The International Journal of Multi-Disciplinary Research

ISSN: 3471-7102, ISBN: 978-9982-70-318-5

FACTORS INFLUENCING FOOD SECURITY IN

HOUSEHOLDS IN URBAN VILLAGES AND SHANTY
COMPOUNDS IN ZAMBIA
(Paper ID: CFP/1125/2019)

Mr. Closby Mutenje

mutenje@yahoo.com
School of Business/Humanities
Information and Communication University, Lusaka, Zambia.

ABSTRACT
The number of people without enough food on a regular basis remains stubbornly high, at over 800 million, and is not
falling significantly world over. Over 60% of the world's undernourished people live in Asia, and a quarter in Africa
(WFP, 2010). The proportion of people hungry, however, is greater in Africa (33%) than Asia (16%). The latest FAO
figures indicate that there are 22 countries, 16 of which are in Africa, in which the undernourishment prevalence rate is
over 35%. And Zambia is among the top 10 of those countries (FAO, 2010). In the period beginning 1960 to 1973,
Zambia experienced high urbanization as many people left rural areas to cities in search for employment and better
conditions of living both those with skills and those without, educated and uneducated. Although the World Bank
reclassified Zambia as a middle-income nation in 2011, 63 percent of Zambians live on less than US$1.25 per day (U.S.
Department of State 2011).
The purpose of this study was to find out the factors influencing food security situation in the households of shanty
compounds and urban villages in Kasama district. The study focused on the critical analysis of the influence of the
following independent variables on food security in households; the type of occupation of the head of the household,
engagement in the cultivation of crops by a household, accessibility to loan facilities and farming inputs by a household.
This study adopted an analytical research design and consisted of both qualitative and quantitative research. The target
populations were a sample of all the households in urban villages or shanty compounds in Kasama District. A sample of
seven (7) urban villages or shanty compounds were selected using simple random sampling method out all the twenty
(20) compounds and urban villages around Kasama District. For quantitative data, a sample of 84 households, 12
households from each compound was randomly selected and for qualitative data seven village headmen or civic leaders
were purposely selected as key informants. Structured questionnaires were administered on 84 household heads and a
guided interview was conducted on the seven (7) key informants.
Quantitative data was analysed using STATA computer software package while qualitative data was analysed through
comparison and contrasting. A multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to test for any relationship
(association) between the independent and dependent variables.
The results showed contrary to the hypothesis which stated that household heads whose means of livelihood were in the
informal sector were likely to suffer from food insecurity more than those in the formal employment, the results achieved
revealed that those who were in formal employment suffered from food insecurity more than those whose means of
livelihood were in the informal sector. Further findings revealed that involvement in food production did not really
influence the food security of a household (51.85%) of those households who go grew crops and (63.33%) of those who
did not grow food had stable levels of food security compared to 48.15% and 36.67% respectively suffered from food
insecurity. The study also revealed that there was a seeming influence by accessibility to farming inputs on the levels of
food security of a household. Finally, it also revealed that there was a slight relationship between accessibility to a loan
facility and food security of a household. Therefore, the less the access to loan facilities by a household the lower the
level of its food security. Generally, findings show that the quantitative findings generally indicated an overview of
stable levels of foods security in households of the sampled villages and compounds which is contrary to the qualitative
findings which showed that most households in these compound and villages were suffering from food insecurity. This
implies that the identified independent variable may not have been the variables influencing food insecurity. There could
have been other variables that had influenced the levels of food security in households.
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 The International Journal of Multi-Disciplinary Research
ISSN: 3471-7102, ISBN: 978-9982-70-318-5

CHAPTER ONE The stages of food insecurity range from food

secure situations to full-scale famine. “Famine and
INTRODUCTION hunger are both rooted in food security. Food
This paper is divided in four chapters. Chapter one insecurity can be categorised as either chronic or
presents a background to the research problem. It transitory. Chronic food insecurity translates into a
then situates and articulates the research problem. It high degree of vulnerability to famine and hunger
then highlights the research objectives, hypothesis ensuring food security presupposes elimination of
and the significance of the study. Chapter two that vulnerability. (Chronic) hunger is not famine. It
highlights literature review on the food security, is similar to undernourishment and is related to
theoretical framework, personal critique and poverty existing mainly in shanty compounds.
establishment of the gap. Chapter three outlines the The Zambian government had committed itself to
research methodology, triangulation, and ethical achieving the Millennium Development Goals
consideration, scope of the study and limitation of (MDGs) and the Sixth National Development Plan
the study. And finally, chapter four presents, data for 2011 – 2015 giving reassuring priority to
analysis under this it outlines presentation of poverty reduction. The task will be formidable as
findings, interpretation and discussion of findings, Zambia has so far failed to make significant
conclusion, implications and finally a progress on the eradication of poverty and hunger.
recommendation. The majority of the population (76%) live on less
than $1 a day, and 94% have less than $2 (World
BACKGROUND Bank, 2011). Although harvests have been good for
This research was intended to investigate the factors the past two years, food security remains very
that influence food security in households of shanty sensitive and assistance from the World Food
compounds and surrounding villages in Kasama Programme remains in place. There is a growing
District. Two commonly used definitions of food gap between the rich and the poor. The elite (in the
security come from the UN’s Food and Agriculture cities) have adopted a western standard of living
Organization (F.A.O) and the United States and put great emphasis on material wealth while the
Department of Agriculture (USDA). poor mostly concentrated in shanty compounds are
Food security exists when all people, at all times, left to wallow in poverty and food insecurity (ibid:
have physical and economic access to sufficient, 98).
safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs Food insecurity has been described as “a condition
and food preferences for an active and healthy life in which people lack basic food intake to provide
(FAO). them with the energy and nutrients for fully
Food security for a household means access by all productive lives. “(Hunger Task Force in 2005) ,
members at all times to enough food for active, 3.5 million Zambians, which includes 2.7 million
health life. Food security includes at a minimum; adults and 1.2 million children, lived in households
the ready availability of nutritionally adequate and that are more likely to experience food insecurity
safe foods, and an assured ability to acquire such as female headed and those that reside either in
acceptable foods in socially acceptable ways that is, principal cities especially in slum and shanty
without resorting to emergency food supplies, compounds or within rural areas ( World Bank,
scavenging, stealing, or other coping strategies World Development Report, 2006). The USDA
(USDA). report asks the question, “How often were people
hungry in households that were food insecure?”
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ISSN: 3471-7102, ISBN: 978-9982-70-318-5

Around 24 percent of people reported going hungry structures as places where to sleep especially near
at least once a year, while on any given day the where they worked. This eventually bred today’s
figure is estimated to be between 9 percent and 15 shanty compounds like Kalingalinga, Kanyama,
percent. This profile of livelihoods rarely escapes Msisi etc. in Lusaka and other similar compounds
poverty, lacks capital to invest, and is chronically, and urban villages in other towns in the country.
vulnerable to fluctuating prices or unfavourable These started as ungazetted compounds without
weather, especially drought-factors which all proper sanitation and other important social
contribute to food insecurity. Zambia has been amenities but today have been gazette and accepted
further affected by the distortion of labour resources without much improvement. These compounds are
created by HIV/AIDS (World Bank, World now found in all towns in Zambia near factories or
Development Report, 2006). This research was industries to provide similar services to low density
intended to reveal factors that influence food residential areas and also work as casual workers in
security in these households in Zambia. some industries and factories. But still others like
government employees now due to lack of
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM accommodation live in these compounds.
The number of people without enough food to eat According to the World Food Program (WFP),
on a regular basis remains stubbornly high, at over “poverty and food insecurity are widespread” in
800 million, and is not falling significantly world both urban and rural Zambia (WFP, 2010). Despite
over. Over 60% of the world's undernourished having some of the world’s most fertile soil,
people live in Asia, and a quarter in Africa. The Zambia’s subsistence farmers, 65 percent of whom
proportion of people who are hungry, however, is are women (AfDB, 2006), depend on rainfall and
greater in Africa (33%) than Asia (16%). The latest hoe cultivation to produce crops that are highly
FAO figures indicate that there are 22 countries, 16 vulnerable to flood and drought. Although the
of which are in Africa, in which the World Bank reclassified Zambia as a middle-
undernourishment prevalence rate is over 35%. And income nation in 2011, 63 percent of Zambians live
Zambia is among the top 10 of such countries. In on less than US$1.25 per day (U.S. Department of
the period beginning 1960 to 1973, Zambia State 2011). International Financial Institutions
experienced high urbanisation as many people left (IFIs), including the World Bank, have contributed
rural areas to cities in search for employment and to Zambia’s food insecurity. In the second half of
better conditions of living both those with skills and the 1980s, they pushed the Zambian government to
those without, educated and uneducated. This led to adopt neoliberal IFI structural adjustment policies
overcrowding of cities and the eventual growth of including trade liberalization, the privatization of
shanty compounds (Sakala and Chanda, 1999). Not state enterprises, and the removal of government
all the people who moved to the cities found subsidies and price controls (Kodamaya, 2011). IFIs
employment in the formal sector many resorted to claimed these measures would “ultimately” reduce
the informal sector. Chigunta et al, (2000:4) state poverty, but Zambia’s economic growth stagnated.
that many people got employed as servants or Meanwhile, the Zambian government significantly
maids, garden boys and watchmen while others reduced its role and budget for agriculture, leading
went to trade in the markets and bars or taverns. to the “deterioration in public service delivery” that
And because in the cities or near industries or “hurt most smallholder farmers dependent on public
factories there was no any ready accommodation for services who were ill-prepared to face the
these people, they started making makeshift challenges and exploit the emerging market
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 The International Journal of Multi-Disciplinary Research
ISSN: 3471-7102, ISBN: 978-9982-70-318-5

