The Biology of Adolescence

SALLY STANLEY
Research Associate, 4-H Center for Youth Development

Introduction interactions between parents and their

adolescents are inevitable. Caissy goes on
Sadly, yet not surprisingly, some adults to suggest that adults should just learn to
view the exuberant period of adolescence as accept the Òself-centeredÓ, Òknow-it-allÓ,
a dubious stage of development. Seeing ÒangryÓ, ÒcriticalÓ and ÒimpulsiveÓ
adolescence as a stage of development to be behaviors of teens as ÒnormalÓ behavior for
dreaded, rather than anticipated by adults, this age group (Caissy, 1994, p. 53). This
seems to be encouraged by the popular negative view of adolescence seems to be all
literature of today (e.g. Bell, 1987; Caissy, pervasive and may even affect the thinking
1994). For both teens and adults the of some professionals interacting with
literature ÒwarnsÓ of what is to come. In todayÕs youth.
spite of very little empirical support, the
popular literature tells teens Òyou may feel What is the source of this idea that
full of energy or lie around and sleep a lot. adolescence is a stage of development to be
Your moods may shift quickly, dreaded? Sigmund Freud (Freud,
uncontrollably, surprising youÓ (see Bell, 1905/1962) contended that humans were
1987, p. 5, cf. Buchanan, Eccles, & Becker, driven by their biology. Following in her
1992). Another book, written for parents by fatherÕs footsteps, Anna Freud (1969)
Caissy (1994), suggests adolescents are suggested that adolescents need time to
moody and unpredictable and that negative adjust to their new physiological drives. She
then proposed that an inability to
understand these drives and feelings led
adolescents to convert their drives and
feelings to other feelings such as aggression
or depression. Thus, biology becomes the
source of conflict between adults and
adolescents. Yet, conceptualizing the
psychology of adolescence along with
physiology does not necessarily mean we
have to view adolescents as ÒdrivenÓ by
these physiological changes. In fact, the
c u r r e n t zeitgeist encourages an
understanding of a more complex interaction
of both physiological and psychological
processes working in concert
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Lerner, Lerner, &
Tubman, 1989; Scarr & McCartney, 1983).
This fresh and more
advanced approach suggests that hormones one should ever be led to expect this stage of
probably do play a role in psychological development to be negative and conflictual,
development, but not quite in the way but should be encouraged to enjoy the
envisioned by Sigmund and Anna Freud, nor blossoming of children into adults.
in the way often portrayed in the popular
literature. With this in mind, the goal of this paper is to
encourage parents, youth professionals and
Some empirical studies do show a slight rise other adults to cherish rather than just
of parent-adolescent conflict during puberty. ÒsurviveÓ the period of adolescent
The relationship between puberty and development. Although there is still much
conflict is curvilinear with conflict to be learned about the biological
temporarily increasing and closeness underpinnings of this stage of development,
temporarily decreasing at the peak of this paper will first review the following
pubertal maturation; however, this statistical areas of current research on adolescent
effect is very small and has not been development:
specifically linked to the hormonal changes
of puberty (Blos, 1979; Buchanan, Eccles, &
Becker, 1992; Molina & Chassin, 1996;
Montemayor, 1986; Paikoff & Brooks-
Gunn, 1991; Steinberg, 1989, 1990). This
slight increase in conflict could just as easily
be explained by shifts and changes within
the family structure as children turn into
adults (Smetana, 1988). The evidence is
certainly clear that there are tremendous
physical changes during adolescence which
could possibly make this a challenging
period of development (Petersen, Susman, &
Beard, 1989), but are these changes
psychologically and physiologically
overwhelming for the adolescent? Should
parents or adults be concerned or believe
that adolescent behaviors, especially
disparaging ones, stem from hormones? Do
parents, or youth professionals need to
adjust their comments or guidance to
accommodate for adolescents supposedly
overwhelmed by hormones? Absolutely
not! None of the evidence available at this
time suggests that the hormonal physiology
of adolescence should lead to negative
experiences. Thus, it might be more useful
and encouraging for all adults, parents and
youth professionals, to view the
metamorphosis from child to adult as an
exciting and fun time for all concerned. No
 ¥ The hormonal changes of unknown (Buchanan, Eccles, & Becker,
puberty and adolescentsÕ moods 1992; Cameron, 1990).
