3 IDENTIFICATION OF ANIMALS Classification : Kingdom _ Class = Older ee fs Genus Species Comments : 1, Amoel Protista Protozoa Sarcodina, Lobosa Amoeba proteus verfluke, Ascaris, PHYLUM PROTOZOA, (1) AMOEBA —— Unicettular and eukaryotic — Unicettular or acellular — Locomotion and feeding by pseudopodia = Pseudopodia finger-like and blunt a isa unicellular or acellular, microscopic organism found in the freshwater ponds, ditches, lakes, springs, pools and streams, 2. Itis irregular in shape and measures about 0.25 to 1.00 mm in diameter. 3. The body changes its shape constantly with the formation or withdraw! of broad, iregular, finger-shappd,rovnd.tipped, temporary processes called the pseudopodia. Nuclealus Fig. 3.1 Amoeba proteus120 > GAB. New Era Biology Practical (Class x1) » pseudopodia 4, The temporary hind end,uroid, is marked by a wrinkled region with retracting pseudopodi The body is in the form ofa t plasma membrane called theplas 6, Protoplasm is distinguishable ito an outer thin clear ectoplas ig. 3). vacuolar membrane derived from the plasmalemma. environment. u 12. Amoeba reproduces by binary fission and raultiple fission. B encysted, nslucent mass of protoplasm, Amoeba ingests food by pseudopodial action and thefood vacuole During unfavourable condition, the active amoebae become sluggish, lose their food vacuoles and pseudopodia an ‘covered by a very thin, delicate, selectively permeable ‘mand inner granulaf, more fluid portion, the endoplasm {is an intracellular digestive cavity surrounded by a ous is single, small, spherical body lying in the endoplasm containing nucleoli le vacuole is @ clear, rounded, pulsating vacuole present inthe posterior part of endoplasm. The primary function of the contractile vacuole is to expel water (osmoregulation) tal ken in from a hypotonic Respiratory exchange occurs at the body surface through plasmalemma. PHYLUM CNIDARIA (2) HYDRA Classification : Multiceliular, holozoie and eukaryotic Mostly mobile with well defined tissues Diploblastic with radial symmetry Tentacles bearing nematocysts, body cavity coelenteron y without septa, medusae with tmue velum Kingdom = — Animalia - Branch © — Eumetazoa - Grade — Radiata = Phylum = — Cridaria = Class = Hydrozoa — Gastrovascular eavi Order — —Hydroida —_Polyp stage predominant Genus Hydra Species — vulgaris Comments : 1 Hydra, a solitary polyp, is the common inhabitant of freshwater, particularly ponds, streams, lakesand seasonal ditches. 2. Itis diploblastic and radially symmetrical, 4 to 10 mm in length, 3. It is carnivorous and feeds on small crustaceans such as Daphnia, Cyclops and some other small animals, 4. Ithas a cylindricalbody with a crown oftentactes, six to eight in number, on the free end. 5. Thesteniacles offfvdra bearbatieries of nematocysts, They help in locomotion and food capture. 6, The basal part offiydra has apedal orbasal dise (Fig, 3.2) Wihich seeretes sticky mucus for adhesion to the substratum, 7. Mouth is sitgated on alyypostome ormanubrium around the base of whicfi the tentacles are arranged. 8, Hydra hasno amus, the only cavity in the body iscoclenteron omgastrovascular cavity. 9. The body wall is formed of an outerectoderm and an inner endoderm. In between them is a thin and acellular mesugloea, 10.4202 reproduces asexually by budding and sexually by formation of gametes, UL Ttnormally possesses a singleovary in the aboral region and manytestes in the oral region. 12, Hydra. as preat regenerating capacities, Batteries of nematocysts Testes Bua Body Ovary Ovum —— Pedal disc Fig. Hydra vulgaris~ There is no anus. the same individual. 10. It is a digenetic endoparasite with alternation of hosts. 11. The primary host is sheep and the secondary host is the snail Limnaea or Planorbis. 