opportunities that come with market liberalization” PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

(WB, 2006). The poor faced lower wages, higher This research was intended to bring out the factors
rates of unemployment and higher food prices that influence the levels of food security in
(Logie and Woodroffe, 1993) leading to widespread households in shanty compounds and urban villages
malnutrition. Due to political unrest, the Zambian in Zambia. Households in Shanty compounds in
government later abandoned these policies Zambia face a lot of challenges some of which
(Kodamaya, 2011). But the damage had already affect the food security of these households or they
been done. While privatization dramatically hamper the maintenance of food security in these
increased agricultural exports (WB, 2006), households. It was just important that these factors
Zambia’s neo-liberal policies were particularly were bought out and revealed to the stakeholders.
devastating for both rural and urban people; as
unemployment rose, the informal sector shifted RESEARCH OBJECTIVES.
labor into seasonal, low-paid agricultural wage General Objective.
work (Floro and Schaefer, 1998). Neo-liberal The general objective of this research was to find
policies also led to an “increasing shift to individual out the factors influencing food security in
[land] ownership resulting from the process of households of Shanty compounds and urban
modernization and commercialization,” which villages in Zambia (case study of Kasama district).
marginalized women who did not have the right to Specific Objective.
land ownership, despite carrying out the majority of i. To find out whether the type of occupation
Zambia’s agricultural work (Kajoba, 2002). of the head of household influence its state
Employment opportunities rose in exploitative of food security.
activities such as sex work and domestic service ii. To investigate whether crop cultivation by a
(Floro and Schaefer, 1998). Currently, increasing household has an influence on its food
household food insecurity and rising food prices security.
contribute to “an increased level of discontent and iii. To establish whether the level of
stress” and “more pressure” on Zambian to “provide accessibility to farming inputs affect the
good meals with less food, and often go without” level of food security of a household.
(Green and Hossain, 2011). The typical Zambian iv. To ascertain the level of accessibility to loan
diet relies heavily on cereals (which provide almost facilities by households.
two-thirds of the dietary energy supply). Zambia’s
strong dependence on maize makes it vulnerable to STATEMENT OF THE HYPOTHESIS.
climatic shocks. According to the Food and The following hypotheses were put across on
Agriculture Organization, the prevalence of the factors that influence food security in
undernourishment reached 45 percent in 2003-2005 households in Shanty Compounds in Zambia
(FAO, 2010). Therefore, many households in these (Kasama district);
shanty compounds are still facing a risk of food i. Does the occupation of the head of the
insecurity. There is a great danger to many people household influence the household’s
especially children. This research was intended to state of food security?
investigate the factors influencing food security ii. Are households which cultivate and own
situation in the households of shanty compounds in crop fields, are less likely to suffer from
Kasama district. food insecurity than those, which do
not?
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iii. Does accessibility to farming inputs by a years but life expectancy has fallen and maternal
household influence its level of its food mortality is now higher than in any country apart
security? from Sierra Leone. According to UNICEF (2012) in
iv. Does access to loan facilities influence a 2005 over 50% of the population lived below the
household’s level of its food security? poverty line in Malawi, this figure improving only
Significance of the study fractionally in the years since 1998. Perhaps the
This research was important in that ascertaining the only clear success is in the field of education, with
factors influencing food security in Households will substantial progress towards achieving universal
help the government and other organisations in primary education and removing gender
finding the best strategies to use in fighting poverty imbalances.
in these areas. Zambia like many other countries However, such analyses fail to convey a true picture
experience perpetual food shortages and distribution of poverty in Mexico where pressures of a
problems. These result in chronic and often population in excess of 100 million combine with
widespread hunger amongst significant numbers of the fault lines of a largely deregulated open market
households. This research therefore will motivate economy to create extremes of inequality.
stakeholders to call for large scale studies which Bottlenecks of poverty are particularly found
will give a clearer picture on the study topic. It is amongst rural indigenous groups and in the
hoped that the findings of this research will act as a overcrowded shanty towns of the country’s vast
background for bigger and detailed studies on the cities. According to a study by FAO (2011), in
topic under study. It will also give a clear picture on 2005, 35.1 million Americans, which include 22.7
issues that need to be targeted in the quest to fight million adults and 12.4 million children, lived in
poverty in Zambia as major factors affecting households that were unable to afford the food they
people’s livelihoods will be known thereby need for the year. Households that are more likely
designing programmes that have a specific focus on to experience food insecurity are female-headed
known problems. with children, those with incomes below the poverty
line, and those that reside either in principal cities.
CHAPTER TWO The top three states ranking in prevalence of food
LITERATURE REVIEW insecure households between 2003- 2005 were New
Global perspective Mexico (16.8%), Mississippi (16.5%), and Texas
According to a research by Baldauf (2011), (16.0%). A March 1, 2009 Associated Press article
Malawi’s progress towards achieving the MDGs has cited many examples of hungry children in the
been limited by the spread of HIV/AIDS, and the United States. The article talked about all of the
failure of structural adjustment programmes children's mothers, but did not mention any of their
implemented in the 1980’s and 1990’s to create the fathers. The article also said that some of the
conditions for broad-based economic growth. An mothers were feeding their children junk food such
estimated 22% of under-5 children were under- as potato chips and hot dogs, instead of nutritious
weight and 48% suffered from stunting, while the foods such as fruits, vegetables, and milk.
FAO (2012) estimated that 33% of the total The recent economic literature on growth theory has
population did not have an adequate calorific intake stressed the importance of cities for modern growth,
in their diet especially in shanty compounds and emphasizing the agglomeration externalities that
rural communities. According to Baldauf (2011), arise from the increased depth and variety of the
the under-5 mortality rate has declined in recent markets for skills and complementary inputs and
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services. Peng, Zucker and Darby (1997) studied According to the Living Conditions Monitoring
the impact of urban spillovers on the productivity of Survey (LCMS) IV of 2004, as much as 68 percent
rural industrial productivity in China and finds that of the population fell below the national poverty
‘there is a very large effect on productivity from line, earning less than K111, 747. This is in spite of
being near cities (30 to 35 percent higher the implementation of the PRSP and the positive
productivity for a county one standard deviation growth trends during the last few years. According
above average in nearness to population centers) to this research poverty levels slightly fell in 2004
due to embodied technology transfer from urban compared to 1998 when poverty stood at 73
residents’. Shang-Jin Wei (1994) argues that percent. The depth and severity of poverty also
managerial and technological spillovers across remain high despite the slight decline since 1998.
firms in the same city are an important cause of At the national level, the depth of poverty dropped
Chinese export success. According to Peng and to 36 percent from 40 percent in 1998, while the
Darby (1997) China still remains very rural. In severity of poverty declined to 23 percent from 26
2003, China’s rate of urbanization stood at about 40 percent in 1998. Extreme poverty (covering people
per earning less than K78, 223 per month) fell from 58
cent of the total population, compared to the 60 per percent in 1998 to 53 percent in 2004. The declining
cent that would be expected from depth and severity of poverty was driven primarily
international experience, given China’s income by rising per capita consumption amongst the
level. Recent research on international poorest non-farm households. This represents a
experiences has stressed the importance of cities for deviation from the experiences of 1991-1998,
modern growth, emphasizing the during which time non-farm poverty rose rapidly.
agglomeration externalities that arise from the According to this survey changes in poverty during
increased depth and variety of the markets 1998 to 2004 were evenly distributed across rural
for skills and complementary inputs and services. and urban areas. In rural and urban areas poverty
The urbanization process is full of market failures declined by 5 percent and 3 percent, respectively.
as individuals can free ride on common resources The incidence of poverty in the rural areas fell from
leading to congestion, pollution and higher crime 83 percent in 1998 to 78 percent in 2004, while
rates. Moreover, much of the growth of cities poverty in urban areas declined to 53 percent from
depends on government policies towards housing, 56 percent in 1998. Rural incidence of extreme
urban transportation, public services and other poverty fell from 71 percent in 1998 to 65 percent
policies. Some countries have been able to manage in 2004. In urban areas, the incidence of extreme
the urbanization process better than others and there poverty declined by 2 percent from 36 percent to 34
is no single strategy for success. In some countries, percent. Although almost all provinces recorded
there has been growth around few large cities. Paris, some decline in poverty incidence, important gains
London, Mexico City, Buenos Aires, Bangkok and were made in certain provinces like the Copperbelt
Santiago de Chile are such examples. In other and Eastern provinces. The incidence of poverty
countries, there has been a large dispersion of declined the most in Eastern province, where it fell
middle-sized cities. Germany, United States and by 11 percentage points to 70 percent in 2004 from
Colombia are examples of more diffused urban 81 percent in 1998. This was followed by the
growth (World Bank, 2010). Copperbelt, which recorded a 9 percentage points
Zambian perspective decline in poverty incidence to 56 percent in 2004
from 65 percent in 1998.
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In terms of the incidence of poverty among various variation in weather patterns as well as inadequate
strata, the research revealed that the rural small- infrastructure and generally poor market access.
scale farmers had the highest incidence of poverty Much of the growth that has taken place has been
