MINNESOTA MULTIPHASIC PERSONALITY INVENTORY (MMPI)

Introduction

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a tool used to understand

personality traits and different types of psychological problems. Starke Hathaway and J.C.
McKinley first developed it back in 1939 but the MMPI has gone through a few revisions.
However, this original version is still widely used today and it consists of 550 true/false items.

History

1943: MMPI

· The MMPI is different from other tests. It does not follow specific theories, like the five-factor
model or 16 personalities. Instead, it looks at 10 mental health scales to diagnose and treat
illnesses.

· The MMPI used true/false questions to understand personality traits. They gave these
questions to people with and without psychological disorders and found patterns to
distinguish between the groups.

· The primary concern with the test is that the original control group had a relatively small
sample size.

1989: MMPI-2

· The MMPI-2 is for adults (18+) and has 576 true/false items taking 1-2 hours.

· Used in a variety of settings, including mental health, medical, and employment.

· The MMPI-2 was standardized using a group of 2,600 individuals from more diverse
backgrounds (Gregory, 2004).

· Changes were made to some items and added sub-scales to better help clinicians interpret
the MMPI results.

1992: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-Adolescent (MMPI-A)

· The MMPI-A has 478 items and uses the same 10 scales as the MMPI-2 for scoring
(Kaemmer, 1992).

· It was developed to include individuals aged 14 to 18.

· MMPI-A is similar to the adult version, but it was created to include more topics that are
relevant to adolescents, such as friendships and school.

2008: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2-Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF)

· The MMPI-2-RF has been put through extensive testing in real-life situations. It is designed
to identify and differentiate various clinical symptoms and broader diagnoses.

· It has 338 questions, fewer than MMPI-2, and only takes 35-50 minutes.

2016: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-Adolescent-Restructured Form (MMPI-A-RF)

· This test aimed to address the various criticisms that were raised against the original
adolescent multiphasic inventory.

· This test has just 241 true-false items, which is less than half of the original MMPI-A. It is
designed to address the challenges of adolescent attention span and concentration.

· This version aims to improve discriminant validity, which means making sure that different
factors do not overlap.

2020: MMPI-3

· This test has 335 statements that you can answer as true or false. It usually takes around
35 to 50 minutes to complete.

· The MMPI-3 is an updated version of the MMPI instruments. It's a reliable and scientifically
backed tool used for psychological assessment.

· The test is designed to represent the diverse population of the United States, with a sample
of 810 men and 810 women aged 18 and older, based on the U.S. Census Bureau's
projections for 2020.

Development of MMPI Test/Test Construction

● Empirical criterion keying was the most important approach taken during the
development of the MMPI. This refers to the development, selection and evaluation of
items in a scale which is based on an external reference criteria.
● Items were assembled from a large pool of items (1,000) from the older personality scale,
clinical reports, case histories, psychiatric interviewing manuals, and clinical experience.
● The pool of items were administered upon non-clinical individuals and psychiatric
patients.
● The test makers analyzed the way in which each of the clinical groups responded to the
tests, and then applied this information to create a set of different clinical scales.

How the MMPI is Used

● Mental Health Treatment/Clinical Setting - The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality

Inventory is used by mental health professionals as one source of information on a
patient's psychological status, together with observations and discussions. The test is
 used to identify mental health disorders—such as depression, anxiety, or
schizophrenia—as a first step toward a treatment plan.
● Forensic Evaluations - In the field of law, the MMPI is used to assess individuals
involved in legal cases, such as defendants, witnesses or persons undergoing a child
custody assessment, for forensic purposes. It provides information on the individual's
psychological functioning, which may be of use to judicial decision making.
● Personnel Selection - In some organizations, particularly for roles that require specific
personality traits or psychological characteristics, the MMPI is used as part of their
selection process.
● Educational Setting

Requirements of the Test Takers

● MMPI is intended for 18 and older.

● Has a sufficient understanding of the language and a good reading comprehension.
● Test takers must have a good cognitive ability.
● Test takers must be in a stable mental state at the time of assessment.
● Ability to Provide Informed Consent
● Honesty and Cooperation
● No Significant Visual or Hearing Impairments

Normative Sample

The sample size used was relatively small and consisted of two distinct groups: psychiatric
patients and non-psychiatric individuals. Moreover, the majority of participants were young,
white, and married individuals from the rural Midwest. As a result, the highly limited
demographic representation within this norm group poses a significant challenge when
attempting to generalize the findings to a more diverse population.

Validity Scales

The MMPI scale not only examines its effectiveness as a tool, but the instrument also includes
validity scales to prevent exaggerated, minimized, or false responses.

Validity Scales Description Assesses

MMPI (The first four “content scales” judge the validity of the test attempt).

Cannot Say “Cannot say or (?)” The ? scale raw score is the number of test
Scale (CNS) (?) questions a person does not answer.