12. Different larval stages of Fasciola according to developmental sequence are Miracidium ——> Sporocyst —> Redia —> Cercaria —> Metacercaria. Classification : Kingdom Branch Grade Division Section Phylum Class Order Genus Species Animalia Eumetazoa Bilateria Protostomia Pseudococlomata Nemathelminthes Phasmidia Ascaroidea Ascaris lumbricoides aa S drawi i x ‘ “TOF suCKer 1s drawn out into a thick Prominent cephalic lobe. The mouth is situated at the anterior en An excretory pore opens at the extreme posterior end of the body (Fig, 3.3) 9. Fasciola is a hermaphrodite, that is, both male and fe nti d and surrounded by the oral sucker. male gonads are present in PHYLUM NEMATHELMINTHES (4) ASCARIS (Common Roundworm) Multicellular, holozoic and eukaryotic Mostly mobile with well defined tissues Triploblastic with bilateral symmetry Mouth arises from or near blastopore Body cavity, a false coelom > : Unsegmented with an anterior mouth, posterior anus and straight alimentary canal With phasmids : Pharynx without bulb, mouth with three Tipsa Biology Practical (Class x) “GAB. Nev! Era Biology. (Crass x) ne 122 cae at _aeal. a Comments 1. tscars ambricofes, the most common ro is Nest an endoparasite which lives in the small intestine of ma. the 2. The body is elonzated, unsegmented and cylindric with Boeon tapering ends (Fig. 34 A,B) heed oe 3. The body colour of fesh specimen is fight yellow 0 light ak 4, Sexes are separate with sexual dimorphism A eonapore 5. Male is smaller than female, 1S 10 30 em lengt, with pore curved tai, two pineal seine (copulatory organs) and @ loneat aperture 6. Female is long, 20 to 35 em length, with the posterior end straight andl blunt 7. Moi is termina, ricadiate surrounded by tres fps, one ‘median dorsal an! two ventro-aterals 8, The excretory pore issmall and situated mid-venrally, & litle behing the mouth 9. Remale possesses a posterior transverse anus an separate -gonopore situated ventrally, 1/3 from the anterior end 10, Ascari is i, no intermediate host, only one ni ey hosts required for the development Ge fee LU. The infection takes place through embryonated ess in contamizated food and water a 12, It causes the disease aseariasis with the symptoms a ed ‘abdominal discomfor, nausea, yomiting, diarthoea ond cole pain Fig. 34. Ascaris nmbricoids: (8) Male, (B) Female PHYLUM ANNELIDA (5) HIRUDINARIA (Cattle Leech) Classification : Kingdom — Animalia — Multicellular holozoic and eukaryotic Branch = — Eumetazoa — Mostly mobile with well defined tissues Grade — Bilateria — _Triploblastie with bilateral symmetry Division — Protostomia — Mouth arses from or near blastopore Section — Bucoelomata — With a true coetom within mesoderm Phylum = — Annelida — _ Metamerically segmented schizocoelous coelomata Class — Hirudinea — _Leeches with fixed number of segments, 33 to34, without parapodia and setae Order Gnathobdeltida — _ Nom-reversibl, three pairs of jaws = Hirudinaria Species — granulosa Comments : 1, Hirudinaria granulosa, the lndian eattle leech, feeds on the blood of cattle visiting freshwater ponds, lakes, tanks, 2. Itisan ectoparasite and has a blood-sucking (sanguivorous) habit, 3. The body is soft and elongated, dorso-ventrally flattened measuring usually 10 to 15 em long. 4. The body colour is olive-green on dorsal surface and orange-yellow on ventral surface. § Ithas 2 fixed number of seements, 3 only and a typical segment is subdivided into five rings or annuli. 6, Anterior five segments bear dorsally five pairs of eyes. + Large segmental Feceptor Organs are present, four pairs on dorsal side and three on the ventral side. 8. Ithas two suckers, anterior sucker and posterior sucker (Fig. 3.5 A, B).identification of Animals ee. i 123 7 Prostomium Mouth Eyes Anterior — ‘sucker aperture Female — genital Aperture , Segmental receptor organs Nephrciopores Anus Postetior sucker | “ Fig. 3 Minuineragramuase: (A) Dorsal view, (8) Ventral ew 9, Anterior sucker is smaller, cup-shaped with the mouth in ts middle. | 10, Posterior sucker is large, muscular and imperforated. I. Both the suckers are primarily meant for adhesion and locomotion. 