at 79 percent with 66 percent being extremely poor. driven by cash crops such as cotton and tobacco,
This was followed by rural medium-scale farmers which are concentrated in specific areas of the
where poverty incidence was 73 percent. In the country.
urban areas, the highest incidence was among the The incidence of poverty was highest among female
low-cost households at 58 percent. In terms of the (69 percent) than male-headed households (66
current status of poverty, high levels of poverty percent). The LCMS surveys have shown that the
continue to be associated with more remote majority of the female heads of the household
provinces such as Western province (83 percent), attained household headship by way of loss of their
Luapula (79 percent) and North-Western province spouses who in most cases were the breadwinners.
(76 percent). The incidence of poverty was lowest These results clearly indicate how difficult it is for
in more urbanized regions like Lusaka (48 percent) female-headed households to acquire adequate food
and the Copperbelt provinces (56 percent). While that meets their minimum nutrition requirements.
the proportion of the population living in poverty The issue of property grabbing may contribute to
did not vary much among the provinces, there were the high levels of poverty among female-headed
quite significant variations in terms of the households.
proportion of the population living in extreme Analysis of poverty by age of household head in the
poverty across the provinces. The rate of extreme same survey reveals high levels of poverty among
poverty varied from 29 percent in Lusaka province households headed by elders. For instance, poverty
to 64 percent in Luapula province. Incidence of rates ranged between 51 percent in the age group 12
extreme poverty was also high in rural areas where to 24 to 75 percent in the age group 55 years and
two thirds of the population was extremely poor above. Head count poverty was equally high among
compared to only one third in the urban areas. persons headed by those aged 45 to 54 years. The
According to a survey by WFP (2011), the high level of poverty among persons who are
persistently high-income poverty observed in 2004, supposed to be living off their benefits is a clear
is in sharp contrast to the rapid acceleration in indication of the poor social security system
economic growth experienced since 1999. This prevailing in the country. The delays in paying off
implies that the country’s improved economic terminal benefits have compounded the poverty
performance over recent years has not translated situation in the country.
into significant declines in poverty. There are According to the LCMS IV survey report of 2004,
several important factors that may explain the the bottom 50 percent of the Zambian population
persistence of high poverty levels. They include the claim a meager 15 percent of total income, while
changing structure of growth, which during the the top 10 percent claims 48 percent of the total
period 1998 to 2004 was largely driven by the income, which is more than three times the income
improved performance of the mining and share for the bottom 50 percent. The corresponding
construction sectors. Agriculture, upon which the figures for November/January 1998 were bottom 50
majority of poor people depend, did not perform percent with 10 percent and top 10 percent with 57
particularly well over this period, with wide percent. Within rural areas, the bottom 50 percent of
fluctuations in production and a relatively low the rural population claims 22 percent of the total
average growth rate. This reflected considerable income, while the top 10 percent claims 33 percent,
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or 1.5 times the income share for the bottom 50 In conclusion, according to the World Food
percent. For urban areas, the bottom 50 percent of Program (WFP), “poverty and food insecurity are
urban population received only 12.0 percent of total widespread” in both urban and rural Zambia (WFP,
income, with the top 10 percent receiving total 2010). Despite having some of the world’s most
income of 51 percent. In terms of the Gini fertile soil, Zambia’s subsistence farmers, 65
coefficient, which defines the level of income percent of whom are women (AfDB, 2006), depend
inequalities, Zambia had a coefficient of 0.57 in on rainfall and hoe cultivation to produce crops that
2003. This contrasts with the ratio of 0.61 for 1996 are highly vulnerable to flood and drought.
and 0.66 for 1998. Coefficients of this magnitude Although the World Bank reclassified Zambia as a
manifest high poverty levels in society. They are middle-income nation in 2011, 63 percent of
indicative of uneven income distribution in Zambia. Zambians live on less than US$1.25 per day (U.S.
Income inequalities are more pronounced in the Department of State, 2011). There was indeed need
urban areas with a Gini coefficient of 0.61 than in to find out the factors behind this state of the food
rural areas with a coefficient of 0.42. Comparing the security levels in the country so as to assist the
Gini coefficient from the household income government and social planners to understand the
distribution of 1993 (0.66), with that of 2003 (0.57), challenges before many poverty reduction intended
it can be observed that there is a slight improvement projects and programmes.
in the distribution of incomes in the Zambian
society. However, using the per capita income THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK.
distribution for 2003, it can be observed that 20 Theoretically speaking, there are a number of
percent of the total income is shared by 70 percent alternative ways and means in which people living
of the population. in Shanty compounds may earn a living in order to
However, the study further revealed that the ensure food security. Faced with a range of
percentage of Zambian’s living below the poverty alternative technologies, it will be up to them to
line has shown some improvement in the last decide which one is the most appropriate to their
decade (73% in 1998 to 60% in 2010), even though specific needs, wants and limitations. Obviously,
it remains high despite Zambia’s robust economic the wider the range of technologies available, the
growth in that period. The concentration of growth more likely it will be that each household will be
in highly capital-intensive or urban-based sectors able to find a technology which is ideally suited for
like mining, construction and services has not its particular circumstance.
benefited the areas and sectors where the poor are The idea of widening the range of available
more numerous. Poverty continues to be more of a technologies was basic to the thinking of the late Dr
rural than an urban phenomenon with a level or E.F Schumacher. He argued that modern, complex
rural poverty (80%) close to three times larger than technologies are for the moment out of reach of
in urban areas (27.5%). Almost 90% of Zambians most communities in the developing countries. At
who live below the extreme poverty line are the same time, the traditional technologies, which
concentrated in rural areas. The absolute number of are ideally suited in the context of a subsistence
poor has increased from about 6 million in 1991 to economy, are usually characterized by low capital
7.7 million in 2010 (32 per cent increase), primarily and labour productivities, which do not generate the
due to population growth (LCMS IV, 2004). People surplus needed for economic growth and hence
suffer immensely from inadequate access to creating food insecurity in most households. There
economic and social resources. is, however, a whole range of technologies, which
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exist or can be developed to fill the technological increase in their income also and finally there will
“gap” between these two extremes. Rural and low- be food security in these households. In Zambia, it
income urban communities could never jump from seems most women and men in these low income
step one to step ten on the technological ladder- the urban communities cannot acquire this intermediate
human, technical and financial means are simply technology because of lack of access to credit
not available. They can, however, progress through facilities and lack of knowledge on how to access
the “intermediate technologies, which are them, if there are any irregularities then such must
appropriate to their needs if financial means are be addressed to open the way for them to have
made available to them. It was to collect access to such facilities and eventually to the
information about these “intermediate technologies” intermediate technology. This research then asks a
and to make their existence more widely known that question, “what are those factors influencing the
Dr. Schumacher founded the Intermediate food security in such communities?”
Technology Development Group (ITDG) in 3.0 Personal critique summary
London. Since its formation in 1965, ITDG, and its This research concentrated on the urban villages
counterparts in other developed countries and in and shanty compounds in Kasama district only. In
developing countries have shown that a great deal order to give a proper picture of the factors
of relevant information already exists; and that affecting food security in these areas in Zambia the
when it doesn’t, the technical knowledge required to study should have included many districts and
fill the gap can be readily found in universities and should have sampled such areas from those districts
polytechnics, in industries, in government research in Zambia. The shortcoming of this study would be
establishments, in the professions and among that since the scope of the study would be narrow,
fieldworkers if their attention and expertise can be the generalization of the findings might be less valid
focused upon the real need. compared to a larger scale research.
In particular, there now appears to be a large and
increasing range of technologies available for use in Establishment of the gap
almost every income-generating venture in which This research focused on investigating the factors
men and women in low-income communities are that were influencing food security in urban villages
involved. Many of these offer the chance of and shanty compounds in Zambia. It decided to
increasing the productivity of the low-income urban focus on these areas because in these areas live a
communities without requiring large financial mixture of the most vulnerable households and
outlays, imported materials or highly skilled labour households with middle and stable incomes. This
of operating, maintaining and repairing equipment group of households had always been left out in
(Dauber and Cain, 1981:194). many previous studies whose concentration had
Therefore, this intermediate technological been on finding out the different poverty levels in
development theory looks at ways of ensuring food household in rural and urban areas and also among
security by providing means of income generation female and male headed households. For instance,
for each household in these low-income in one study by LCMS (2010), established that
communities. It is argued that when these poverty continues to be more of a rural than an
intermediate technologies are made available to urban phenomenon with rural poverty (80%) close
these communities either by giving them access to to three times larger than in urban areas (27.5%).
credit facilities or by giving access to them by any Almost 90% of Zambians who live below the
means, their productivity would increase hence, an extreme poverty line are concentrated in rural areas.