Lie (L) Scale Lie Client “Faking good”

Lie scale aims to identify individuals who are
intentionally trying to lie on the MMPI items. The
 scale measures general attitudes that are culturally
admirable but highly uncommon as a way of testing
whether respondents are deliberately trying to
elevate their status and make themselves look like a
better person than they actually are.

F scale “Frequency or Client “Faking bad” (first half of the test)

Confusion” F scale attempts to detect abnormal ways of
answering each of the test items (for example, if a
person were intentionally randomly answering the
questions on the test). It tries to understand whether
a participant has strange thoughts, peculiar
experiences, feelings of alienation, and a variety of
other unlikely beliefs and expectations.

K scale “K-correction or Denial or Evasiveness

Defensiveness” It is a subtle scale; it means it’s not obvious like the
L scale. It measures how much the examinee
wished to "look good" on the test.

MMPI 2

F - K index “F minus K index “ The index number is obtained by subtracting the

raw score of K from the raw score of F. It is to detect
faking bad and faking good profiles. It measures
honesty responses of the participants whether it is
not faking good or faking bad.

Fb “ F Back” Client “Faking bad” (last half of the test)

VRIN-r “Variable Response Inconsistent reporting of items

Inconsistency” Answering similar or opposite questions pairs
inconsistently.

TRIN-r “True Response Careless reporting of items

Inconsistency” Answering items All true/All false

S “Superlative Improved upon K scale-“Appearing excessively

Self- good”
Representation ”

Fp-r “Infrequent
Psychopathology
Responses” Overreporting of infrequent responses compared to
those with psychopathy
 Fs-r “Infrequent Somatic
Responses”
Overreporting of infrequent responses compared to
medical patients

F-r “Infrequent Overreporting of infrequent responses

Responses” compared to the norm

FBS-r “Symptom Validity” Overreporting of nonvalid symptoms compared to

both physical and mental standard symptomatology.

RBS “Response Bias” Overreporting associated with a statistically

invalidated presentation of the disease.

Clinical Scales
MMPI 2

Scale 1 Hs Hypochondriasis ● Consist 33 items

● It measures excessive
worry about physical
health or bodily symptoms.

Scale 2 D Depression ● Consists 60 items

● It measures the degree of
poor self-concept,
pessimism, sadness and
lack of hope (depressive
symptoms) .

Scale 3 Hy Conversion Hysteria ● Consists 60 items which is

divided into two
subgroups:
1. Centering around
bodily problems
2. Rejecting the
possibility that the
person is in any
way maladjusted or
has problems
● It measures the tendency
 to exaggerate emotional
distress into physical
symptoms.

Scale 4 Pd Psychopathic Deviate ● Consist 50 items

● It records or asses
anti-social tendencies and
social deviance
● It concerns social
imperturbability and a lack
of general social
adjustment, such as family
or authority problems, and
social alienation.

Scale 5 Mf Masculinity and Femininity ● Contains 60 items

● It assesses stereotyping
masculinity and femininity
of interest or behavior.
● It records aesthetic
interests, vocational
choices, and learned
behavior.
● High raw scores are
elevations for men and low
points for women.

Scale 6 Pa Paranoia ● Consists 40 items scale

which is divided into 3
subgroups:
1. Ideas of external
influence
2. Poignancy
(something that
affects you like
sharp feelings,
deep feelings that
makes you sad.
3. Moral virtue
● It evaluates paranoid
ideation, suspiciousness,
and mistrust.
● It concerns the level of
trust, suspiciousness and
sensitivity.

Scale 7 Pt Psychasthenia ● Consists 48 items

● It measures anxiety,
usually of a long-term
nature.
 ● It concerns anxiety and
dread, low self-confidence,
undue sensitivity, and
moodiness.

Scale 8 Sc Schizophrenia ● Consists 78 items

● It measures whether the
patient has bizarre
thoughts, peculiar
perceptions, poor familial
relationships, difficulties in
concentration, impulse
control, lack of deep
interests, questions of
self-worth, sexual
difficulties, and
experiences of social
alienation.
● It concerns dealing with
social alienation, peculiar
perceptions, complaints of
family alienation, and
difficulties in concentration
and impulse control.

Scale 9 Ma Hypomania ● Consists 49 items

● It measures
self-centeredness,
grandiosity, and irritability.

Scale 0 Si Social Introversion ● Consists 70 items

● It measures the social
introversion and
extroversion of a person
● It concerns uneasiness in
social situations,
insecurities, worries, and
lack of social participation.

MMPI-3

With new norms available in both English and Spanish, along with updated items and
scales, the MMPI-3, consisting of 335 items, leverages the established legacy and
robustness of the MMPI instruments. It offers a modernized, empirically-validated
standard for psychological evaluation, suitable for various contexts such as mental
health, medical, forensic, and public safety settings..
 Test Authors: Yossef Ben-Porath, Ph.D., and Auke Tellegen, Ph.D.

