” and will reserve it to the em-
blematic function Spanglish fulfils. Based on the hypothesis that linguistic patterns
like code-switching are used in an autonomous and conscious way by bilinguals
and this linguistic behaviour being part of the creation of a discursive formation,
four blogs of writers that use Spanglish will be analysed in order to examine
whether code-switching can be used as a symbol of an identity sustaining lan-
guage in written contexts of that kind of internet communication.
2 Approaching a definition of Spanglish
Among linguists there is still confusion concerning the term “Spanglish” and
whether it is really necessary or useful for describing the complex linguistic sit-
uation resulting from language contact. This uncertainty surely results from the
polysemous nature of the term: Spanglish can refer to the language (linguistic
system level) used by speakers in Spanish-English contact situations as well as
to the linguistic situation itself (pragmatic and contextual level/discursive and
epistemic level). It is not always differentiated whether it applies to transfer
phenomena due to unconscious acquisition processes in bilingual speakers (i.e.
transfer phenomena that may occur at different stages of interlanguage) or con-
scious processes dealing with the construction of a transcultural identity. How-
ever, prima facie, there seems to be a consensus among non-linguists ~ as well
as among some linguists — about labelling any Spanish-English alternation that
contains the linguistic device of code-switching utterances as Spanglish (Roth-
man/Rell 2005, 516). On closer inspection, scholars differ in their perspectives
on the Spanglish phenomenon. While Otheguy (Otheguy 2009; Otheguy/Stern
2010) declares that the term “Spanglish” is completely superfluous and even
harmful, because it might transmit a damaging view of the Spanish-speaking
community in the United States, there are many researchers pleading for the
necessity of the term as an adequate description of a new form of communication Linguistic perceptions on Spanglish discourse settings —— 183
within a new socio-cultural group (Fresneda 1998; Le6n Jiménez 2003; Betti 2008;
2009; 2015; 2016a; 2016b; 2017a; 2017b). They are convinced that the term is needed
to legitimise an identity proper for this group ~ especially concerning second and
third-generation Hispanics in the United States (Rothman/Rell 2005; Ducar 2009):
“To the extent that opinion is implicit in the analysis of Spanglish, there is no clear
much less totally unbiased answer to the question on the status of its legitimacy as
a language proper” (Rothman/Rell 2005, 533).
Otheguy argues that the use of a special term (one that is explicitly reserved
for the Spanish-English contact situation within the United States) creates an
environment of exclusion and disparagement. This is exacerbated by the fact
that the term can be described morphologically as a blending derived from the
lexical morphemes “Spanish” and “English”, which inevitably connects the
concept to the idea of a hybrid variety and therefore, as Otheguy says, has a
negative connotation as being considered less prestigious as is, for example,
the term “Spanish of the United States” or, even simpler, just Spanish (Othe-
guy/Stern 2010, 97-98).* Otheguy and Sterns’ argument is based on a strict
structural perspective on language, which focuses on acquisition and low profi-
ciency problems. According to these authors, contact-induced changes only re-
sult in a variety of Spanish whose speakers — the bilingual speakers of Spanish
and English — are at different levels of acquisition, but these changes do not
lead to an entirely “new language” (Otheguy/Stern 2010, 96).° This claim is sup-
ported by empirical data showing clearly that the impact of English on the syn-
tactic and morphological level in Spanish is quite limited and accounts only for
a small proportion of structural convergence (Otheguy/Stern 2010; Erker/Othe-
guy 2016). Corresponding to their findings, a speaker's variety is mainly shaped
by two forces: dialect levelling and linguistic convergence (Erker/Otheguy 2016,
132). According to this perspective, socio-cultural factors are only secondary
and language use resulting from a contact situation just reflects a rather natural
process of language contact (cf. Salaberry 2002; Fairclough 2003). Hence, the
contact-induced changes to English (as the target language) or to Spanish (as
the heritage language) cannot be considered a deterioration of the English or
Spanish language, nor do they constitute the construction of a new communica-
tion system. Rather, these changes represent one particular form of variation,
not unlike other forms of variation to which all varieties of English or Spanish
are subject. They just reflect normal phenomena of language acquisition processes.
4 In 2009 Otheguy proposed to replace Spanglish with “espafiol popular de los Estados Unidos”,
5 These varieties can potentially be equated with so-called learner varieties (different stages of
interlanguage) which illustrates the proximity of Otheguy’s perspective to the domain of SLA
research (Ellis 2015), 184 —— Johanna Wolf
As a result, there is no need to label this particular process of language change
with a specific term (cf. Salaberry 2002).
A similar criticism of the term “Spanglish” as a label for Spanish varieties
used in the United States is expressed by Lipski, who also sees the exclusionary
dimension of the concept and its harmful and derogatory connotations (cf. Lip-
ski 2008, 39). As Lipski points out, the use of the term “Spanglish” involves the
risk of damaging the self-confidence of any Spanish speaker living in the United
States and of creating a climate of intolerance and disparagement towards them
(Lipski 2008; see also Otheguy/Stern 2010). Following Otheguy’s and Lipski’s
arguments, the Spanish spoken by the Hispanic population in the United States
is a local form of Spanish.
So far, we mainly discussed a mere systemic perspective towards the term
“Spanglish” as a label for the linguistic behaviour of the Spanish speaking com-
munity in the U.S. and evaluated language choice in the light of linguistic cor-
rectness and deficient language competence that evokes negative connotations
which in turn may provoke negative forecasts regarding the economic and so-
cial career of Hispanic speakers. This may mislead to believe that language
choice is a decision that predominately depends on social factors concerning
social rise, recognition and progress®, all of them producing processes of lin-
guistic convergence to the target language and a tendency to shift completely to
the target language as well as to the target culture.
However, as bilingual communities are in need of negotiating how to con-
struct their transcultural identity, language shift also has to be discussed under
the aspect of identity construction, Starting from the idea that language choice
does not only depend on functional differentiation — as is the case in situations
of diglossia (Fishman 1980, 8) - but also on the community's decision on how
much identical potential is attributed to the maintenance of its heritage lan-
guage, the creation of a hybrid variety is considered a process of creating diver-
gence by a specific linguistic behaviour. From this perspective, Spanglish has
to fulfil an emblematic function: it has to ensure the transfer and sharing of
common cultural values and roots of the community and as such is a key ele-
ment indicating identity and membership (Appel/Muysken 1987, 130). If the
community decides to maintain the heritage language as a cultural symbol of
its identity with the goal to express its individual identity, it has to make sure
that every communicative situation can be handled with this language. This
6 Surely, it would be necessary to discuss the different forms of interlanguages that exist
among Spanish speakers in the U.S. But as we will focus on the emblematic and social function
of Spanglish, we will hardly touch upon these aspects of language acquisition. For more de-
tails about educational aspects see Villa (2010) and Dumitrescu (2013). Linguistic perceptions on Spanglish discourse settings —— 185
implies that the linguistic system is adapted to every possible communicative
need — exactly as English and Spanish are as majority languages. As a conse-
quence of such a decision, the main goal of Hispanics should be to attain a pro-
ficiency in both languages (target and heritage language), which allows them to
express themselves in any given written or oral context, regardless of whether
they encounter a context requiring the language of proximity or one requiring a
language of distance.’ This implies a definition of bilingualism as a perfect mas-
tering of both languages.