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Other studies conducted so far also concentrated on CHAPTER THREE

establishing the gap in poverty levels between
female headed households and male headed RESEARCH DESIGN OR METHODOLOGY.
households in urban areas. For example, a study by Research design
the World Bank (2006) found that neo-liberal This study adopted an analytical research design
policies were particularly devastating for rural and consisted of both qualitative and quantitative
women; as unemployment rose, the informal sector research. An Analytical research is about
shifted female labor into seasonal, low-paid establishing the causes or risk factors for certain
agricultural wage work (Floro and Schaefer 1998). problems. This reveals factors underlying that
Neo-liberal policies also led to an “increasing shift particular problem concerning the current status of
to individual [land] ownership resulting from the the subjects in the study.
process of modernization and commercialization,” Population.
which marginalized women who did not have the In this research the population of our interest
right to land ownership, despite carrying out the constituted of all households in seven (7) urban
majority of Zambia’s agricultural work (Kajoba villages or shanty compounds in Kasama district.
2002). Employment opportunities rose in These urban villages or shanty compounds had been
exploitative activities such as sex work and selected randomly to represent all the urban villages
domestic service (Floro and Schaefer 1998). or shanty compounds in Kasama district. In order to
Gender-insensitive privatization compounded collect qualitative data key informants were
women’s massive burden of care-giving for children interviewed. The key informants were
and persons living with HIV/AIDS, estimated at a chairpersons/councilor or village headmen in these
national rate of 13.5 percent in 2009 (UNICEF stated compounds.
2009). Currently, increasing household food Time.
insecurity and rising food prices contribute to “an The research was carried out between September
increased level of discontent and stress” and “more 2015 and May 2016.
pressure” on Zambian women to “provide good
meals with less food, and often go without” (Green Sample.
and Hossain, 2011). In a nutshell, most if not all the A fraction of all households from the seven (7)
research papers reviewed focused on comparing compounds mentioned above both male and female
poverty levels in the urban and rural area and also was selected. A fraction of households was selected
among provinces. They have also concentrated on as a representative sample of all the households in
the impact of poverty and food security on women each compound.
in relation to men. The causes of such food
insecurity and poverty have rarely been the focus of Sample Units.
most studies. Therefore, this research is focused on Individual households, 50 percent of the sample for
bridging the gap by establishing the factors each sex, i.e. 50 percent of the 12 households were
influencing food security among households in male headed and the other 50 percent were female
urban villages and shanty compounds both male and headed in each compound. Others were
female headed households who seem to have been chairpersons and village headmen in the seven
forgotten by most researchers. selected compounds.

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ISSN: 3471-7102, ISBN: 978-9982-70-318-5

Sample Size. DATA ANALYSIS

In this research a sample of 84 households, 12 To test the magnitude of the variation between
households in each compound was taken. There hypothesis and the actual observation, quantitative
were also five key informants. data was analyzed using computer packages, Excel
Sampling Frame. and Stata while qualitative data was analysed
The sampling frame in this research was the through comparison and contrasting. Completed
households’ register from all the selected questionnaires were scrutinized to ensure that data
compounds or villages obtainable from compound was complete and accurate.
chairpersons or village headmen for the year 2015. Triangulation
Sampling Criteria. In order to ensure the validity of research two
Random table numbers were used to select the methods of data collection were used. In this study
sample. Here female-headed households were both qualitative and quantitative methods were used
identified from the households register and listed simultaneously. A qualitative study involving in-
separately and also this applied to male-headed depth interviews of key informants served to obtain
households. Then select at random 6 women and 6 information on the factors which affected food
men at an interval of 10. This was done in all the security in households in Zambia. While
compounds and villages to come up with 84 quantitative data was collected using structured
households in all compounds. scheduled interviews consisting closed ended
Sampling Procedure. questions from the 84 respondents.
The criterion which was used in the sampling of Ethical consideration
households and compounds was the probability This study was approved before implementation by
simple random sampling. For key informants were the Information and Communications University’s
the chairpersons or village headmen from the seven Research Ethics Committee.
(7) compounds who were purposefully selected who Informed consent and confidentiality
were reachable and willing to be part of the This surveys address issued of food security and
interview. diets in household, and means of livelihoods. Great
care was taken to minimize any potential physical,
METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION. psychological, or social harm that would befall to
When carrying out a research, quantitative data was the participants as a result of participating in this
collected using scheduled structured interviews survey. All consent forms and questionnaires were
from the respondents from the seven compounds. marked only with a study number and no names
These scheduled structured interviews consisted was recorded anywhere. Informed consent was
mostly of closed-ended questions and a few open- obtained from all participants.
ended questions. While qualitative data was Distressed respondent protocol
collected using scheduled unstructured or semi- The Researcher was well trained in the protocol of
structured interviews to the key informants. These handling distressed respondents. The protocol dealt
scheduled unstructured and semi structured with actions taken in the event that a respondent
interviews comprised open-ended questions. became visibly upset: crying, shaking or speaking in
a trembling voice during the course of the
interview. If the respondent wanted to stop the
interview, the researcher obliged and thanked the
respondent for her time and told the respondent that
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he would be in touch to schedule a time to complete CHAPTER FOUR

the interview, if the respondent agreed. DATA ANALYSIS
After the collection of data, questionnaires were
Scope of study carefully checked to ensure completeness, accuracy
This research was a case study of Kasama district. and consistency. The 84 questionnaires making up
Respondents (Sample units) were drawn from the the sample size were then coded accordingly. After
Shanty compounds or villages around Kasama coding, the data was entered into Microsoft excel.
district. The information was later transferred to the
computer software package called STATA which
Limitation of study was used to analyse the data. Variables were
It should have been a large-scale study to give more identified on the software and then frequencies were
confidence to the results a country representative run so that the most suitable variables matching the
but due to limited time, lack of financial resources, hypothesis were selected for analysis. While
and other logistics a small-scale study was done. qualitative data was analysed by collaborating,
This only covered Kasama District instead of a comparing and contrasting information from the
good number of sampled Districts across the village headmen, section chairpersons and also from
country. a councilor.