¥ The tremendous
physical growth and In girls, a significant increase in the
change during hormone estradiol is seen at about age 9 or
adolescence 10 years. The increase continues through 13
¥ The timing of puberty to 14 years. In boys, testosterone levels rise
¥ The current during sleep somewhere around 10 years of
adolescent experience age, and about six months later, daytime
on average concentrations of testosterone increase
¥ Parent-adolescent (Apter, Reinila, & Vihko, 1989). The
conflict normal range for the onset of puberty is
usually around 9.5 years to 13.5 years for
Then, in conclusion, there will be offered a boys and 8 years to 13 years in girls
few suggestions on how to enjoy the (Nottelmann, et al; 1990). Aside from
biological changes of adolescence. changes in concentration of hormones, there
are also cyclic changes, for example the
The hormonal changes of puberty and menstrual cycle in girls. Although for
adolescentsÕ moods adolescents the entire system is transforming
and stabilizing into an adult pattern
Adolescence is usually defined as the period (Buchanan, Eccles, & Becker, 1992), cyclic
of development from the onset of puberty to changes are true for adults as well (Henry,
adulthood, with the onset of puberty marked 1992). This period of stabilization of
by hormonal changes. The general outcome hormones is most likely the basis of the
of puberty is an adult body capable of popular notion that adolescents, as well as
reproduction. Hormonal concentrations in their behavior and moods, are, in general,
blood are low before 8 or 9 years of age unstable and unpredictable.
(Buchanan, Eccles, & Becker, 1992). There is still much we do not know about
Somewhere between 5 and 9 years, the pubertal development, so the possibility
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis exists that the onset and fluctuations of
is activated, leading to an increase in hormones during puberty can influence the
numerous adrenal steroid hormones. The moods of adolescence. For example,
steroid hormones stem from a cholesterol receptors for adrenal steroid hormones are
base and are similar in boys and girls, found in the hypothalamus, amygdala and
though varying in quantity. For example, hippocampus, all areas of the brain
males have more testosterone and females associated with affective behaviors and
less. Females have more estrogen, males moods (Buchanan, Eccles, & Becker, 1992;
less. Estrogen and testosterone are able to Henry, 1992; Nottelmann et al., 1990).
suppress other gonadotropic hormones such However, even if hormones do affect these
as LH (Luteinizing Hormone) and FSH areas of the brain, there is still very little
(Follicle Stimulating Hormone) until evidence that hormones affect moods or act
puberty. Puberty is caused, in essence, by differentially on adolescents as compared to
the inability of these hormones to continue adults. There is only one study (Larson,
to suppress the other gonadotropic Csikszentmihalyi, & Graef, 1980) that might
hormones. Exactly why they are unable to possibly support the view that hormones
continue suppressing these hormones is still influence moods in adolescents. In this
study, adolescents were to record their may be some adolescents who are more
moods intermittently during the day, when susceptible to hormones than the average
buzzed with pagers. Analysis of these adolescent.
records did indicate adolescents had mood
swings during their day, but this data was Other researchers suggest hormonal effects
not correlated with hormonal evidence. Nor stem from adolescentsÕ reactions to physical
has this type of research been done with change, such as earlier breast development
adults. If we paged adults at various levels than their peers, rather than hormones per se
during their day, we might find that adults, (Rubin, 1990). Being earlier or later than
on average, also have mood swings during the norm in the timing of puberty, in
the day. One other study, Diener, Sandvik relation to the peer group, has been
and Larsen (1985, cf. Buchanan, Eccles, & associated with negative effects (Brooks-
Becker, 1992) did find a decline in intensity Gunn & Graber, 1994; Petersen, Richmond,
of mood from late adolescence to adulthood, & Leffert, 1993; Udry, 1990).