12, Anus opens mid-dorsally on the 26th segment atthe base of the posterior sucker. 13, The mate genital aperture lies mid-ventrally oa groove between the second and third anal of segment 10 14, The female genital aperture fis mid-venrally in between the second and third annul of segment 11. rodites, clitellum is temporary, there is no larval stage or metamorphosis. lant ‘hirudin’ from salivary glands which prevents the blood cloting ofthe hos. “(6) PHERETIMA (Earthworm) 15, Leeches are hermaph 16. Leeches secrete an anticoagu! Classification : Kingdom — Animalia —— Multicetfular, holozoic and eukaryotic Branch | — Eumetazoa Mostly mobile with well defined tissues Grade _—_ Bilateria —‘riploblastic with bilateral symmetry } Division _— Protostomia Mouth arises from or near blastopore | — Eucoelomata With a true evetom within mesoderm = ee — Metamerically segmented schizocoelous coclomata — Oligochaeta Few setae, no parapodia, head indistinet — Opisthopora Male gonopore behind testes containing segments —_ Pheretima * — posthuma124 Comments 1. Pheretima, the common Indian earthworm, becomes active by night and retires to its burrow 2. It measures about 15 em in length and body clay-coloured consisting of about 100-120 segments. 3, The body is cylindrical, elongated, bilaterally symmetrical with both external and intemal segmentation. 4, The mouth and anus open terminally at the anteri posterior ends respectively. 5, Fleshy lobefold overhanging the mouth is prostomium which is not a true soument (Fig, 3.6) 6. The fist segment is peristomium or bucea bears a crescentic mouth. 7. The elitelium, a cireular, thickened glandular tissue, is present in the segments 14 to 16. 8. All sogments except the first, last and clitellar segments contain chitinous ‘S" shaped setae helping in locomotion. 9, Spermathecal pores are present in the intersegmental grooves of 5/6,6/7, 7/8and 8/9 (4 pairs). 10. The female genital aperture is a minute opening lies on the ‘ventral surface of the 14th segment, 11, The male genital apertures are two in number, sit-tike and lie on the ventro-lateral sides of 18th segment. 12, Earthworms are hermaphrodites or monoceiouss eggs are laid in cocoons secreted by glandular citellum. 13. Development direct without any larval staze. 14, Barthworms are friends of farmers; they help in ploaghing of fields and also inereases the fertility of sol. : is nocturnal, it during the day. ig brown oF jor and 1 segment which G,RLB. New Era Biology Practical (Class x rostomium Mouth FF \ — Peristomium Female genital Spent ings ob Ciitetlum—| fete — — wale genital Genital — a ©) papilao Anus Fig.3.6 Pheretima posthuma: (A) Ventral view, (B) Dorsal view of the prostomium and ‘the first chree segments PHYLUM ARTHROPODA. (7) PALAEMON (Freshwater Prawn) Classification : Multicellular, holozoie and eukaryotic Mostly mobile with well defined tissues Triploblastic with bilateral symmetry Mouth atises from or near blastopore With true coelom within mesoderm Joint-footed animals with chitinous exoskeleton and hacmocoe! Body with dorsal carapace, appendages usually biramous, antennae %° Body 19.segmented, with compound eyes, appendages usually 0s! (Carapace on cephalothorax, first three pairs of thoracic appendages fo"™ Kingdom — Animalia Branch — Eumetazoa Grade — Bilateria Division — Protostomia Section — Eucoelomata Phylum — Arthropoda Class — Crustacea pairs Subclass — Malacostraca segments Order — Decapoda manillipedes Genus — Palaemon Species. — _malcolmsonii Comments : 1. Palaemon inhabits freshwater streams, rivers, ponds and lakes, 2. It isa nocturnal and omnivorous animal, 5 The body is elongated, spindle-shaped