Presentation of findings

1. Graph 1-Compounds and sample size

Compounds/ Villages and the sample size from

each

100%

14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29%

12 12 12 12 12 12 12 84
Amin Chisanga Chishipula Jazz Location Mulenga Musenga Total
Hills

Graph 1: show that data was collected from seven respondents were also selected randomly from each
(7) compounds in Kasama district as shown above compound making a total of 84 respondents.
which were randomly selected out of all the
compounds surrounding the central town of
Kasama district. An equal number of twelve (12)

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2. Source of income of the household of the respondents found the source of income
(occupation of the head of the household) from well-wishers, bricklaying and plumbing,
Graph 2: below shows that out of the 84 sampled carpentry, piece works in addition to farming and
households, the majority of the households 59.52% trading at 1.9% (1) each category. This indicates
(40) found their source of income in trading that trading is the major occupation of the people in
(Informal sector), 16.67% (14) were farmers, and the compound and villages in Kasama. This is
15.48% (13) were both traders and farmers. While followed by farming and thirdly a good number are
only 3.57% (3) were government workers. The rest in both farming and trading.

Occupation of the head of the households

100%

59.52%

16.67% 1.19% 15.48% 1.19 3.57% 1.19% 1.19%

14 1 13 1 3 50 1 1 84
farmer farmer and farming and from well public trader trader, trader, Total
employed trading wishers worker/civil (Informal farmer and farmer,
at the servant sector) general carpentry
bakery works and joinally

Occupation of the head of the households

3. Graph 3-Households’ involvement in food production (growing crops)

involvement in food production by households

(Do you grow any crop?)

100% involvement in food production

64.29% by households (Do you grow any
35.71%
crop?)

30 54 84
no yes Total

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The graph above shows that 64.29% were involved in farming while only 35.71% of the sampled households
were not involved in farming. This shows that the majority of the households in compounds and villages
around Kasama district were involved in farming.

Graph 4 Accessibility to farming inputs

Accessibility to farming Inputs (Do you have

access to farming inputs?)

100%
60.71%
29.76%
9.52%

8 25 51 84
No Not farmers Yes Total

The above graph shows that 61% of the sampled households had access to farming inputs, 30% were not
farmers and only 10% had not access. This means that the majority of the households had access to farming
inputs.

Graph 5-Accessibility to loan facilities

Accessiblity to loan facilities (did you have any

access to a loan?)

100%
Accessiblity to loan facilities (did
77.38%
you have any access to a loan?)
22.62%

65 19 84
no yes Total

The above graph shows that 65% of the sampled households did not have access to loan facilities and only
22.62% had access. This means that the majority of the households did not have access to loan facilities.

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Households’ abilities to meet their daily food needs

Pie chart 3

Households' ability to meet daily

needs (Do you always meet your
daily needs?)

44.05%
55.95% No 37
Yes 47

The Pie chart 3 shows that out of the 84 respondents, 55.95% (47) managed to meet their daily needs (had
food security) and only 44.05% (37) did not manage to meet their daily needs (had food insecurity). This
shows that the majority of the households in Kasama District had food security (were able to meet their daily
food needs)

Qualitative data farming inputs through cooperatives. Mr. V said

Qualitative data was collected from the five (5) key that he was not a member of any cooperative and
informants who were the village headmen/woman so just used to buy his farming inputs from the
and civic leaders of the sampled villages and market. He said that he used four (4) bags of
compounds. Structured guided interviews were fertilizer during the last season and harvested only
conducted with each informant. 25 by 50kg of maize. He said that most households
in the village harvest barely enough for themselves
Mr. V (Village headman for Chisanga which do not last long. He said that he manages to
village provide his household with at two (2) meals a day
In an interview he stated that most households in and sometimes three (3). He also said that most
Chisanga village were headed by men. However, households managed at least two (2) meals a day.
most breadwinners for these households were He added that the common food in most
women. Most women were actively involved in households were nshima (maize), vegetables,
farming, trading and tailoring than men did. Most beans, sardines, sweet potatoes. He further said that
households in this village were farmers and mostly most households did not keep or have food in store.
grew maize. Mr. V said he was personally a He also said most people depended on trading for
farmer. On the issue of using farming inputs, he survival when they run out of the food they grow
said like many farmers in the compound he used from the farms. He said he had about five (5) bags
farming inputs. He said most people accessed their of maize which he believed was enough to take