but again we can only assume that intensity Furthermore, the pattern of negative effects
increases during puberty and is driven by is different for each sex. Reaching puberty
hormones. In essence, there is very little early appears to have negative effects on
empirical support for the popular belief that girls whereas late maturity affects boys more
adolescents are Òvictims of raging negatively. For example, studies show early
hormonesÓ (Brooks-Gunn, Warren, & maturing girls are particularly sensitive to
Rosso, 1988, cf. Buchanan, Eccles, & evidencing physical signs of maturation
Becker, 1992; Buchanan, 1991; Buchanan, (e.g., breast development) prior to their
Eccles, & Becker, 1992; Crockett & peers, and this sensitivity in turn can lead to
Petersen, 1987; Larson & Lampman- low self-esteem and a poor body image in
Petraitis, 1989). these girls. In contrast, late maturing boys
find themselves the last to lose their child-
In fact, very few researchers believe like appearance in their peer group. Being
hormones are the ultimate director of small and looking child-like alongside the
adolescent behavior (Lerner & Foch, 1987). more developed boys, at an age when girls
Greene and Larson (1991) suggest the and boys are becoming more interested in
notion continues to persist because of each other, often leads to low self-esteem
adultsÕ perceptions of teens, as well as and poor body image in late maturing boys
researchersÕ limited knowledge about the (Graber & Brooks-Gunn, 1996). These
interaction of biology in the adolescent stage effects are still being researched but suggest
of development. Buchanan and colleagues that the hormonal effects of puberty affect
(1992) looked at energy level, restlessness self-esteem and personality through social
and concentration, irritability and interactions and thus play a far more
impulsiveness, and finding a range of important role in the lives of adolescents
individual differences, proposed that some than portrayed in the popular literature
individuals may be more susceptible to rises (Buchanan, Eccles, & Becker, 1992). The
in concentration of hormones than others. popular literature ignores these ramifications
The individual differences of some might and instead focuses on the effects of
then cause the assumption that all hormones on adolescent moods.
adolescents have similar problems. In other
words, although hormones show no effects Buchanan and colleagues (1992) suggest we
on the above behaviors on average, there focus on the real question, i.e., can we say
that moods and behaviors are different evenly. For both boys and girls, legs usually
during adolescence as compared to other grow first, followed by the trunk. The old
developmental times? As noted above, saying Ònever buy an adolescent boy a suitÓ
hormonal changes are gradually and attests to this uneven growth.
cyclically changing during the pubertal
process, yet even adults experience cyclic The average amount of height gained during
changes in hormonal concentrations. As a growth spurt is usually the same for all
very little research has examined the adolescents. Adult height depends on when
relationship directly (Buchanan, Eccles, & the growth spurt actually started (Graber &
Becker, 1992; Graber & Brooks-Gunn, Brooks-Gunn, 1996). Girls begin their
1996; Petersen, Richmond, & Leffert, 1993), growth spurt about two years earlier than
there are no definitive answers. This begs boys, grow about six to seven inches and are
the question of why the popular literature usually taller than boys during this time
and parents continue to accept the idea that period. Boys grow about 9 inches during
adolescent moods and behaviors are a result the growth spurt and by age 14 most boys
of hormones. If we really want to know if are taller than girls. Adult men in the United
moods and behaviors change at puberty, States on average, are about 4 inches taller
longitudinal studies following adolescents than women (Tanner, 1990).
prior to puberty and through the pubertal
process will need to be done (Buchanan, Although brain development is complete
Eccles, & Becker, 1992). We are only now before adolescence, the head does grow
witnessing an explosion of new studies in during this developmental period (Tanner,
adolescent development that are actively 1975; 1990). In fact, the face actually
measuring hormone production in relation to changes from child-like to adult-like as the
behavioral patterns (Petersen, Richmond, & skull solidifies. Body composition also
Leffert, 1993). Although we know little changes. Girls begin to store fat on hips,
about hormonal changes, many studies have breasts and upper arms, while boys tend to
focused on the morphological changes that lose fat and develop muscle. Along with
take place during the pubertal process. structural changes, there are changes in
These changes are summarized below. sensual experiences, for example the senses
of smell and taste increase in intensity.
The tremendous physical growth and There are sex differences in these changes
change during adolescence and the intensity of sensual experiences is
most likely related to reproductive needs of
Parents of adolescents typically comment on the sexes (Tanner, 1990). Changes in
the vast amount of food this age group metabolic rate also occur and might affect
consumes and may even joke that their activity levels though there is no direct
adolescents are Òeating machines.Ó In truth, evidence to support this relation (Buchanan,
hormonal changes do lead to an increase in Eccles, & Becker, 1992). It is important to
nutrient requirements because of the virtual realize that hormonal pubertal processes are
doubling of body mass and rapid growth that a process rather than an event (Petersen,
takes place (Tanner, 1975; 1990). 1987). That is, pubertal changes are
Adolescence is inevitably a time of occurring over a long time span. Thus, to
tremendous physical growth and change as return to our opening example, there is no
well as psychological change. The growth sudden hormonal event that would lead
spurt, as it is often called, does not proceed adolescents to suddenly feel tired.