and bilaterally symmetrical I measuring about 2: 5 to 40 em.125 Antonnule eyo Rostrum — Mexilipade —— Antenna Fig. 3.7 Paleemon maleolmsonit ieee is dull pale-blue or greenish with brown orange-red patches (deep orange-pink in preserved Body is divided into two distinct parts: an anterior rigid cephalothorax and a posterior flexible abdomen: . Cephalothorax is large, unjointed and covered by a strong shield or carapace, Cephalothorax is formed by the fusion of head comprising six segments and thorax comprising eight seements ‘The carapace extends forward over the head as a long serrated and pointed rostrum (Fig. 3.7) 9, Two prominent eyes carried as long stalks project on both sides of the rostrum, 10. The abdomen consists of six distinc! segments and a postsegmental terminal pointed ‘ Phylum — Echinodermi ae mae i ‘Arms sharply marked off from the cen Ea Smee nicola ‘Arms simple and move transversely Order — Ophiurae oFaentiication of Animals 131 14) ‘ohu} Classification (14) LABEO (Rohu) Kingdom = — Animatia ee = Geese Malticellalar, holozoic and eukaryotic | ere paca — Mostly mobile with well defined tissues Division —Deutsrostoni, ~ Telobiasie with ileal symmetry aRIUtihuier= Aq Chinina Mouth arses some distance avay fo bastopore Seeman Vetaiese ea are ae ao = hee bral column presen eta hace — Wit jaws and paired appendages intact, ssn — Median and paired fins, gills and scaly skin present pe = pe Bony endoskeleton, cycloid oretenoid scales, gil slits with operculum ae Cyprinitrmes, — Air bladder with duct to pharynx, weberian ossicles present Species — rohita Comments : 1, Labeo ¢ohita, commonly known as carp or “rol.” in Hindi, isthe commonest of Indian fish. 2. Itis commonly found in freshwater ponds, rivers, lakes and estuaries. 3, Its chiefly herbivorous and bottom feeder eating on algac and other aquatic plants. 4, Body is moderately elongated and spindle-shaped, attaining a length of more than 90 em. 5. The body colour is bluish black on back, reddish black along the sides and silvery below. 6. Body is covered with thin, rounded, overlapping cycloid scales (Fig. 3.14). Tait Dorsaltn Turk ead ‘Aralfin Pelvicfin Pectoral fin Caudal fin Fig. dst4 Lae rota visible into head, trunk and tile : 7. Th od ee unalone tw: pcng von He no an thick and fringed lips. : inal and bounced by very _ eens a i al meat pai ofr eyes an opr of lage movable il covers or perc. Weiatien bears pir of aby end ears edan dorsal andanal fins nd pied pectoral npc fn Tanks tik ire inka sal ae ed homocercal caudal fin 1B Taisnarow and beara. denly Kd Bam oat lee fr pond cure Foe ata a flooded river during monsoon P= 14, Labeo breeds in 15, It is one of the most delicious fishesDe 192 G.A.B. New Era Biology Practical (Class x 15) RANA (Indian Bull Frog) Multiceltular, holozoie and eukaryotic Mostly mobile with well defined tissues Triploblastic with bilateral symmetry Mouth arises some distance away from blastopore With dorsal tubular nerve cord, notochord and pharyngeal pouches Vertebral column present ‘With jaws and paired appendages ‘of pentadactyle limbs; cornified skin and lungs = Animalia i - Eumetazoa —_ Bilateria Divisi — Deuterostomia = Phylum © — Chordata = Subphylum — Vertebrata = Group — Gnathostomata - Superclass — Tetrapoda — With two pairs Class - Amphibia — Live in water and land; scaleless moist glandular heart 3-chambered Ord — Anura or Salientia ‘Adults without tail and gills, tympanum present Genus = — Rana Presently called Hoplobatrachus tigerinus Comments 1, Rona tigrina is commonly known as “Indian bull froe”. 2. Ttlives in or near permanent freshwater lakes, ponds and streams. 