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them to the next harvest. Mr. V said that he barely extra source of income. Most people do gardening
managed and struggled to meet his household’s along the Kupumaula stream as an extra source of
food requirements. He said that he had never had income for the households in the village. He further
access to any loan. However, he had heard others said that he managed to provide two (2) meals for
within the village access loans. He also said that his household and at times three (3). He said that
the known loan offering institution to villagers in most people managed to have two (2) meals a day
Chisanga village was Vision Fund. He said that but there were some households who were only
most households in the village did not have enough managing one meal a day. He also that that the
food for their households. He said some common foods eaten in the village were nshima
households go without food even for day. He said (maize and cassava), sweet potatoes, dry
that hard times for the villagers are between fingerlings (popa), sardines (chisense) and
November and April during this period most vegetables. He said that most households did not
households lack food. During this period most have food in stores. He said most households did
people survived on trading especially for women not grow enough to keep in store. He personally
and piece works for men. He concluded that all the had only two bags of maize which he said was not
households suffer from food insecurity regardless enough to take him to the next harvest. He said that
of the sex and age of the head of that household. he had never had access to any loan facility.
However, he said that some people in the village
Mr. W (Village headman Amin Village) were accessing loan through Vision Fund and the
Mr. W said that most households in Amin village Community Development department which was
were male headed households at an estimated giving women’s club loans of about K1000.00. He
percentage of 60% men and 40% women. He said further stated that though some people have
that women were the majority of the breadwinners. accessed the loans the majority have not mostly
Most men had taken to too much beer drinking and due to fear because of high interest rates. Some
did that as early as possible in the morning. Most defaulters have had their houses sold to recover the
people were traders in the village and a few were loan. He said that the critical times are between
farmers mostly growing maize, beans, sweet January and April. During this period households
potatoes, soya beans and vegetable gardening. He were barely surviving by God’s grace. He also said
said that he personally used farming inputs in his that from May to December households manage
fields which he accessed through the cooperative. through struggling. He said that the aged and the
He said that the two (2) bags of fertilizer obtained female headed households are prone to food
through cooperatives were not enough. He insecurity in the village. Most aged people do not
supplemented his requirements by buying from the have people to support them and the women
market. He said that very few people accessed headed households do not have any stable source
farming inputs in the village because there were of income to support their families.
few cooperatives. There was only one cooperative
and two women’s clubs through which people Mr. X (Councilor Buseko Ward)
access farming inputs in the entire village. He said Talking about the state of food insecurity in the
that in the last season he managed to harvest 35 by households in Location compound, Mr. Y said that
50kg bags of maize from his 1.5 hectares of land. most households were headed by men (75%) and
He also said that he grew maize once a year but only about 25% were headed by women. He also
grew vegetables throughout the year which is his said that men were mostly breadwinners for most
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households. He said that apart from being a grow crop on; the challenge to them was accessing
councilor he was also a businessman. He further farming inputs. She said that these households did
said that most people were traders in the compound not have the capacity to buy farming inputs for
with a few public workers. Those who were traders themselves as fertilizer was expensive. She said
were also involved in farming. He said the that she grew maize on small scale due to the same
common crops grown by the households were challenge of accessing the farming inputs. She said
maize, sweet potatoes and vegetables. Those who she does not buy bays of fertilizer but only gallons
were engaged in farming used farming inputs (seed and mostly harvested only about two (2) bags of
and fertilizer). People accessed a little through maize. She said that most households did not have
cooperatives and supplemented the shortfall by two (2) meals a day but only one. She said that
buying for themselves. He said that most some households hardly afforded a meal a day. The
household did not afford all the three (3) meals a common food in the village was nshima, sweet
day. The common meals in the households in potatoes, kapenta (dagga) and vegetables. She did
location were nshima, fish and vegetables. He not have any food in store and also there were very
further said that most household did not have any few households in the village which had food in
food in store. They mostly relied on trading to reserve for future consumption. She said that very
make their ends meet. He also said that there were few households managed to provide for their daily
few organisations available in the compound food requirement, the majority struggled and most
offering loans such as Vision Fund for small scale could not afford to provide. Most households have
traders while medium scale traders accessed loans stable food security between April and July but as
through banks such as NATSAVE, ZANACO and from August food insecurity hit most households in
other banks in Kasama District. Most people did the village. She said she had never accessed a loan.
not access these loans due to the requirement to She also said that that she did not know of any
have collateral which most people did not have. He institutions that were offering loans in the village.
said that households that are mostly prone to food She added that to her knowledge there was no any
insecurity were female headed households. He person or household that had an access to a loan
further said that in order to survive and provide for facility. She conclusively said that the majority of
their household they mostly engage in promiscuity. families in the village suffered from food insecurity
Other households who suffered from food because most people had no access to farming
insecurity were those which depended on farming inputs. The village had only three (3) cooperative
and those headed by the aged. but only a few were members of these
cooperatives. She also said that households headed
Mrs. Y (Headwoman Chishipula Village) by the aged and those by single women and
Mrs. Y said that most households were headed by looking after orphans were mostly prone to food
men. However, Chishipula has 50% men as insecurity. The aged had no strengths and any other
breadwinners and 50% women. She said that most source of income.
men were involved in pieceworks while women
were involved in small scale trading of tomatoes, Mr. Z (Section Chairman Jazz compound)
vegetables and other farm products as hawkers. He said that most households in Jazz compound
Brick making was the other common occupation were headed by male and a few by female. He said
for men in the village. She said that most people or both women and men provided for their
households did not cultivate but had a lot of land to households. The common occupations of the
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people in the compound were farming, trading and Mr. V said that in Chisanga Village most
public/civil servants. The majority were farmers breadwinners for these households were women.
who grew mostly the following maize and Most women were actively involved in farming,
groundnuts. He said that he was also farming apart trading and tailoring than men did. Most
from working as a guard at Prefix hotel. He had a households in this village were farmers and mostly
three (3) Lima of land where he grew maize. He grew maize. Mr. W said in Amin Village women
said it was difficult to access farming inputs were the majority of the breadwinners. Most
because of the limited number of 2 bags which people were traders in the village and a few were
cooperatives were giving. Most people in the farmers mostly growing maize, beans, sweet
compound could not enroll as members due to lack potatoes, soya beans and vegetable gardening. Mr.
of funds which were required for one to be a X said that men were mostly breadwinners for
member. He also said that he managed three (3) most households. He also said that most people
meals a day through struggling. He said that most were traders in the compound with a few public
households only managed two meals a day. The workers. Those who were traders were also
common foods in Jazz compound were nshima, involved in farming. Mrs. Y said that most men
kapenta, fish, beans and vegetables. There were were involved in pieceworks while women were
very few households which had food in store or involved in small scale trading of tomatoes,
reserve. Most households struggled to provide for vegetables and other farm products as hawkers.
their household’s daily needs. He said he had never Brick making was also a common occupation for
had access to a loan. He further said that he was men in the village. Mr. Z said that the common
not aware of any organisations giving loans to occupations of the people in the compound were
people in Jazz compound but only heard of people farming, trading and public/civil servants. The
accessing loans in other compounds like Mulenga, majority were farmers who grew mostly maize and
Chisanga and Location. He further said Jazz groundnuts. Therefore, it can be concluded here
compound had a large number of the aged people that the common occupations of the people in the
as many landlords were retired people. These sampled areas were farming and trading.
landlords depended on rentals from their houses
and a bit from trading for their survival. Most Involvement in crop growing by a
households were prone to food insecurity were household
those headed by the elderly. Mr. V said that most households in Chisanga
Village were farmers and mostly grew maize. Mr.
Analysis of qualitative data W said that few people were farmers in Amin
Information collected from the key informant from Village mostly growing maize, beans, sweet
the five (5) villages, Mr. X (Councilor) of Location potatoes, soya beans and vegetable gardening. Mr.
compound, Mr. W (Headman) of Amin Village, X also said that very few households in Location
Mrs. Y (Head woman) of Chishipula Village, Mr. were involved in farming. Mrs. Y said that most
Z (Section Chairperson) of Jazz compound and Mr. people or households did not cultivate but had a lot
V (Village Secretary) of Chisanga on the research of land to grow crop on. And Mr. Z said the
variables were as follows. majority the households in Jazz compound were
1. The occupation of the head of the farmers who grew mostly maize and groundnuts. It
household can be concluded here that many households were
involved in food production apart from being
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involved in trading with an exception of those from which was giving Women’s Club loans of about
Amin village and Location compound. K1000.00. He further stated that though some
people have accessed the loans the majority did not
2. Accessibility to farming inputs mostly due to fear because of high interest rates.
Mr. V said that in Chisanga Village most people Some defaulters have had their houses sold to
accessed their farming inputs through cooperatives recover the loan. Mr. X said that in Location
and also supplemented by buying from the market. compound there were few organisations available
Mr. X said that those who were engaged in farming in the compound offering loans such as Vision
in Location compound used farming inputs (seed Fund for small scale traders while medium scale
and fertilizer) which they accessed a little through traders accessed loans through banks such as
cooperatives and supplemented the shortfall by NATSAVE, ZANACO and other banks in Kasama
buying for themselves. Mr. W. said that in Amin District. Most people did not access these loans due
Village very few people accessed farming inputs in to the requirement to have collateral which most
the village because there were few cooperatives. people did not have. Mrs. Y of Chishipula village
There was only one cooperative and two women’s said that she did not know of any institutions that
clubs through which people access farming inputs were offering loans in the village. She added that to
in the entire village. Mrs. Y said that in Amin her knowledge there was no any person or
Village most households did not cultivate due to household that had an access to a loan facility in
lack of access to farming inputs. She said that most Chishipula village. Finally, Mr. Z also said he had
households did not have the capacity to buy never had access to a loan. He further said that he
farming inputs for themselves as fertilizer was was not aware of any organisation giving loans to
expensive. Mr. Z said that most people in Jazz people in Jazz compound but only heard of people
compound had difficulties in accessing farming accessing loans in other compounds like Mulenga,
inputs because of the limited number of 2 bags Chisanga and Location. It can therefore be
which cooperatives were giving. Most people in concluded here that many households in Kasama
the compound could not enroll as members due to district did not have access to loan facility due to
lack of funds which were required for one to be a fear, lack of collateral and also non availability of
member. It can be concluded that in all the these facilities in the District.
sampled areas there was low accessibility to
farming inputs due to lack of funds, nonexistence 3. level of food security in households
of cooperatives and the farming inputs were Mr. V said that most households in Chisanga
expensive. village did not have enough food. He said some
Accessibility to loan facilities households went without food even for day. He
Mr. V said that he had never had access to any said that hard times for the villagers are between
loan. However, he had heard others within November and April during this period most
Chisanga village access loans. He also said that households lack food. During this period most
the known loan offering institution to villagers in people survived on trading especially for women
Chisanga village was Vision Fund. Mr. W and piece works for men. He concluded that all the
personally had never had access to any loan households suffer from food insecurity regardless
facility. However, he said that some people in of the sex and age of the head of that household.
Amin village were accessing loan through Vision Mr. W said that most people in Amin Village
Fund and the Community Development department managed to have two (2) meals a day but there
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were some households who were only managing households managed to provide for their daily food
one meal a day. He said that most households did requirement, the majority struggled and most could
not have food in stores. He said most households not afford to provide. Most households suffer from
did not grow enough to keep in store. He said that food insecurity as from August to April in
the critical times are between January and April. Chishipula village. She conclusively said that the
He said that the aged and the female headed majority of families in the village suffered from
households are prone to food insecurity in the food insecurity because most people had no access
village. Most aged people do not have people to to farming inputs. She also said that households
support them and the women headed households do headed by the aged and those by single women.
not have any stable source of income to support Finally, Mr. Z said that in Jazz compound most
their families. Mr. X said that most household did households struggled to provide for their
not afford all the three (3) meals a day. He also household’s daily needs. Most households which
said that most household did not have any food in were prone to food insecurity were those headed by
store. They mostly relied on trading to make their the elderly. Generally, food security in the sampled
ends meet. He said that households that were areas were reported to be stable just after harvest
mostly prone to food insecurity were female and later began to deteriorate and most of the
headed households. Other households who suffered households suffered from food insecurity
from food insecurity were those which depended especially the female and aged headed households.
on farming and those headed by the aged. Mrs.
Bwalya said that in Chishipula Village most
households did not have two (2) meals a day but Discussion and Interpretation of findings
only one. She said that some households hardly
afforded a meal a day. She said that very few Interpretation and analysis of findings

Food security distribution in sampled compounds/villages

Table 1

Do you meet your daily needs?