 Although causal factors are still under
The timing of puberty investigation, the implications of this trend
have generated much research. A century
Due to the tremendous individual variation ago, it was common to marry in the late teen
in timing of the onset of puberty, the terms years with the onset of puberty occurring
ÒadolescentÓ and ÒteenÓ are not around 16 years of age (Lancaster &
synonymous. Information on the timing of Hamburg, 1986). Therefore, marital age and
onset of puberty mostly stems from studies the ability to reproduce were in harmony.
on girlsÕ menarche, i.e., the first indication Today, adults marry at a much later age
of a menstrual cycle (Tanner, 1975). while the average age of menarche in the
Although menarche can be used as a marker United States has dropped to 12.8 years
for the onset of puberty in girls, there is no (Belsky, Steinberg, & Draper, 1991). Thus,
similar marker in boys. Since the age of adolescents are reproductively capable long
menarche (i.e., a girlÕs first period) can be before they are ready to marry and raise a
easily quantified, researchers tend to focus family. Because of this, the trend towards
on this variable and assume the onset of an earlier onset of puberty has been
boysÕ pubertal patterns are similar. Using implicated in the rise in school age
menarche as a marker, studies have shown a pregnancies. There is a substantial amount
drop in the average age of puberty since the of literature on the effects of earlier puberty
turn of the century (Marshall & Tanner, on the rise in school-age pregnancies that
1986). This variation in timing has been will not be covered in this summation of
linked to several causes: heredity, general adolescent behaviors (e.g. Lancaster
improvements in nutrition, family & Hamburg, 1986).
environment and stressful life events
(Belsky, Steinberg &, Draper, 1991; Frisch, The current adolescent experience on
1974; 1990; Graber, Brooks-Gunn & average
Warren, 1995; Steinberg, 1989; Surbey,
1990). According to Frisch (1974; 1990), According to the empirical literature,
the improved nutrition in industrialized adolescent development is basically a
countries, along with studies showing that positive as well as successful experience for
low fat levels leads to cessation of the most adolescents (Graber & Brooks-Gunn,
menstrual cycle strongly suggests that 1996; Petersen, Richmond, & Leffert, 1993).
nutritional improvements have caused the Perhaps, many adults and parents view
trend toward earlier puberty. Alternatively, adolescence and puberty as having negative
Steinberg (1989) has suggested the trend ramifications because of the attention placed
towards earlier puberty could just as easily on those adolescents who evidence
be a result of stress factors related to problematic behaviors (Petersen, Richmond,
industrialization. Marital conflict and/or & Leffert, 1993). Yet, the processes
father absence (Belsky, Steinberg & Draper, involved in the development of these
1991; Surbey, 1990) have also been socially problematic behaviors, as well as
implicated as stressors affecting the onset of the groups of adolescents involved, are
menarche. Studies have shown that girls fundamentally different (Graber & Brooks-
raised without fathers and from divorced Gunn, 1996). In most adolescents, along
families do tend to mature earlier than girls with increasing size and reproductive
raised in intact families (Surbey, 1990). maturity, come increasing cognitive abilities
and knowledge which lead to a developing
understanding of self and others and an reorganization that occurs as children turn
increased ability to relate with others into adults. Smetana (1988, 1989) and
(Petersen, Richmond, & Leffert, 1993). Molina and Chassin (1996) have both
Although encompassing tremendous hypothesized that as adolescents mature,
individual variation, most psychologists they may demand more autonomy,
recognize adolescence as a positive time of temporarily causing a redefinition of family
transition (Graber & Brooks-Gunn, 1996; expectations and regulations. If this is true,
Rutter, 1994). In fact, Cornwell and and if adolescents from divorced families
colleagues (1996) suggest todayÕs have more autonomy (as suggested by
adolescents are really more advantaged than Hetherington, 1989), then there should be
in the past. Declining fertility rates and more parent-adolescent conflict in intact
poverty, along with increases in parental families than in divorced families. Smetana
education have really led to positive changes (1991) did find that there was less conflict in
within the family for the majority of todayÕs mother-custody families as compared to
youth (Cornwell, Eggebeen, & Meschke, intact families. In both types of families,
1996). In general, the current view is that parent-adolescent conflict was related to the
the majority of adolescents have no same issues, usually the everyday details of
problem coping with either the pubertal family life: interpersonal relationships,