3. The general body colour above is olive green or brown with dark spots and underparts pale yellow or white, 4, Body is spindle-shaped, pointed anteriorly and rounded posteriorly, measuring upto 20 em in length (Fig. 3.15) Head External nares Eye Trunk - “Tympanum Thigh — Upper arm CCloacal aperture Forelimbs Hindimb Fig. 3.15 Rana tigrina ‘Skin is thin, moist and slimy smooth with longitudinal folds, ‘The head is flat, triangular with a pointed snout having paired nostrils. Eyes are large, spherical and bulging with eyelids and nictitating membrane. ircular tympanum or eardrum lies behind each eye. A small, deeply pigmented ci irs of imbs, The forelimbs are shorter each with four free fingers while hindlimbs are longet ). The trunk possesses two pi cach with five webbed toes. 10. Mouth is terminal without cheeks and lips. Lower jaw without teeth, 11, Frog is very agile and an excellent jumper, 12, It is non-poisonous and harmless. 13. It is carnivorous eating on small worms, molluses, crustaceans and aquatic insects, Being very voracious, it can attack even birds and snakes: 14, Frog is beneficial to farmers as it feeds on many inseets harmful to crops. 15, Itis used for laboratory study as a vertebrate type, eenrawdentification of Animals 135 18) (6. 7 Bee iicaion ("8) CALOTES (Garden Lizara) Kingdom — Animatia ae Eases Multicellular, holozoie and cukaryotie cat Seria — Mostly mobile with well defined tissues a Beet — _Triploblastic with bilateral symmet D = = lateral symmetry Phylum crea Mouth arises some distance away from blastopor Subphylum — Vertebrata — With dorsal tubular nerve ord, notochord and pharyngeal pouches Sno Gracotacn Vertebral column present Superclass Terres With jaws and paiced appendages Class — Sabie With two pairs of pentadactyle limbs; comified skin and lungs ~ Creeping terrestrial tetrapods with dry skin, heart incompletely Pras Coen 4-chambered quamata Exoskeleton of horny epidermal svs!cs verse cloacal aperture, Se Na, male with hemipenes Species versicolor Comments : 1. Calotes, » one of the commonest and most familiar animals, is known as garden lizard, “Gite” in Hindi (Fig. 3.18). 2. It can change its colour like a chameleon; the male’s head often blushes red, hence called as “blood sucker’ Crest of spines — Trunk Giller sec Forelinb indi Fig. 318 Colores versteotor 3. The body colors browns or aroysh olive, with regular ark rown pte brs 1 is Je is larger than female. - rmeasures about SO em in length, the mal E = whole body and tail are covered with sro Heed eles i sn a ery and pyramidal; snout short lmicel and pointed with termina ri co 6. The head is Ss ‘movable eyelids and behind each eye isa shallow car opening povid. ympane ie 7. Byes shielded by moval rest ofapne in mi-onaline Snes ae aso present. oder sie of ean 8. Itpossesses no gular sac, but has @ hind’ . 5s b Jonger than the neck. ears two pairs of pentadactyl limbs, the hind os being longer ssed and bears two pal 9, The trunk is Taterally compre relists, rical, more than twice as fong a heal and body; i does not boak pay wishes aa Eat exaly between trunk and tail 12, Wen bell oe a swallowing food; the hed and neck become brilliant red lizard is ivi ving ood te * ae separate, female buries ts cess in ee 414, Breeding occurs during months May 1°_ — jaentification of Animals — 137 classification Kingdom — Animali Branch is os — Mutticellular, holozoic and: eukaryotic Grade _— Bed mobile with well defined tissues — Triploblastic with bilateral Division — Deuterostomia u feral symmetry Subphylum — Verses — With dorsal tubular nerve cord, notochord and pharyngeal pouches Group — Gnathostomata snine¥etebtal column present Spettans — Shatiectomens — With jaws and paired appendages cue a See, — With ovo pairs of pentadactyle limbs; comified skin and lungs = = Flying vertebrates with feathers, forelimbs modified into wings, 3 toothless, heart 4-chambered ries _ Columbiformes ~ Skin thick and soft, short beaks, crop secreting pigeon milk Species — iva Comments : 1. Columba livia is commonly known as the “Blue rock pigeon’ or “Kabutar”in Hindi, 2. Itis one of our most familiar birds, nesting in old buildings, factory sheds, ‘mosques, railway stations, goods yards, etc. 3. Plumage is slaty grey with glistering metallic green, purple and magenta sheen on the neck and ‘upper breast. 