Administration: Computer, CD, or paper-and-pencil

Length: 335 True-False items

Minimum Reading Level: 5th grade (Lexile average), 4.5 grade (Flesch-Kincaid)

Norm Group: Updated for the first time since the mid-1980s and designed to match
U.S. Census Bureau demographic projections for 2020, the MMPI-3 normative sample
includes 810 men and 810 women ages 18 and older from diverse communities
throughout the United States.

Validity Scale
This assess the test-taker's response style and whether they have provided valid responses.
These scales help identify issues such as faking good or faking bad. Interpretation of validity
scales is crucial for determining the overall validity of the test results.

CRIN Combined Response Inconsistency Combination of random and fixed

inconsistent responding

VRIN Variable Response Inconsistency Random responding

TRIN True Response Inconsistency Fixed responding

F Infrequent Consistency Responses infrequent in the general

population

Fp Infrequent Psychopathology responses Responses infrequent in psychiatric

populations

Fs Infrequent Somatic Responses Somatic complaints infrequent in

medical patient populations

FBS Symptom Validity Scale Non-credible somatic and cognitive

complaints

RBS Response Bias Scale Exaggerated memory complaints

L Uncommon Virtues Rarely claimed moral attributes or

activities

K Adjustment Validity Uncommonly high level of

psychological adjustment

Higher Order Scales (H-O)

EID Emotional / Internalizing Dysfunction Problems associated with mood and

 affect

THD Thought Dysfunction Problems associated with disordered

thinking

BXD Behavioral / Externalizing Dysfunction Problems associated with

under-controlled behavior

Supplementary Scales:

This provides additional information beyond the main clinical scales. They assess specific
content areas or provide supplementary indices of psychological functioning.

Restructured Clinical (RC) Scales

RCd Demoralization (DEM) General unhappiness and

dissatisfaction

RC1 Somatic Complaints (SOM) Diffuse physical health complaints

RC2 Low Positive Emotions (LPE) Lack of positive emotional

responsiveness

RC4 Antisocial Behavior (ASB) Rule breaking and irresponsible

behavior

RC6 Ideas of Persecution (PER) Self-referential beliefs that others pose

a threat

RC7 Dysfunctional Negative Emotions Maladaptive anxiety, anger, irritability

(DNE)

RC8 Aberrant Experiences (ABX) Unusual perceptions or thoughts

associated with thought dysfunction

RC9 Hypomanic Activation (HPM) eractivation, aggression, impulsivity,

and grandiosity

Specific Problems Scales (SP)

MLS Malaise Overall sense of physical debilitation,

poor health

NUC Neurological Complaints Dizziness, weakness, paralysis, loss of

balance, etc.

EAT Eating Concerns Problematic eating behaviors

COG Cognitive Complaints Memory problems, difficulties

concentrating

Internalizing scale
This assesses tendencies to experience internalizing symptoms such as depression, anxiety,
and somatic complaints. It provides information about emotional distress and vulnerability to
mood and anxiety disorders.

SUI Suicidal/Death Ideation Direct reports of suicidal ideation and

recent attempts

HLP Helplessness/Hopelessness Belief that goals cannot be reached or

problems solved

SFD Self-Doubt Lack of self-confidence, feelings of

uselessness

NFC Inefficacy Belief that one is indecisive and

inefficacious

STR Stress Problems involving stress and

nervousness

WRY Worry Excessive worry and preoccupation

CMP Compulsivity Engaging in compulsive behaviors

ARX Anxiety-Related Experiences Multiple anxiety-related experiences

such as catastrophizing, panic, dread,
and intrusive ideation

ANP Anger Proneness Becoming easily angered, impatient

with others

BRF Behavior-Restricting Fears Fears that significantly inhibit normal

behavior

Externalizing Scales
This assesses specific content areas of psychological functioning. They provide a more
detailed understanding of the individual's personality and behavioral patterns.

FML Family Problems Conflictual family relationships

JCP Juvenile Conduct Problems Difficulties at school and at home,

stealing

SUB Substance Abuse Current and past misuse of alcohol

and drugs

IMP Impulsivity Poor impulse control and nonplanful

behavior

ACT Activation Heightened excitation and energy level

AGG Aggression Physically aggressive, violent behavior

 CYN Cynicism Non-self-referential beliefs that others
are bad and not to be trusted

Interpersonal Scales

SFI Self-Importance Beliefs related to having special

talents and abilities

DOM Dominance Being domineering in relationships

with others

DSF Disaffiliativeness Disliking people and being around

them

SAV Social Avoidance Not enjoying and avoiding social

events

SHY Shyness Feeling uncomfortable and anxious in

the presence of others

PSY-5 (Personality Psychopathology Five) Scales

AGGR Aggressiveness Instrumental, goal-directed aggression

PSYC Psychoticism Disconnection from reality

DISC Disconstraint Under-controlled behavior

NEGE Negative Emotionality / Neuroticism Anxiety, insecurity, worry, and fear

INTR Introversion / Low Positive Social disengagement and anhedonia

Emotionality-Revised

Scoring

Raw scores are calculated based on the number of responses that are indicative of specific
personality traits, psychopathological symptoms, or response styles. Each response contributes
to the scoring of multiple scales within the MMPI-3.