Note that this view of bilingualism often is connected to questions of language
acquisition. The focus is on the different proficiency levels and the accuracy of lan-
guage use that a language learner attains, and it seems that Otheguy and Lipski
are concentrating on this dimension when approaching the “Spanglish-debate”.
This view reduces the complexity inherent in the term “Spanglish” and also ne-
glects the fact that this term is used to refer to the split Hispanic-U.S.-American
identity of Spanglish speakers. This split identity, typical of second and third gen-
eration immigrants, is the result of people being raised with dual identities that
reflect both their Hispanic heritage and the U.S. culture.® The use of Spanglish as
a means to express this identity has to be considered as a process of creating diver-
gence with a twofold significance: on the one hand, divergence is created towards
the heritage culture, on the other hand also towards a U.S. specific one.
In contrast to this structural view of the Spanish-English contact situation
in the United States and the use of Spanglish, which focuses on the acquisition
aspects of each language and the influences the language contact has on the
respective linguistic systems, other researchers have focused on the cultural
and ethnic dimensions connected to the term “Spanglish”.? Here we find mainly
perspectives dealing with transcultural constructions of identity. This approach
has become famous primarily through the works of Ilan Stavans, In his often
polemic contributions to the literature, he regards the use of Spanglish as a way
for speakers to construct an autonomous transcultural identity by way of using
a proper linguistic device reflecting this autonomy (Stavans 2003). A similar
way of thinking about Spanglish as a term describing the multifaceted identity
7 See Koch/Oesterreicher (2007) for more details with regard to the concept of language of
proximity and language of distance.
8 This critique on one-dimensional perspectives to Spanglish has already been formulated by
Rodriguez-Gonzélez/Parafita-Couto (2012) who are explicitly calling for an interdisciplinary ap-
proach to Spanglish.
9 See the works of Betti or Potowski for detailed argumentations in support of this view, e.g.
Betti (2008; 2009; 2015; 2016a; 2016; 2017a; 2017); Potowksi (2012; 2013; 2016). 186 ——~ Johanna Wolf
situation, especially that of second and third generation Hispanics, is proposed
by several researchers (Morales 2002; Zentella 2002; 2007; Lopez Garcia-Molins
2015; Betti 2016b; 2017a; 2017b). In this perspective, Spanglish no longer refers
merely to a linguistic dimension, but rather to an identity situation which in-
cludes the linguistic dimension (in general, reduced to code-switching phenom-
ena) and is intimately connected to it. This perspective leads to the consideration
of whether the term Spanglish is an acceptable way to make a clear distinction
‘between these two dimensions: one interested in questions of language change
or language acquisition concerning language as a system and one interested in
the connection between identity and language use. In the current study, the de-
scription of any linguistic system resulting from approaches interested in ques-
tions stemming from the research domain of language acquisition will be treated
as leaner varieties or varieties of Spanglish-English contact.
In contrast, descriptions dealing with issues that connect a specific language
use to the construction of a new transcultural identity will be designated with the
term Spanglish, which, of course, includes the linguistic phenomena of code-
switching. Thus, the term Spanglish would be available to any interdisciplinary
perspective which goes beyond a purely linguistic approach. As a consequence,
‘we suggest making the following distinction when talking about code-switching
as a linguistic phenomenon appearing in language-contact situations: a) the use
of code-switching as a way of communication due to lack of proficiency in one or
more languages versus b) using code-switching to create a transcultural discur-
sive identity (which is related to the first distinction).
This suggestion is strengthened by a statement made by one of the evalu-
ated bloggers with regard to frequently used typical Spanglish utterances (like
for example llamar (para) atrds, el rufero etc.), phenomena which often serve to
illustrate what Spanglish is (cf. Ardila 2005). In this case, Spanglish seems to be
reduced to these stereotypical prefabs and is therefore seen by many as being a
language consisting solely of phrases like these, which is an inadequate under-
standing of the communication possibilities that Spanglish offers its speakers.
The blogger points out that the correct use of both languages is important:
Standardised English is necessary for being treated as equal to native English-
speaking white Americans and standardised Spanish is necessary for being con-
sidered as belonging to the heritage community, In her opinion, as a blogger
and not as a linguist, statements like the following, collected by the blogger for
her blog entry and corrected by herself, have nothing to do with Spanglish —
which seems to negate Otheguy’s and Lipski’s understanding of the term:
“The kind of conversation that annoys me to no end:
Pues rellene un aplicacion para que puedo pagar el bil del dish, estoy esperando que me
amen para atrés. Linguistic perceptions on Spanglish discourse settings —— 187
‘Mi esposo parquea en el parqueo cuando trabaja de rufero.
Lleve mis ninos al parqueo y a la libreria.
En lugar de..
Pues hice un solicitud para poder pagar la factura del antena parabélica. Estoy esperando
que me regresan la llamada. [‘So I made a request to pay the satellite dish bill. !hope
they will call me back’).
Mi esposo se estaciona en el estacionamiento, cuando trabaja de techador. [‘My husband
parks in the parking lot, when he works as a roofer’).
Lleve mis nifios al parque y a la biblioteca. [‘I take my children to the park and to the
library’]” (elenamary 2008).’°
Roberto Gonzalez Echevarria echoes the distinction discussed above regarding
the possible reasons for code-switching, by stating that there is an essential dif-
ference between language mixing because one is not able to communicate oth-
erwise (acquisitional dimension referring to proficiency and the mastery of the
linguistic system), and language mixing, i., code-switching in the current study,
as a legitimate strategy of constructing a proper identity which allows for express-
ing the historical and socio-cultural background of its members (Gonzélez Eche-
varria 2008, 116). Finding new and distinct ways to label the different processes
and aims of communication is the first step towards accommodating these differ-
ent perspectives on language use, specifically the use of code-switching, in the
Spanish-English contact situation.