4. There are two prominent bars on the wings. 5. It measures about 30 em in length and body is divisible into head, neck, trunk and tail. 6. Head is small, rounded and mobile with short, straight pointed beak, adapted for feeding grains, pulses, seeds of and grasses (Fig, 3.20). Head ye Gere — Beak Neck Wings Trunk Feathers: Clawed toes Tail feathers Hindi 3.20 Colaba livia beak. : int at the base of upper p 7. A pair of sit-like nostrils are PreSP™ Ts nitish, swollen area called cere. 8, Each nostril is dorsally overhu 9. Head also carries a pair of large, 10. Neck is long and cylindric i. 12. Tail is small, stumpy a0‘ 13. Forelimbs are modified Fae 14, Hindlimbs are covered with ¢P! ing by as yateral and rounded ey@S, ee tterentatd into an anterior thorax and posterior abdomen. ferent f ses a with a cloacal aperture at its base. am chief organs of flight. alae sf sales and modified for perching and bipedal locomotion. ‘Trunk is compact and st138 G.R.B. New Era Biology Practical (Class Xi ORYCTOLAGUS (Rabbit) 1, holozoie and eukaryotic — Animalia — Muliceliata — Eumetazoa = Mostly mobile with well defined tissues = Bilateria Triploblastie with bilateral symmmetTy — Denterostomia Mouth arises some distance asiay from blastopore Jum Chordata eae msl eabalar nerve cord, notochord and pharynges! Pouches ccc — Vertebral column present — Gnathostomata With jaws and paired appendages : : — Tetrapoda With we pairs of pentadacyle Limbs; comified skin ond Tonas — Mammalia eenkle wah. manaaary lands, tairciad, air-reating, Yiviparous heart 4-chambered D — Lagomorpha With a second pair of small upper incisors, no canines 1. Oryetolagus, commonly called rabbit, found in fields, grasslands and open woodlands. 2, They dig a burrow and lead a fossorial life 3. Rabbits are gregarious, herbivorous, crepust cular and coprophagous. Pinnae Eye Snout Vibrissae Neck Forelimb Hindiim Fig. 3.21 Onyetolagus cuniculus 4, Body is covered with a soft uniform hairy coat with dusty-brown or black colour and a white patch under the tail Body is about 40 om long from mouth to anus and is made of four distinct parts viz. head, neck, trunk and tai 6. The head s large and produced anteriorly ino a blunt snout or muzzle bearings fleshy lip, large stiff tactile vibrisse and a pair of oval nostrils. 7, The head also carries a small transverse slit-like mouth and two prominent, oval, pink eyes. ‘The upper lip has a median vertical slit called “hatr-tip’. 9, The trunk is large and cylindrical differentiated into an anterior narrow thorax and a posterior broad (Fig.3.21). 10. Female has 4to 5 pairs of mammary glands with teats along the ventral surface of trunk. 11. The trunk bears 2 pairs of limbs; forelimbs are slender each with 5 are longer and stronger each with 4 clawed toes. clawed fingers while hindlimbs are longs }2. Forelimbs are mainly used for: digging and hindlimbs for leaping. 13. Tail is small and bushy, attached to the hindend of trunk and used as a balancing organ during movements 14. Rabbits are a source of fur and flesh; they form useful laboratory animals for biological studies. abdomenMicellae— Stomatal— pore ~( Epidermal Subsidiary cells cells «) 4.2 (A-F) Guard cells : (A) Stor (©) Guard EXPERIMENT 4.3 Aim: To study the parenchyma” Requirements : Materials of youns : 1g stem of sunflower, Cucurbita, pea, gram, marigold or any herbaccous st n microscope, slides, coverslips, watch glases, petridishes, brush, needle, glycerine saan, fastareca = eee Procedure 1. Cut transverse sections of material with a sharp razor. 2. Select a thin and uniform cut section. 