Conversion

Raw scores are converted to T-scores to facilitate interpretation. T-scores have a mean of 50
and a standard deviation of 10 in the general population. Higher T-scores indicate higher levels
of the construct being measured.
Administration

● Preparation - Ensure that the test environment is quiet and free from distractions.
● Ethical Considerations - Administrators of the MMPI must adhere to ethical guidelines
established by professional organizations such as the American Psychological
Association (APA).
● Explanation of Instructions -Before beginning the test, explain the instructions to the
test taker clearly and thoroughly.
● Timing - There is typically no time limit for completing the MMPI.
● Scoring - Once the test is completed, the responses need to be scored.
● Interpretation -Interpreting the results of the MMPI requires expertise in clinical
psychology.
● Feedback - After interpreting the results, clinicians provide feedback to the individual
who took the test.
● Confidentiality - It's crucial to maintain confidentiality throughout the administration and
interpretation process.

Standardization
The raw scores on the scales are transformed into a standardized metric known as T-score with
the mean average of 50 and the standard deviation of 10.

Scoring

● Hand scoring (paper and pencil format)

● Computer scoring (electronically)
- Scanning
- Following computerized scoring
Converting raw scores to T-scores
● Uniform T-scores: Clinical, RC, Content, Content Component, and PSY-5
● Linear T-scores: in all other scales
1. Calculate the individual's raw scores for each scale by summing the responses to the
items corresponding to each scale. Each item on the MMPI is scored as either "True" (1
point) or "False" (0 points).
2. Convert the raw scores to T-scores using standardized tables or computerized scoring
software. T-scores have a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10 in the general
population.
T-Score = 50 (10*(X-M)/SD)
3. Interpret the T-scores for each scale. T-scores above 65 are typically considered
elevated and may indicate clinically significant levels of the trait or symptom being
measured.

Sample:
Strengths

● Clinical Significance - The MMPI results can provide valuable information for clinicians
in treatment planning, monitoring treatment progress, and making diagnostic decisions.
(Lamoreux, 2022)
● Validity - Despite criticisms, the MMPI has garnered extensive validity through research.
The meanings of various profile code types have been extensively explored, aiding in
assessing and predicting specific issues. For instance, elevations on Scales 4 (Pd) and 9
(Ma) have been linked to impulsivity, aggression, substance abuse, and sensation
seeking in adolescent inpatients. Additionally, improvement in psychotherapy has been
predicted based on elevations on Anxiety (ANX) and Depression (DEP) content scales.
Additionally, high scores on Scale 0 (Si) are associated with low self-esteem, social
anxiety, and low sociability. These validity studies contribute to the MMPI's enduring
popularity among clinicians.
● Reliability - There are moderately high levels of reliability and stability found for all
scales. Reliability values ranged from .71 to .84; stability values ranged from .63 to .86.
 These findings are based on thousands of adult subjects from college, psychiatric,
medical, alcohol or drug rehabilitation, and prison populations. (Hunsley et al., 1988)
● Comprehensive - The MMPI assesses a broad range of psychological constructs,
including depression, anxiety, paranoia, and schizophrenia, among others, making it
useful for diagnosing various mental health conditions. (Floyd & Gupta, 2023)

Weaknesses

● Cultural bias - Some of the items on the MMPI may be more applicable or meaningful to
Western culture. Potentially leading to biased results if not appropriately adjusted or
interpreted.
● Lengthy - The MMPI is a lengthy assessment, which may lead to respondent fatigue
and potentially affect the accuracy or validity of their responses, particularly toward the
end of the test.
● Overpathologizing - The MMPI tends to emphasize the presence of psychopathology,
which could lead to overdiagnosis or pathologizing normal variations in behavior or
personality. (Ruhl, 2024)
● Complex Interpretation - Interpreting MMPI-3 results requires specialized training and
expertise. The assessment produces a large amount of data, including numerous scales
and subscales, which can be challenging for clinicians to interpret accurately without
adequate training.
● Cost and Accessibility - Acquiring the MMPI-3 and its associated materials typically
involves a financial cost, which may be prohibitive for some clinicians or organizations.
Additionally, access to training and resources for interpreting MMPI-3 results may be
limited in some settings, impacting its widespread use and accessibility.