Interestingly, several recent studies have pointed out that the educational
discourse" concerning the term Spanglish seems to have shifted from having a
negative connotation to having a more positive one (Villa 2010; Dumitrescu
2013; Sanchez-Mujioz 2013). Faced with the fact that most heritage learners do
10 Quotations from the analysed blogs are cited in the following manner: Name of the blog, year
of the entry.
11 This term refers to the discussions about teaching and learning Spanish in classroom set-
tings and to questions of whether it makes sense to broach the issue of Spanglish there in
order to help bilingual Hispanics to become more self-confident, so that they will no longer
consider their use of Spanish as a diminished variety, but rather as an expression of their spe-
cific identity. In this way, ‘educational discourses’ are dealing with questions of language ac-
quisition as well as with questions of self-perception of the scholars. The main goal is to reach
avalorisation of the vernacular and its use as a pedagogical resource. For describing the devel-
‘opment of the linguistic repertoire of bilinguals and their linguistic behaviour in classroom set-
tings that should not be equated to code-switching, Otheguy/Garcia/Reid (2015) use the term
‘translanguaging’ (cf. Otheguy/Garcia/Reid 2015; for a detailed analysis of the situation bilin-
guals are exposed to in the educational context see Garcia 2009. For descriptions of the special
case of Hispanics in the U.S. see Postma 2013; Sayer 2008).
12 This trend may also be linked to the merits of research in the field of multilingualism and
the sociocultural approaches to SLA. 188 —— Johanna Wolf
not master the so-called literate or sophisticated register of Spanish required in
written (academic) contexts and that their vernacular differs from a register re-
quired in language-of-distance-settings (especially academic settings, cf. Sanchez-
Mufioz 2013, 440), researchers in the educational field tend to define “Spanglish”,
according to Stavans’ proposals, as a way of constituting identity - an identity
which is able to cope with the complex and hybrid background of second or third
generation Hispanics in the United States:
“{..] Spanglish is a way for the students to deal with complex linguistic and ethnic iden-
tity issues in a creative manner. In a way, the use of Spanglish creates another level of
meaning where the hybridity of the Chicana/o experiences are negotiated. In this sense,
Spanglish is a way to construct and reconstruct a third space of Chicana/o identity, a lin-
guistic nepantla” (Sanchez-Musioz 2013, 44).
According to this perspective, the use of Spanglish is a specific and intentional
discursive strategy that aims to highlight the biculturalism of its speakers and
by doing so, Spanglish is developing a more positive connotation.
Given these different positions on the term “Spanglish” — a) Spanglish as a
superfluous term for describing the varieties of Spanish found in the Spanish-
English contact situation in the United States and b) Spanglish as a helpful term
for describing the links between identity-construction and language use -, it is
necessary to make a clear distinction between the different contexts in which a
type of Spanish is identified as Spanglish, what the term “Spanglish” refers to,
and which ideology might be involved in determining whether to use the term
Spanglish. In an attempt to answer the call for interdisciplinary approaches to
address the complex issue of Spanglish and its different meanings (Rodriguez
Gonzélez/Parafita-Couto 2012), the present contribution determines the role that
the linguistic device of code-switching utterances plays in constructing a discur-
sive formation. By using code-switching as an intentional discursive practice that
can transmit a virtual concept of transcultural identity and one that helps to legit-
imise the autonomy of this concept, the use of Spanglish can be defined as a con-
scious reflex of identity construction - in a nutshell, the use of Spanglish as a
discursive practice implies a process of linguistic convergence that allows to sym-
bolise cultural diversity.
13 The study of Sanchez-Mufioz focuses on Latinos, who describe themselves as Chicano/Chi-
canas (Sénchez-Muiioz 2013). Linguistic perceptions on Spanglish discourse settings —— 189
3 Discursive strategies: constructing episteme
by language use
As it has theoretically been stated, language can be used as a means to create
and define identity, especially in the case of minority groups or people that
have to deal with the situation of language contact and who use specific lin-
guistic behaviours as discourse of legitimation. Following this thought, in the
sections to come we will assume that Spanglish can be used as an instrument of
legitimation - a hypothesis that will be tested by analysing the blogs of Span-
glish writers. The language behaviour and linguistic speech patterns associated
with Spanglish, like code-switching, are typical phenomena resulting from the
Spanish-English contact situation in the U.S. and perceived as a symbol of the
speaker’s own cultural heritage and transcultural identity. The use of Spanglish
on the one hand creates an inner sense of belonging to the group of Hispanics
raised with dual identities, and on the other hand contributes to the distance
between the speaker and others who do not belong to this group. According to
this perspective, Spanglish in the current study is conceived as a cultural prac-
tice used by Hispanics in the United States to create a discursive formation to
convey the shared conceptual knowledge of their transcultural identity.
Following the hypothesis that language is inextricably related to identity
and based on the postulation that Spanglish functions as a linguistic identity
constructor, where the construction of the cited mixed-race culture is reflected
by discursive language patterns, discourse in the current study is defined in the
sense of Michel Foucault (cf. Foucault 1960; 1969). In Foucault's conceptualisa-
tion, the term “discourse” is not just a linguistic concept, but it brings together
language and practice (Hall 1992, 44). As Stuart Hall explains:
“A discourse is a group of statements which provides a language for talking about - i.e., a
way of representing - a particular kind of knowledge about a topic. When statements
about a topic are made within a particular discourse, the discourse makes it possible to
construct the topic in a certain way. It also limits the other ways in which the topic can be
constructed.
A discourse does not consist of one statement, but of several statements working together
L..1” (Hall 1992, 201).
Following this definition of discourse, one has to analyse how linguistic pat-
tems - in the present contribution only iterative structures of code-switching
will be considered — interact in order to create or to construct a potent discourse
that will be able to respond to the desideratum of a proper transcultural identity
of the majority of Hispanics in the U.S. 190 —— Johanna Wolf
If code-switching is used as a discursive strategy to construct an influential
line of discourse capable of creating identity in the epistemic structures of knowl-
edge, these pattems form part of this identity and also define it. In this way the
discursive practice as well as the specific discursive formation can be detected by
members who share this epistemic knowledge. The creation of a discursive for-
mation by using specific discursive practices, for example code-switching, is only
possible if, at least, the following four elements are given: a) intertextual inter-
connectedness which is here interpreted as a connectedness concerning the writ-
ing and discourse style of the analysed blogs, b) language as interaction, which
is used as a means to create a specific form of c) discourse that could serve as
expression of social thought pattems and d) discourse as a stimulus for social
change (Gardt 2007). After having given a brief overview of the different linguistic
aspects of code-switching utterances, the use of this linguistic device of bilingual
bloggers will now be analysed against the background of these four elements.