3. Stain the section with safranin-fastgreen combination. 4. Mount a properly stained section in glyceriné rst in low power and then i 5. Examine the slide fi in the high power of microscope.GAB. New Era Biology Practical (Class y — cytoplasm — Nucleus idle lemelia Chloroplast Intercellular space all wal Iercolnlar space. Primary cell wall Fig. 43. (A,B) Parenchyma : (A) Transverse section, (B) Longitudinal section Observations 1. All parenchymatous cells turn green. 2, The cells are usually isodiametric, 4. Cefls may either be closely packed or show small intercellular spaces (Fig. 4.3 A, B). 4, The cell walls are thin, These are made of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectic substances. 5. Cells are living and therefore contain cytoplasmic organelles and a nucleus. 6. They generally act as storage tissue and hence reserve foods are present. 7, Parenchyma is the most common tissue. It forms the framework of all plant organs and tissues like cortex, pith of roots and stems, mesophyll of leaf and floral parts. EXPERIMENT 4.4 Aim: To study the collenchyma / Requirements : Materials of stem ofLeonurus, Calon opis and sunflower, sbarp razor, microscope, slides, coverslips, watch lasses, petridishes, brush, needle, elycerine, saftanin, fastareen, blotting paper, water, etc. Procedure 1, Cut transverse sections of material with a sharp razor. 2, Select a thin and uniform cut section. 3, Stain the section with safranin-fastgreen combination, 4, Mount a properly stained section in glycerine 5. Examine the slide first in low power and then in the high power of microscope. Observations 1 Cells occur characteristically in the hypodermis (the layer below the. i ay epidermi either as homogeneous layer or in patches. They are absent in roots and monocot: iia ‘Gomes 2, The cell shape varies from isodiametric to elongated. Fi go 'walls are unevenly thickened. The walls are made of cellulose, pectic and other wall substances but no lignin. the thickening occurs in the corners, these are called \ til i 5 i e thickening a leasodto theron othe walls bonding he nelle ee ne achcia Fig. 44 B). Ifthe thickening appear on the tangential wall, itis calledlameltar ck mae 4 40. 5, Collenchymatous cells are living and have act eg itive protoplast at maturity. They are capable of further growth a 6. When chloroplasts are present it takes part in photosynthesis, Their main function is to give mechanical su,uty. of Plant and Anima) Tissues — Thickening — Vacuole (©) ollenchyma yma Fig. 4.4 (A.C) Types of collenchyms = (A) Any (B) Lacunar collenehyma, (C) Lamellar EXPERIMENT 4.5 Aim: To study the sclerenchyma~~ Requirements :Material of stems of sunflower and Cucurbita sharp razor, microscope, slides, coverslips, watch gh , slides, coverslips, watch glasses petridishes, brush, needle, saftanin, fastgreen, blotting paper, water, ete Procedure 1. Cut transverse sections of ‘material with a sharp razor. 2. Select a thin and uniform cut section. 3 Stain the section with safranin-fastgreen combination. 4, Mount a properly stained section in glycerine. 5. Examine the slide first in low power ‘and then in the high power of microscope. Observations 1. Sclerenchymatous cells are dead and devoid of living protoplasm. These cells are thick-walled, ignified with simple or ordered pits on their walls. Cell lumens are narrow and sometimes almost ‘obliterated. |. Sclerenchyma provides mechanical strength to the plant body. ‘Sclerenchyma is of two types— fibresand sclereidsor sclerotic cells.G.A.B. New Era Biology Practical (Ciag, Ds — Simpl pit par Narrow lumen Lignified thick wall Fig. 4.5 (A-D) Types of sclerenchyma : (A) Single fibre in longitudinal section, (8) Group of fibres in longitudinal section, (C) Sclerenchymatous fibres in transverse section, (D) Sclereid 6. Fibres are pointed and needle-like (Fig. 4.5 A) and occur in groups (Fig. 4.5 B), as sheets or as cylinders in various pars of the plant body. 7. Fibres are polygonal in transverse section (Fig, 4.5 C) and long narrow with pointed and interlocked ends n longitudinal section (Fig. 4.5 B) 8. Sclereids are usually isodiametric, polyhedral or slightly elongated. 