Compound No Yes Total
Amin 58% (7) 42% (5) 100% (12)
Chisanga 42% (5) 58% (7) 100% (12)
Chishipula 67% (8) 33% (4) 100% (12)
Jazz 50% (6) 50% (6) 100% (12)
Location 83% (2) 83% (10) 100% (12)
Mulenga Hills 17% (2) 83% (10) 100% (12)
Musenga 58% (7) 42% (5) 100% (12)
Total 44% (37) 54% (47) 100% (84)

Table 1 above shows the distribution of their daily needs. When ordered in terms of the
respondents in the sampled compounds and households’ who did not manage to meet their
villages in terms of the households’ ability to meet daily needs Chishupla village had a large number
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of households (67% (8) households) who did not Cross-tabulations also were used to establish
meet their daily needs, followed by Amin and whether any of the following; the occupation of the
Musenga village with 58% (7) households each, head of the household, involvement in crop
then Jazz compound with 50% (6) households, next growing by a household, accessibility to farming
is Chisanga village with 42% (5) households while inputs and accessibility to loan facilities had
Mulenga and Location compounds had the least influence on the level of food security of the
with 17% (2) each of the 12 sampled households in households.
each compound. Below is the analysis of the influence of each
independent variable on the level of food security
of the household (dependent variable).

i. Does the occupation of the head of the household influence the household’s state of food security?
Table 1
Do you always meet your daily food needs?
Occupation No Yes Total
farmer 7.14% (6) 4.76% (8) 16.66% (14)
farmer and employed 0% (0) 1.19% (1) 1.19% (1)
farming and trading 8.33% (7) 7.14% (6) 15.48% (13)
from well wishers 1.19% (1) 0% (0) 1.19% (1)
public worker/civil servant 2.38% (2) 1.19% (1) 3.57% (3)
Trader (informal sector) 26.19% (22) 33.33% (28) 59.52% (50)
trader, farmer and general works 0% (0) 1.19% (1) 1.19% (1)
trader, farmer, carpentry and joinery 0% (0) 1.19% (1) 1.19% (1)
Total 45.24% (38) 54.76% (46) 100% (84)

Out of the 84 households, findings show that the of the farmers, 46.15% (6) of those in both farming
major distributions of the occupations were four (4) and trading and 33.33% (1) of the public/ civil
trading (informal sector) 59.52% (40), farming servant had stable levels of food security (were
16.66% (14), both trading and farming 15.48% able to meet their daily food needs). The findings
(13) and Public/civil servants 3.57% (3). Out of the show that the order of the occupation of the head of
84 households sampled, 54.76% (46) were able to the households with the least levels of food
meet their daily food needs while 45.24% (38) security were public/civil servants, those who were
were unable to meet their daily food needs. Using both in farming and trading, informal sector
proportionate ratio of distribution findings show (traders) and finally farmers. It can then be
that 44% (22) of the traders (informal sector), concluded that occupation of the head of the
42.85% (6) of the farmers, 53.85% (7) of those household did not show a clear influence on the
both in farming and trading, 66.67 % (2) of the levels of food security of households. Based on the
public/civil servant did not have food security in research findings, the above hypothesis is rejected.
their households (could not meet their daily food
needs) while 56% (28) of the traders, 57.14% (8)

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ii. Are households which cultivate and own crop fields, are less likely to suffer from food insecurity
than those, which do not?
Table 2
Do you grow any Do you always meet your daily needs?
crop? No Yes Total
No 13.1% (11) 22.62% (19) 35.71% (30)
Yes 30.95% (26) 33.33% (28) 64.29% (54)
Total 44.05% (37) 55.95% (47) 100% (84)

The findings show that out of the 84 households (respondents) 35.71% (30) did not grow any food while
64.29% (54) grew food. Out of 54 who grew crops 51.85% (28) had stable levels of food security (met their
daily food needs) and 48.15% (26) did not have stable levels of food security (did not meet their daily food
needs). On the other hand, out the 30 who did not grow food 36.67% (11) did not have stable levels of food
security while 63.33% (19) had stable levels of food security. Findings show that involvement in food
production did not really influence the food security of a household (51.85%) of those households go grew
crops and (63.33%) of those who did not grow food had stable levels of food security
.
iii. Does accessibility to farming inputs by a household influence its level of its food security?
Table 3
Do you always meet your daily needs?
Do you use any farming
inputs No Yes Total
Yes 26.19% (22) 33.33% (28) 59.52% (50)
No 4.76% (4) 0% (0) 4.76% (4)
Not farmers 14.29% (12) 21.43% (18) 35.71% (30)
Total 45.24% (38) 54.76% (46) 100% (84)

From the findings shown in the table above of the levels of food security while 100% of those who
84 household sampled 59.52% (50) had access to had no access to farming inputs did not have stable
farming inputs and only 4.76% (4) did not have levels of food security and 40% of those who did
access to farming inputs. 35.71% (30) were not not grow food did not have stable levels of food
farmers. Of those who had access to farming inputs security. Proportionally those who had no access to
26.19% (22) had no stable levels of food security farming inputs were more prone to food insecurity
while 33.33% (28) had stable levels of food that those who had access to food security. While
security. Of those who did not have access to those who were not involved in food production
farming inputs 4.76% (4) had no stable levels of were the least in terms of food insecurity at 40%.
food security while none had stable levels of food Of those (15) who did not have access to farming
security. Among those who did not grow food inputs and had household food insecurity 53.33%
21.43% (18) had stable levels of food security (8) indicated that they did not have access to
while 14.29% (12) did not have stable levels of farming inputs because they could not afford to
food security. Proportionally 44% of those who buy for themselves (farming inputs were
had access to farming input did not have stable expensive) and 6.67% (1) indicated that they were
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not farmers. Therefore, lack of access to farming security.

input had a slight influence to household food

iv. Does access to loan facilities influence a household’s level of its food security?

Have you ever had access to a loan Do you always meet your daily needs?
facility? No Yes Total
No 36.9% (31) 40% (34) 77.38% (65)
Yes 7.14% (6) 15.48% (13) 22.26% (19)
Total 44% (37) 55.95% (47) 100% (84)

The findings in the table above show that 77.38% (65) did not have access to a loan facility and only 22.26%
(19). 36.9% (31) of those households who did not have access to loan facilities had poor food security (did not
always meet their daily food needs) while 40% (34) had stable food security whereas 7.14% (6) of those who
has access to a loan facility had food insecurity. However, the majority of those who had access to a loan
facility (15.48% (13) had food security. A bigger number of those who did not have access to a loan facility
(40% (34) had households with food security while the majority of the households who had access to a loan
facility also had food security. Considering the distribution proportionally of the sampled household under
each category, 52.3% of those who did not have access to loan facilities had food security while 68.4% of
those had access to loan facilities had food security in their households. This shows a bigger number of those
who had access to loan facilities than those who did not have access. Therefore, this indicates that there is a
slight relationship between accessibility to a loan facility and food security of a household.