4 Ashort overview of the main linguistic
characteristics of Spanglish and their
discursive functions
Describing the main characteristics of Spanglish, Ardila distinguishes between
superficial phenomena like borrowing (e.g. the use of very frequent lexemes like
casa or lunch’ in an English or Spanish discourse respectively), code-switching
(e.g. ¢Piensas que mafiana we could go to the beach after returning from la casa de
mi abuelita? — these are also called shallow phenomena) and deep phenomena
like lexical-semantic (e.g. spangl. escortar or sala de emergencies)” and grammat-
ical features (e.g. spangl. esperar por mi esposa), for example subject pronoun
use (e.g. Spangl. Yo he estado pensado vs. Span. He estado pensado), word order
flexibility or verbal morphology (cf. Ardila 2005, 68-77). Most studies working
with Spanglish corpora have focused on shallow phenomena like borrowing,
code-mixing and code-switching as socio-pragmatic functions of language choice
(Poplack 1981; Zentella 1997). Research focusing on aspects of deep phenomena
is rarer and deals mainly with questions of language acquisition and proficiency
in bilingual speakers (e.g. syntactic convergence, phonological and grammatical
14 All examples were taken from Ardila (2005).
15 In this case of a literal translation from engl. emergency room to span. sala de urgencias
also lexical borrowing can be discussed. Linguistic perceptions on Spanglish discourse settings —= 191
adaption, cf. MacSwan 2005; Otheguy/Zentella 2007). The present contribution,
however, is limited to the scope on shallow phenomena as these seem to be more
important for the construction of a discourse formation that legitimates the crea-
tion of a transcultural identity. This hypothesis is guided by the reflection that
shallow phenomena are easy to detect by the reader, even if he or she is not bilin-
gual. Therefore, their symbolic character is accessible and at the same time, their
use as a discursive pattem remains transparent. So, bilinguals can use shallow
phenomena in written contexts in a conscious and intentional way in order to
create a discursive formation.
Some researchers differentiate between code-switching as inter-sentential
switches and code-mixing as intra-sentential switches (Zentella 1997). The pres-
ent paper follows the definition Myers-Scotton gives with regard to the insertion
of elements belonging to another language into the grammatical frame of the
dominant language (Myers-Scotton 1997). As a consequence, every insertion is
subsumed under the category of code-switching phenomena. In addition to this
and according to Poplack’s proposal that code-switching functions as an ethnic
discourse marker (Poplack 1980; 1981), the speech contained in the presented
data will be defined broadly as code-switching (inter-sentential and intra-
sentential as the two main strategies). Thus, code-switching phenomena occurring
in the presented data range from single lexical items to complex constructions and
are defined as language alternation patterns used as communicative strategies."*
Poplack adds a third strategy with respect to switching behaviours that be-
longs to the shallow phenomena: tag-switching. Tag-switching is intended to
mark a monolingual utterance as belonging to a bilingual context and means
“the insertion of a tag in one language into an utterance which is entirely in the
other language” (Poplack 1980, 589; Romaine 1989, 122). Hence, it has a more sym-
bolic character aimed at emphasizing the bilingual background of the speaker
(Appel/Muysken 1987). Frequent examples of tag-switching are discourse markers
like well, so or anyway,"” but, as the present contribution suggests, examples of
tag-switching can also be prefabricated constructions® or idiomatic expressions
due to their possible emblematic character (e.g. a la verga, vale, basta, etc.).
16 Therefore, borrowing is reserved for labelling switches of lexical items in the speech of
speakers of low proficiency or monolinguals where they were caused by a lack of vocabulary.
17 Examples were taken from the collected data of the current study.
18 Prefabricated constructions or prefabs are defined here as conventionalised multi-string
words (cf. Bybee/Torres Cacoullos 2009, 188). 192 —— Johanna Wolf
5 Creating a Spanglish identity: language use as
discursive practice in blogs
The data collected for this contribution are textual data and they are explored
inductively using typical philological methods, such as content analysis to gen-
erate categories and explanations." For example, all bloggers exhibited dif-
ferent behaviours with regard to conceptualizing their hybrid identity, which
made it impossible to subsume them under one label or to pretend that a “typi-
cal” bilingual behaviour or identity concerning the self-perception of Hispanics
(immigrants or belonging to the borderlands) exists. Consequently, conclusions
must be considered as tendencies that have been found in the linguistic behav-
iour of selected individuals and need to be strengthened in future research by ex-
tended data collection and evaluation.
In the scope of the present contribution, linguistic behaviour, which reveal
specific discursive practices and are used to construct a discursive formation
can be compared to the linguistic behaviour found in the works of bilingual
writers in order to demonstrate similar strategies to create a discursive forma-
tion (cf. Aparicio 1993; Sebba/Mahootian/Jonsson 2012). The discursive con-
struction of these concepts is described by Anzaldda in a quite radical way:
“Deslenguadas. Somos los del espafiol deficiente. We are your linguistic nightmare, your
linguistic aberration, your linguistic mestizaje, the subject of your burla. Because we
speak with tongues of fire we are culturally crucified. Racially, culturally and linguisti-
cally somos huérfanos — we speak an orphan tongue” (Anzaldiia 1987, 80; italics as in the
original).?
The following analysis attempts to examine whether code-switching is employed,
as Anzaldia claims, to shift from an “orphan tongue” to a symbol of an autono-
mous, identitary language use.
19 This method is also used by Ziem/Wengeler (2014) to explain how discourse formations
concerning the term ‘crisis’ are formed and perceived by communities.
20 Interestingly, one of the bloggers, Elena Mary, expresses very similar feelings in a quite
identical way: “My Spanish comes from colonialism. My Spanish is seen as inferior and dis-
couraged in public spaces. My English is viewed as inferior because of the influence of my
Spanish. My Spanish made me a ‘high risk’ student. My Spanish is now mocked as inferior to
the variety spoken in Spain. My Spanish is resilience, and despite being discouraged from
using it in this country, the fact I have maintained any of it should be applauded for my resis-
tance [...]" (elenamary 2017). Linguistic perceptions on Spanglish discourse settings —— 193
5.1 Blog analysis: description of data and method
In the current study, four bilingual blogs, created in the period from 2007 to
2016 were analysed, It is not easy to find blogs that really use Spanglish and
treat issues of creating a transcultural identity at the same time - mostly blog-
gers decide to write either in English or in Spanish. In order to find the selected
blogs, it proved/turned out to be useful to rely on the different “blogtitlan” pro-
vided by the blogs’ authors. By analysing the interconnectedness of the authors,
it was possible to detect a kind of blogosphere containing blogs that use Span-
glish in its emblematic function and that evaluate issues dealing with the con-
struction of a hybrid identity. These were key elements that decided whether a
blog was selected or not as was the language choice. Only blogs with phenom-
ena classifiable as Spanglish language use were considered. Blogs containing
separate English and Spanish versions of the posts or translated pages were ex-
cluded.” Individual style obviously plays an important role in language choice.