9, Sclereids are very thick-walled, hard and strongly lignified (Fig. 4.5 D). 10. Lignification is so extensive that cell Jumen is often almost obliterated. 1. Sclereids give firmness and hardness to the parts ofa plant. 12. Sclereids are commonly present in pear fruits, seed coat of Phaseolus, Pisum and petiole of Nymphaea. EXPERIMENT 4.6 To study the structure of xylem equirements : Material of stems of sunflower, Xanthium, maize, etc., cr0scoPe edure : ‘ 1. Cut transverse sections and longitudinal sections of the material. 2. For studying the structure of xylem, sections alone are not sufficient. Along with sections macerated wood ele should be observed in order to get an idea i = aividual XY sea get an idea about the shape, size and aature of wall thickenings of individu! ™ 3. Stain the section with safranin-fastgreen combination. 4, Mount a properly stained section in glycerine, ‘5, Examine the slide first in low power and then in the high power of micros: ervations a a iS130 G.RB. New Era Biology Practical (Class xj jined there in. wulf mucl and sand from the floor of the sea to digest the food conta “ development indirect; the larva is termed 1. Sexes are separate, mature sex cells are passed out through genital bursae: ~ophiopluteus. PHYLUM CHORDATA (13) SCOLIODON (Shark or Dogfish) Classification : Multicellular, holozoic and eukaryotic Kingdom Animalia = Branch Eumetazoa — Mostly mobile with well defined tissues Grade ilateria —Triploblastic with bilateral symmetry Divisio Deuterostomia Mouth arises some distance away from blastopore Phylum Chordata With dorsal tubular nerve cord, notochord and pharyngeal pouches Subphy! ertebrata Vertebral column present With jaws and paired appendages Median and paired fins, gills and scaly skin present Cartilaginous endoskeleton, placoid scales, gill-slits without operculum Gill slits lateral, spiracles small, pectoral fins moderate roup Gnathostomata Superclass — — Chondrichthes Scoliodon sorrakowah Comments : 1. Scoliodon is.a marine, carnivorous, predacious cartilaginous fish feeding on worms, crustaceans and other fishes. Body is elongated, streamlined or spindle shaped and laterally compressed, measuring about 30-60 cm in length 3. Body colour is grey on dorsal and lateral sides and white on ventral side. 4, Body surface is rough owing to backwardly projecting microscopic placoid scales embedded in the skin. The body is divisible into three regions : head, trunk and tail (Fig. 3.13). Saudal fin Trunk —Dorsalfin Lateral line Ventral Pelvic Pectoral Git fin fin ft slits Mouth Fig.313 Scoliodon sorrakowah 6, Head is dorso-ventrally flattened and produced in front into a snout or rostrum 7. Head bears a yentrai mouth, a pair of nostrils and a pair of prominent circular eyes with narrow and vertical pupils. 8. A little behind each eye, there are five vertically elongated external gill slits or branchial clefts 9, Trunk is long end possesses unpaired median fins (Ist dorsal, 2nd dorsal and anal or ventral) and paired pectoral and vie fins Tr faint sensory lateral line runs along either lateral side of trunk and tail ‘Trunk gradually tapers forming a tail with heterocercal caudal fin A cloacal aperture is situated at the base of the tail between two pelvic fins, Sexes are separcle. Each pelvic fin of male possesses a copulatory structure called clasper. Fertilization is internal; ovoviviparous with yolk sac placenta Shark is eaten ands flesh is highly nutritious, The dried skin called shagreen is commonly used to polish furniture and m