Discussion the informal sector. Many people got employed as

Occupation servants or maids, garden boys and watchmen
The study sought to investigate whether occupation while others went to trade in the markets and bars
of the head of household had an influence on a or taverns. Out of the 84 households sampled,
household’s food security. The study particularly 54.76% (46) were able to meet their daily food
focused on whether household heads whose means needs while 45.24% (38) were unable to meet their
of livelihood was in the informal sector were more daily food needs. Using proportionate ratio of
likely to suffer from food insecurity than those who distribution, findings show that 44% (22) of the
were in the formal employment. Findings in table 1 traders (informal sector), 42.85% (6) of the
show that the major distributions (categories) of the farmers, 53.85% (7) of those both in farming and
occupations were four (4); trading (informal sector) trading, 66.67 % (2) of the public/civil servant did
59.52% (50), farming 16.66% (14), both trading not have food security in their households (could
and farming 15.48% (13) and Public/civil servants not meet their daily food needs) while 56% (28) of
3.57% (3). Similarly, qualitative data showed that the traders, 57.14% (8) of the farmers, 46.15% (6)
most households depended more on trading than of those in both farming and trading and 33.33%
farming in these communities. This is augmented (1) of the public/ civil servant had stable levels of
by Chigunta et al (2000:4) who stated that not all food security (were able to meet their daily food
the people who moved to the cities found needs). The findings show that the order of the
employment in the formal sector many resorted to occupation of the head of the households with the
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least levels of food security to those with stable majority of poor people depend, did not perform
levels were as follows public/civil servants, those particularly well over this period, with wide
who were both in farming and trading, informal fluctuations in production and a relatively low
sector (traders) and finally farmers. Contrary to the average growth rate. This reflected considerable
hypothesis those who were in formal employment variation in weather patterns as well as inadequate
suffered from food insecurity more than those infrastructure and generally poor market access and
whose means of livelihood were in the informal access to farming inputs. Qualitative data from key
sector. Dr. E.F Schumacher argued that either by informant show that most people did not just
giving households in these communities access to depended on growing crop they were also in
credit facilities or by giving access to them by any trading which may have assisted them greatly to
means, their productivity would increase hence, an stabilize the levels of food security in their
increase in their income also and finally there will households. In fact, when considering the
be food security in these households (Dauber and proportionate ratios of the two categories under
Cain, 1981). Based on the research findings, the study those who grew crops were more likely to
above hypothesis is rejected. suffer from food insecurity than those who did not.
Dr. E.F Schumacher argued that intermediate
Cultivation (growing) of crops technological development theory looks at ways of
Here this research sought to establish whether making these intermediate technologies available
involvement in food production (growing crops) by to these communities either by giving them access
a household had an impact on the household’s level to credit facilities or by giving access to them by
of food security. Its interest was on establishing any means, their productivity would increase
whether households which grew crops (food) were hence, an increase in their income also and finally
less likely to suffer from food insecurity than those, there will be food security in these households
which did not. The findings table 2 shows that out (Dauber and Cain, 1981:194).
of the 84 households (respondents) 35.71% (30)
did not grow any food while 64.29% (54) grew Accessibility to farming inputs
food. Out of 54 who grew crops 51.85% (28) had The study sought to establish whether accessibility
stable levels of food security (met their daily food to farming inputs by a household had an influence
needs) and 48.15% (26) did not have stable levels on a household’s food security. The study
of food security (did not meet their daily food particularly access to farming inputs by a
needs). On the other hand, out of the 30 who did household had influence on the level of its food
not grow food 36.67% (11) did not have stable security. From the findings shown in table 5 above
levels of food security while 63.33% (19) had out of the 84 household sampled 59.52% (50) had
stable levels of food security. Therefore, this shows access to farming inputs and only 4.76% (4) did
that involvement in food production did not really not have access to farming inputs. 35.71% (30)
influence the food security of a household were not farmers. Qualitative data indicated that
(51.85%) of those households who go grew crops most households had access to farming input but
and (63.33%) of those who did not grow food had the number of bags households accessed were very
stable levels of food security compared to 48.15% little only about two (2) bags per member of a
and 36.67% respectively suffered from food cooperative. There were also few cooperatives
insecurity. The World Food Programme (WFP) through which households could access farming
(2011) argue that agriculture, upon which the inputs. Dr. E.F Schumacher argued that
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ISSN: 3471-7102, ISBN: 978-9982-70-318-5

intermediate technological development theory key informants who indicated that most households
looks at ways of making these intermediate in the sampled compounds and villages did not
technologies available to these communities either have access to loan facilities except for Mr. X, the
by giving them access to credit facilities or by Councilor for Buseko ward who said that in
giving access to them by any means, their Location compound loan facilities were available
productivity would increase hence, an increase in to residents. The World Bank (2006) states that the
their income also and finally there will be food profile of livelihoods in shanty compounds and
security in these households (Dauber and Cain, villages surrounding major cities rarely escapes
1981:194). Of those who had access to farming poverty because they lack capital to invest. 36.9%
inputs 26.19% (22) had no stable levels of food (31) of those households who did not have access
security while 33.33% (28) had stable levels of to loan facilities had poor food security (did not
food security. Of those who did not have access to always meet their daily food needs) while 40%
farming inputs 4.76% (4) had no stable levels of (34) had stable food security whereas 7.14% (6) of
food security while none had stable levels of food those who has access to a loan facility had food
security. Among those who did not grow food insecurity. Considering the distribution
21.43% (18) had stable levels of food security proportionally of the sampled household under
while 14.29% (12) did not have stable levels of each category, 52.3% of those who did not have
food security. Proportionally 44% of those who access to loan facilities had food security while
had access to farming input did not have stable 68.4% of those that had access to loan facilities had
levels of food security while 100% of those who food security in their households. This shows a
had no access to farming inputs did not have stable bigger number of those who had access to loan
levels of food security and 40% of those who did facilities had stable levels of food security than
not grow food did not have stable levels of food those who did not have access. This indicates that
security. Proportionally those who had no access to there was a slight relationship between
farming inputs were more prone to food insecurity accessibility to a loan facility and food security of a
that those who had access to food security. While household. Therefore, the less the access to loan
those who were not involved in food production facilities by a household the lower the levels of its
were the least in terms of food insecurity at 40%. food security. This confirms Dr. E.F Schumacher’s
Therefore, there is a seeming influence of argument that making these intermediate
accessibility to farming inputs on the levels of food technologies available to these communities either
security of a household. by giving them access to credit facilities or by
giving access to them by any means, their
Accessibility to loan facilities productivity would increase hence, an increase in
Here the study sought to find out whether their income also and finally there will be food
accessibility to loan facilities by a household had security in these households (Dauber and Cain,
an influence on a household’s food security. The 1981:194).
study particularly focused on whether access to
loan facilities by a household had influence on the
levels of its food security. The findings in the table
6 above show that 77.38% (65) did not have access
to a loan facility and only 22.26% (19) had access.
These finding are supported by responses given by
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Conclusion and implications of findings Implication

Conclusion The above findings imply that the quantitative
This study aimed at establishing the factors findings generally indicated an overview of stable
influencing the levels of food security in levels of foods security in households of the
households in shanty compounds and urban sampled villages and compounds which is contrary
villages in Zambia. This study focused on the to the qualitative findings which showed that most
compounds and urban villages around Kasama households in these compound and villages were
town. Households in Shanty compounds in Zambia suffering from food insecurity. This implies that
face a lot of challenges some of which affect the the identified independent variable may not have
food security of these households or they hamper been the variables influencing food insecurity in
the maintenance of food security in these these compounds and villages. There could have
households. The study used the level of food been other variables that had influenced the levels
security in households as a dependent variable and of food security in households.
the independent variables (factors influencing food
security) were the type of occupation of the head of Recommendations
the household, accessibility to loan facilities and Based on the study results and on Dr.
farming inputs and engagement in the cultivation Schumacher’s theory the following are the
of crops. recommendations:
Findings showed that contrary to the hypothesis i. Since most households are involved in
which stated that household heads whose means of trading and to some extent farming, there is
livelihood were in the informal sector were likely need for the stakeholders to make available
to suffer from food insecurity more than those in to these households cheaper and enough
the formal employment, the results achieved farming inputs.
revealed that those who were in formal ii. There is also need to make available, cheaper
employment suffered from food insecurity more and accessible loan facilities to these
than those whose means of livelihood were in the households.
informal sector. Secondly findings revealed that iii. There is also need to equip these household
involvement in food production did not really with the right information and skills in order
influence the food security of a household for them to become active participants in
(51.85%) of those households who go grew crops both food production and viable
and (63.33%) of those who did not grow food had entrepreneurs in the informal sector. This
stable levels of food security compared to 48.15% will greatly improve the level of food
and 36.67% respectively suffered from food security in these households.
insecurity. The study also revealed that there was a iv. Further, studies will need to focus on other
seeming influence by accessibility to farming possible factors that may be influencing the
inputs on the levels of food security of a food security levels in these compound and
household. Finally, it also revealed that there was a urban village which this research could not
slight relationship between accessibility to a loan focus on.
facility and food security of a household. Thus, the
less the access to loan facilities by a household the
lower the levels of its food security.

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ISSN: 3471-7102, ISBN: 978-9982-70-318-5

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Appendix
Graph 1 -Marital status of the heads of the household
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Marital Status of the Head of the Household

100%

50%
26.19%
14.29% 9.52%

12 42 8 22 84
divorced married unmarried widow Total

Marital Status of the Head of the Household

The level of food security (quantity of food in store/ reserve of households)

Graph 2

The level of food security (quantity of food in store/reserve of

the households

100%

57.14%

21.43%
11.9%
2.38% 2.38% 4.76%

2 10 2 4 48 18 84
barely enough enough Enough through more than Did not have not enough Total
rationing enough food in
Store/Reserve

The level of food security (quantity of food in store/reserve of the households

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