For levelling this effect and for the sake of comparability and in order to obtain
a reliable result, the number of analysed posts was adjusted down to the num-
ber of posts produced by the least productive blog, so that 38 posts per blog,
selected at random, were analysed. The data analysed therefore includes 152
posts in total. The selected posts differ in length and range, depending on the
individual writing style and the interconnectedness of the author — for example,
the author of yonderliesit often writes in verse form whereas the author of elena-
mary prefers a very academic style when she illustrates the problems of Span-
glish and its specific function.”
All evaluated blogs are so-called “free-style-blogs”, meaning that the posts
are not filtered and may be classified as a kind of online-diary where one can
find a wide range of very different topics treated, composed using very individ-
ual writing styles (Montes-Alcalé 2007, 162). These are the four bilingual blogs
analysed in the present contribution:
a. http://elenamary.com/ (female, Ph.D. student, Ohio, U.S., born in the U.S.,
dominant English language use). Average of words per post: #505.6 words,
frequency of posting on average #1.4 per month.
21 One of the blogs under investigation unfortunately went inactive during the analysis and
‘stopped in 2013 (aislinn the albino bean), one of them only started in 2009 (lifeinspanglish).
22 Regrettably, none of the blogs contains a statistics about its readership or the visitor num-
bers — what is available is the average of comments per post. But these seem to be a very unre-
liable criteria to measure the range of a blog so it is neglected here. 194 —— Johanna Wolf
b. _http://www.yonderliesit.org/aztlan/ (male, Spanish teacher, Sweden/Mexico/
California, not bom in the U.S., dominant Spanish language use). Average of
words per post: #352.7 words, frequency of posting on average #1.3 per month.
c. http://thealbinobean.blogspot.de/ (inactive since august 26, 2013) (female,
unemployed, Cabo, Mexico, dominant Spanish language use). Average of
‘words per post: #375.5 words, frequency of posting on average 0.7 per month.
d. https://lifeinspanglish.com/ (female, student, Los Angeles, U.S., born in the
U.S., dominant English language use). Average of words per post: #473.4
words, frequency of posting on average #0.9 per month.
5.2 Results
All bloggers are of Mexican origin, and all address in their posts, more or less,
the topic of being transcultural, though to a varying extent. But the difficulty of
how a proper transcultural identity can be constructed is a common topic among
all bloggers. Elenamary and yonderliesit, in particular, dedicate a considerable
number of posts to this topic. As Montes-Alcalé (2009, 165) has already pointed
out, nearly all of the bilingual bloggers tend to write in English and switch to
Spanish, except Aislin, who is living in Cabo, Mexico, and who is mainly writing
in Spanish with switches to English. The author of yonderliesit writes approxi-
mately half of his posts in English and half in Spanish and only switches in posts
written predominantly in English. Elena Mary tends to avoid the mix of the two
languages and only uses switches in posts explicitly dedicated to topics of Span-
glish culture, Hispanic heritage, or the like. Christina from lifeinspanglish de-
clares explicitly that she uses both languages to express her specific identity and
does so by using a very individual kind of switching which underlines the func-
tion of code-switching both as emblem and as a means to create divergence:”
“So this is my attempt at getting current with the Spanglish lifestyle in LA... and by that I
‘mean the capacity to understand and live both worlds, cultures, ideas, etc. in English and
Spanish simultaneously. You know how it goes. In my case, I usually think ‘in English’ and
then Spanish suddenly creeps in. I'm not just referring to being bilingual or that other word
they like to call us... pochos comes to mind! (‘They’ being the language purists.) Even
though I try to stick to one language and use proper grammar, if know you speak Spanish,
are of Hispanic descent or are even curious about the Latino culture, then both languages
will collide! No puedo evitarlo, So I hope if this blog gains any traction and gets any hits
you'll bear with me and understand my lingo” (lifeinspanglish 2009).
23 In fact, Christina uses mostly free switches without an obvious socio-pragmatic function. It
seems almost as if she simply wanted to inject.a certain symbolic significance into her writings. Linguistic perceptions on Spanglish discourse settings —~ 195
The dominant language of her blog remains English. This tendency of second
and third generation bilingual speakers to use English predominantly has been
supported recently by a study released by the Pew Research Center (PRC) indi-
cating that 71% of Hispanics do not think that it is necessary to speak Spanish
to be considered Latino (Lopez 2016). Note, that even in 2012 a similar trend of
reporting English as the dominant language was found by the PRC, but 95% of
the Hispanics interrogated thought it important for future generations to be still
able to speak Spanish (Taylor et al. 2012). It becomes evident that the bloggers
use linguistic behaviour here to create a discourse/discursive formation as a
means to express the social thought patterns they are — or perhaps they feel -
confronted with, Language in this sense becomes a tool to interact between the
self-perception as members of a minority group and the society they are living
in. This claim can be strengthened by the following metalinguistic comments
that the bloggers made concerning their linguistic behaviour in order to explain
the reasons for their switching.
An important topic of bilingual bloggers is the gap between their English
and Spanish proficiency, which they take notice of evaluating their own linguistic
behaviour. One of the evaluated bloggers, Christina from lifeinspanglish, explic-
itly describes her blog as an attempt to address her bilingualism: “Life in Span-
glish is just a little experiment to see if I can get away with publishing the weird
word combos that pop up in my mind, en inglés y en espafiol y todo mixed to-
gether... Is there anything more frustrating than not having the correct translation
of a thought or word and needing it immediately?” (lifeinspanglish 2009).
While Christina is dealing with the problem that she isn’t always immedi-
ately able to access the lexical item required in the language she is currently
speaking and seems to perceive her bilingualism as a proficiency problem that
she solves mostly by using switches (perhaps even borrowings in this case),
Elena Mary from elenamary goes one step further by explaining her motivation
for using code-switching: “I try to tell people interested in interpreting, that
knowing a language isn’t achieved by knowing a vocabulary. Knowing a lan-
guage is cultural, it is becoming the language, being part of the ethos, it is a
change in personality and perspective” (elenamary 2011).
The above observations reveal the main strategy adopted by all bloggers
when they are using linguistic patterns typical for language contact: code-
switching as a social and communicative strategy and therefore as a discursive
practice. Hence, discourse becomes a useful strategy to express social thought
patterns and may perhaps — in a further step — tum into a way to influence
these patterns in the sense of changing the social perception of Spanglish as an
inferior variety to a perception of Spanglish as an emblematic variety created
and used to express a special identity. 196 —— Johanna Wolf
Both quotations show that there can be different reasons for switching. On
the one hand, switching can stem from a lack of semantic knowledge concern-
ing concepts and frames that are matched to the particular item and evoked by
its use.” On the other hand, switching of lexical items may often be employed
as an intentional discursive practice of distinction - e.g. the use of Spanish
items like tapa, borracho, gente* should evoke a typical Spanish atmosphere
and can probably be seen as a game with cultural stereotypes.
But these are only two of the possible socio-pragmatic functions that have
been suggested by several studies investigating spoken and written code-
switching (cf. Zentella 1997; Montes-Alcala 2007; 2013). According to the traditional
classification with regard to the socio-pragmatic functions of code-switching, find-
ings are generally classified under the following categories: quotations, emphasis,
clarification or elaboration, lexical need, linguistic routines or formulaic speech
(including idiomatic expressions), contextual switches and stylistic switches
(Montes-Alcala 2013, 218), Based on the analysis pattern in Montes-Alcala (2013),
the present contribution suggests five categories of analysis: a) Clarification and
elaboration (incl. parenthetical comments), b) Linguistic routines (incl. tags,
formulaic language and idiomatic expressions,) c) Lexical needs (incl. prod-
uct-names, contextual switches and stylistic switches), d) Emphasis and topic
shift, and e) Free switches (i.e. switches without apparent specific function).
The term crutch-like mixes is avoided because there was no evidence that a
switch was caused by a momentary loss of words, or because the writer lacked
the word in the other language due to a problem of language mastery. This is
surely due to the fact that posts are planned and not spontaneous texts, even if
they pretend to preserve a kind of orality as proof of authenticity. It is also im-
portant to note that not every switch is related to a specific function, as Zentella
(1997, 99) makes clear: “[...] pinpointing the purpose of each code switch is a
task as fraught with difficulty as imputing the reasons for a monolingual’s choice
of one synonym over another, and no complete accounting may ever be possible”,
In total, 623 switches were found, and Table 1 summarises the number of
switches per category:
24 Even when reaching a high proficiency, it can still be a problem for bilingual speakers to
match the complete semantic information to lexical items, so that switches of single lexical
items may reflect an uncertainty concerning conceptual knowledge (cf. Jiang 2000).
25 Examples of the collected data. Linguistic perceptions on Spanglish discourse settings —— 197
Table 1: Number of switches per category.
Total number of Lexicalitems Clarification Free Linguistic Emphasis and
switches switches routines topic shift
Number 623 197 134 119 94 79
Percent 100 31.62 21,51 12.68 =——15.09 19.10
The results of the study support the findings of Montes-Alcalé (2007; 2013).
She already illustrates that the categories Lexical need and Clarification are the
most frequently used socio-pragmatic functions. In the examined data, the most
frequent type of switch is Lexical need (31.62%), followed by Clarification and
elaboration (21.51%). In the following, examples for every category are given to
illustrate the effects of code-switching as a strategy to establish a specific linguis-
tic behaviour that could be read as a symbol of a discursive formation:
A) Lexical need:
(2) En mi cabecita pienso que canto muy bien, me rockstareo (aislinntheal-
binobean 2009).
(2) Segtin yo me veia muy cool con una camisetilla con lentejuelas que compre.
Me sentia muy Glam Rock. Edith me dijo que parecia Figure Skater. (... Tam-
bién vino efra y su nueva roomie gringa Kate? A la hora del postre, y de alli
nos fuimos a mi casita a ver una movie y comer mixed nuts. [felt very cool
with my sequined shirt that I bought. I felt very Glam Rock. Edith said that I
resembled the Figure Skater. Efra and his new white roomie Kate came too?
When it was time to have dessert, we went to my house and watched a
movie and ate mixed nuts’ (aislinnthealbinobean 2008).
I would stop at a bakery on my way to class and buy a sweet roll, my
favorite were the borrachos [‘fried pastries’] coated in sugar and strips
of pink dye through the inner doughy layers. I would eat while either
drinking a steaming cup of cafe con leche [‘coffee with milk’] or atole
[‘drink containing corn’] (elenamary 2007).
(4) El Indio TEZZY never forgets his GENTE [‘folk’] no matter where they
may be at! (yonderliesit 2007; capital letters as in the original).
Like a taco [‘toasted shell’] stand, a green leaf came to my eyesight, be-
tween your mouth opening wide and your arm folding to take the taco
to your beautiful lips I couldn't make out if it was a radish leaf or a ci-
lantro one [...] (yonderliesit 2016).
6)
6)
26 All translations are made by the author. 198 —— Johanna Wolf
Examples A (2), A (3) and A (4) show clearly that the socio-pragmatic functions
of lexical need, context-induced and stylistic switches are engaging and that
they fulfil the writer's need to construct a discursive formation that can convey
the sensation of transcultural identity, despite writing mainly in one specific
language. Shared cultural knowledge is evoked by the semantic concepts and
frames related to the lexical items.
The second most frequently used category by the blog-authors was Clarifi-
cation and Elaboration:
B) Clarification and elaboration:
(1) Facebook is an outlet for my brain farts, but very superficial, I prefer to
complain on my blog. El face es pa chistes y memes [‘Facebook is for
jokes and memes’] (aislinnthealbinobean 2013).
(2) Most women don’t know that las enfermedades del corazén {‘illness of
the heart’] are the #1 killer of women in the US, more than any form of
cancer or other diseases (lifeinspanglish 2015).
Last weekend AGI won the Director's Guild of America award and he
was especially sentimental during his speech. Se le salieron las lagrimas
{‘He was crying’ (lifeinspanglish 2016).
@
Each of the examples fulfils the same function: the previous statement is clari-
fied once more. In B (1), it seems to be easier for the reader to guess what is
meant by the part written in Spanish. In B (2) and B (3), the contexts only give
some hints for the correct interpretation. This kind of switching may be inter-
preted as a means to establish a sort of exclusive discourse because for a mono-
lingual speaker it is difficult to understand. Possibly there is a tendency to use
code-switching not only as a means of integration, but also as a means of exclu-
sion. Thus, the aim of switching as a discursive practice fulfils two conditions
of group formation: the integration of the group’s members that are able to use
the same code and the exclusion of everyone else.
Free switches form the third most-prolific category used by the blog au-
thors. This category groups all switches that do not seem to have a special func-
tion except to demonstrate the blogger’s proficiency in both languages and to
create an individual style that is intended to prove the existence of an autono-
mous Spanglish identity, i.e. they function as discursive practice.”
27 Surely the ranking is highly influenced by the small number of blogs evaluated. For ex-
ample, one defining characteristic of Christina’s writing (lifeinspanglish) is her extensive use
of free switches, which may be responsible for the high number of free switches in the overall
data. Linguistic perceptions on Spanglish discourse settings —— 199
©) Free switches examples:
(1) Aqui estaré [‘Here I am’] blogging in Spanglish (lifeinspanglish 2009).
(2) Durante pleno Spring Cleaning se me ocurrié que estos libros (‘During the
whole Spring Cleaning it strikes me that all the books...’ either I'm done
with them or I’m not going to finish reading them (Abu Ghraib es muy de-
primente [‘it’s so sad’]) 0 de plano no me surten efecto [‘or, speaking freely,
it has no effect on me’] (lifeinspanglish 2009, fat letters as in the original).
(3) A veces pienso cuan facil seria mi vida si en realidad fuera lesbiana
[Sometimes I think that my life would be easier if I was a lesbian’)... but
I really can’t deal with the whole unshaven leg/armpit feminist thing
(aislinnthealbinobean 2008).
Linguistic routines are also used frequently with the aim of creating the already
mentioned discursive formation:
D) Linguistic routines examples:
(2) All monolinguals will defend a capa y espada [‘defend by all means’]
their language but they can’t understand that bilinguals hence have
two identities to deal with (yonderliesit 2008).
(2) I'm just bored... and I keep wondering what would happen if I just said
A LA VERGA CON TODO? [Go fuck yourself’ (aislinnthealbinobean
2008; capital letters as in the original).
(3) Anyway, pensé en hacer Linchburg Lemonade, pero al final me decidi por
una Sangria Blanca... que como se hace? (aislinnthealbinobean 2007).
(4) Well no mucho lo mio la verdad, pero si me gusta (aislinnthealbinobean
2009),
(5) Pues si [‘Well’], maybe you've noticed que I've been absent for a while, as I
try to regroup and focus on new items for the blog (lifeinspanglish 2012).
(© El otro dia [‘the other day’] as I was walking down the halls of South
Coast Plaza [...] (lifeinspanglish 2013). :
Examples of this category are twofold: examples D (3), D (4) and D (5) include
discourse markers that are utilised to produce a coherent and well-structured
discourse where information is easily available for the listener/reader (cf. Schif-
frin 2001). In the examples D (3), D (4) and D (5), discourse markers are em-
ployed to introduce a topic shift. This use of discourse markers occurs very
often, the switching seems to be applied to call the reader's attention: introduc-
ing the new topic by using discourse markers in English or in Spanish and pro-
ceeding in the other language provokes that the listener’s/reader’s attention is
attracted to the new topic (Schiffrin 2001). This kind of interactive discourse 200 —— Johanna Wolf
structuring often underlies the use of linguistic (here: pragmatic) routines that
every speaker has stored in the mental lexicon. This also applies to example D (6).
Examples D (1) and D (2) are different: here, linguistic routines refer to prefab-
ricated chunks, in this case idiomatic expressions. Both are used to evoke an
emotional reading. In D (1), the blogger probably seems to use the idiomatic
expression a capa y espada to highlight the importance of heritage languages
for the construction of identity. But, as he belongs to the group of bilingual
speakers, the use of both languages on the one hand underlines the problem of
constructing a hybrid identity and illustrates the inner conflict of the speaker; on
the other hand, it makes his discourse more expressive. Example D (2) stages the
effect of switching in a similar way: the author writes in English, but switches to
Spanish (A LA VERGA CON TODO?) to make her discourse more expressive. At
the same time, she is provoking a comical effect: switching to the other language
when using strong language or swear words is a frequent phenomenon. Montes-
Alcala (2007, 168) explains that this behaviour is probably due to the lack of a
similar expression in the other language. But this explanation seems to be not
quite appropriate in the concrete case because all authors master both languages
with native-like proficiency. So, a pragmatic interpretation of this phenomenon
(provoking a comical effect, rising expressivity) appears to be more adequate.
‘Switches belonging to the category Footing were used less frequently than
all other types of switches in the four blogs:
E) Emphasis and topic shift examples:
(1) We were trouble-making friends, frequently tinkering on the line of sus-
pension from school, often being called out for our shenanigans and
being told que nos levdbamos demasiado pesado [‘that we were annoy-
ing’]. (elenamary 2016)
(2) El recuento de los dafios, o mas dramitico... where did I go wrong. (ai-
slinnthealbinobean 2013)
But enough already. Ya basta. [‘That’s enough!’] It’s a Friday, it’s sum-
mer and I feel like dancing. (lifeinspanglish 2016)
@)
In examples E (1), E (2), and E (3), code-switching is used as emphasis to underline
the statement by repeating what has been said in Spanish. In example E (1), the
code-switching is used to sum up what has been said about the girls’ behaviour -
in fact, it also implicitly indicates a topic shift because in the following paragraph
the author is writing about another subject. This effect — summing up and making
the statement clearer by doing so — can also be seen in E (8). In E (9), the switch is
a mere repetition of the previous statement, so at first glance, it may be seen as a Linguistic perceptions on Spanglish discourse settings —— 201
simple clarification. But against the contextual background, it seems to be a sort of
emphasised way of topic shift; this is the reason for it being grouped in category E.
5.3 Discussion
The results suggest that the use of Spanglish in blogs can be defined as a delib-
erate strategy adopted to evoke shared knowledge and to create a virtual trans-
cultural identity, different from Hispanic or American identity. Bloggers often
tend to use each language consciously and strategically in order to construct a
valid transcultural communication style.
The examples found in the data of the current study confirm the claim that
bilingual speakers who use code-switching are highly proficient speakers of
both Spanish and English (cf. Myers-Scotton 1997). This also supports the hy-
pothesis that code-switching marks an intentional discursive practice because
the bloggers seem to make use of this strategy in a very conscious way knowing
exactly what effect their switching has. Each author applies code-switching in
an individual way, which makes it difficult to generalise the findings. For exam-
ple, an abundant use of code-switching with discourse markers was only found
in one of the analysed blogs, but there it occurred regularly which might reflect
the individual linguistic behaviour of this author. Possibly the blogger wishes
to stress that she really lives on the border of two cultures, in a transcultural
“zone”, In contrast prefabs and idiomatic expressions were found in every blog.
All authors though use code-switching at least in similar pragmatic functions.
Taking a more general perspective on the linguistic behaviour that bilingual
bloggers are revealing, the individual choices can be perceived as “a way of say-
ing that they belonged to both worlds, and should not be forced to give up one
for another” (Zentella 1997, 112). Probably, the respective language choice even
demonstrates the objective to create a new world — which suggests that the
switches made by bilingual bloggers must be seen as discursive practices and
as a deliberate and conscious choice of creating divergence.
In doing so, using code-switching becomes a purely emblematic strategy to
demonstrate an allegiance to a shared cultural and epistemic knowledge — at
Jeast with regard to these written contexts. Language choice as intellectual deci-
sion in these cases can be considered as a conscious process of divergence. It is
used by bloggers in spite of the social stigma that can be assigned to code- 202 —— Johanna wolf
switching phenomena.”* As well, their language choice is in line with the claim
Gardt (2007) established concerning the construction of a discursive formation:
language as interaction. Referring to the other elements, expressing social thought
patterns, acting as a stimulus for social change and intertextual interconnectedness,
almost all of them are present in the data. The use of Spanglish as a means of ex-
pressing social thought patterns can be found in the posts of the bilingual blog-
gers — especially in the posts of elenamary and yonderliesit, who can both be
considered blogeros de primera hora” They feel that there is a social and cultural
need to define their identity as a new one that is different from a purely Hispanic
or American identity. In their posts, the decision to switch between languages is
often prompted by the bloggers’ explicit raising of the issue of identity. The identity
problem of Hispanics can often be found as a leitmotiv in their posts. Posts related
to issues of transcultural identity seem to provoke the use of a specific language
that reflects the blogger's feelings and attitude towards this problem, as described
by the author of yonderliesit: “There is an almost blind belief that all Chicanos
have Spanish as a second language or that they are at the very least influenced by
it, The Chicano community is composed of a culture that is distinguished by its
multicultural roots” (yonderliesit 2011). A similar passage is written by Elena Mary:
“I am not a Pocha! I know my language, I know my culture. I don’t need to take
back a term for something that I am not” (elenamary 2012).
Both of them consider Spanglish to be a term that should be used for de-
scribing an attitude rather than the use of a specific language. As mentioned
above, Elena Mary even denounces the label of incorrect language use - de-
fined as using words from language A while speaking language B - with a spe-
cific term. For her, only highly proficient speakers of each language should
code-switch, which she admits is an elitist view. Her opinion fits the distinction
made by Gonzalez Echevarria, who describes this attitude as typical for a more
intellectual approach to the Spanglish phenomenon (Gonzélez Echevarria 2008).
The following passage shows a similar way of conceiving the identity problem:
“We Xicanos need to put an end to the centennial bickering Mexicans and Ameri-
cans have had since inception days. We the children can no longer take sides we
are Mexican and we are American no matter what ye old blood feud says. Let
Mexicans fear the Gringo; we Xicanos cannot do that. Let Gringos fear the Mexi-
can; we Xicanos cannot do that” (yonderliesit 2009).
28 This also confirms the function Myers-Scotton is according to code-switching (cf. Myers-
Scotton 1995; 1997).
29 As it has been stated, one cannot decide yet - and even less on the basis of a small data-
base as the one of the current study - whether these discursive formations can influence soci-
ety as a stimulus of social change. Linguistic perceptions on Spanglish discourse settings —— 203
Lifeinspanglish changes the languages in her blogging in a comparable way.
The author wants to symbolise that her way of feeling, her identity, is something
that cannot be reduced simply to biculturalism. This feeling of not belonging to
either of one’s two cultures and of not being able to make clear distinctions be-
tween the heritage and the target culture is also expressed by elenamary who
goes so far as to describe this feeling as a “failure”: “I've been watching a lot of
Mexican stand-up comedy and joke telling as of late. I feel overwhelmed by a
sense of disconnect and sadness. I am not really Mexican. I don’t laugh at all and
it makes me feel like a failure as a Mexican. I understand what is supposed to be
funny but I don’t find it funny” (elenamary 2011; italics as in the original).
Concerning the claim of intertextual interconnectedness, one has to assert
that the bloggers are strongly connected — elenamary, aislinnthealbinobean and
yonderliesit are linked by their “blogtitlan”. Thus, given the fact that each of
Gardt’s four elements that define a discourse are found in the bloggers’ writing,
the initial question of whether language use in bilingual blogs is designed to
construct a discursive formation that legitimises the requirement for a distinct
and autonomous identity, can be affirmed.
6 Conclusion
As the present study demonstrates, bloggers perceive their ability to make con-
scious decisions about which language to use as part of “a superior expressive
language repertoire” (Montes-Alcala 2007, 169). This allows them to create a cer-
tain discourse formation that does not conceive transcultural identity as a simple
mixture of elements taken from Hispanic or American culture, but as a complex,
multifaceted, yet highly autonomous phenomenon.
The individual code-switching patterns of bilingual bloggers and their con-
struction of a discursive formation as a way of legitimizing a Spanglish culture
that is distinct from Hispanic or American culture may be taken as evidence of a
gradual change in the perception of Spanglish by society. Bloggers using Span-
glish do so deliberately in order to illustrate that this discursive practice reflects
their transculturation process. Their behaviour likely refers to the social percep-
tion of their group and reflects the desire of creating divergence. As a conse-
quence, the term “Spanglish” loses its negative connotation and social stigma,
as Franco and Solorio underline in the following passage: “[...] the ever-
increasing number of Spanglish speakers, as well as the raise in sensitivity,
and understanding of bilingualism, has contributed to the fact that newer
generations do not consider the word as a derogative one, but simply as the 204 —— Johanna Wolf
best label so far to describe the very interesting phenomenon of the long in-
teraction between English and Spanish” (Franco/Solorio 2007, 82).
Going one step further, using certain linguistic patterns as a discursive
formation, e.g. code-switching, may help second and third generation His-
panics to reserve the term “Spanglish” only for the complex cultural determination
of their specific group, including, of course, the linguistic dimension (ie., code-
switching) which should perhaps be understood, in this special case, more as an
expression of a particular discursive practice and a particular bilingual compe-
tence than as an expression of linguistic varieties. This is confirmed by the blog-
gers’ definition of the function code-switching has within the process of creating a
divergent identity — and it is a crucial one which expresses very clearly the desire
of distinctiveness:
“When for example, a white person, who studied in Spain for six months, describes their
speaking in class as ‘code-switching’, it is a complete lack of understanding of who actu-
ally uses code switching. Having two items, two sets of ideas, two languages, two of any-
thing and going back and forth doesn’t mean you are code switching and it is insulting to
those that use code switching as a radicalized form of survival” (elenamary 2017).
Possibly this perspective may contribute to the acceptance of Spanglish as a va-
riety proper and as a concept of an autonomous transcultural identity - a con-
cept that bloggers who use Spanglish help to distribute.
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