changes or the transition (Buchanan, Eccles, regulating activities, homework and several
& Becker, 1992). others. However, as Smetana (1991)
points out, lack of conflict can also mean
Parent-adolescent conflict lack of communication. So, the autonomy
hypothesis is still unresolved. Molina and
Research has certainly documented some Chassin (1996) have recently found less
conflict in the parent-child relationship conflict in Hispanic families as boys reached
during puberty (Steinberg, 1981; 1989) puberty and suggest that puberty leads to
though not necessarily as negatively closer relationships within Hispanic
conflictual as portrayed in the popular families, at least for boys. But since the
literature. Generally, most adolescents feel sample consisted of alcoholic families, it
parentsÕ rules are fair (Achenbach & could be lack of communication that again
Edelbrock, 1981; Smetana, 1989). Students leads to what appears to be nonconflictual
in my large freshman university class on relationships. Again, all these effects
family issues were asked whether they felt would still point to interpersonal
going through puberty was a rough time in relationships within social contexts during
their lives, if they felt their parents were puberty and not solely hormones or puberty
unfair or if there was increasing conflict (see Greene & Larson, 1991).
during this time period. Most responses
were negative. Students shared that they Enjoying the biological changes of
were happy that parents gave them clear adolescence
boundaries as adolescents. They all stated
they would apply the same rules when Perhaps the secret to enjoying the biological
raising their own children. changes of adolescence is to ignore some of
the popular literature on raising teens,
Montemayor (1986) and Smetana (1988, especially when it is telling you to accept
1989) also believe that most conflicts are Òself-centered, know-it-all, angry, critical
minor and result from the family and impulsive behaviorsÓ as normal for
teenagers. Hormones should not be seen as behaviors as reasonable (Smetana, 1994).
a cause or an excuse for unacceptable This indicates youth who hold an adult in
behaviors, and parents and/or youth high esteem would regard information on
professionals wishing to enjoy their moral issues and behaviors as reasonable
adolescents should not excuse any input. There are no simple answers or
unacceptable behaviors as inevitable. resolutions as adolescents turn into adults
Overall, parents as well as youth and learn to make these decisions.
professionals do need to allow increasing
amounts of autonomy during this Although there is no such thing as a typical
adjustment period (Smetana, 1991). Yet, adolescent or typical family, in general,
Smetana and Asquith (1994) did find that parents are expected to impose authority the
both adolescents and parents agreed that first six years of a childÕs life (Baumrind,
parents should retain authority in the 1996). Somewhere around school age,
household. Shifts in authority need to be in children begin to understand that individuals
areas of personal jurisdiction. The problem are allowed to have different perspectives
is that adults and adolescents define personal but at this age children still actively solicit
jurisdiction differently. For example, adult approval. As children approach
parents see ÒpersonalÓ as pertaining to areas adolescence they need to form their own
that have only consequences to the identity and become autonomous. Parents
adolescent. For parents, areas that have to who have provided explanations, and
do with social or moral rules are no longer reasoned with their children as they
personal and are subject to parental developed, have caused their children to
authority. Adolescents believe decisions in internalize parental values. By adolescence,
some of these areas are personal. Shifting these children are usually capable of reason
and setting these new boundaries within the and able to consider the opinions of others.
family are part of the process of adolescent If parents have been firm about values and
development. Each family will differ on rules in early childhood, less rules are
determining how and when to shift these needed and parents as well as other adults
boundaries. One example would be the should be able to relax and enjoy watching
adolescent who prefers being with friends children emerge into adults. This is not
rather than attending the family picnic. quite the same as the implication of popular
Another example might be an adolescent literature (e.g. Caissy, 1994) which suggests
who feels her parents cross the personal that adults should be willing to
boundary in attempting to choose her accommodate to adolescentsÕ moods and
friends. Professionals working with youth needs.
will find adolescents often attempting to
delineate these same boundaries. For Many years ago, Winnicott (1960) came up
example, although an adolescent might feel with the concept of Ògood enough
their choice of friends is their own personal motheringÓ that Sandra Scarr (1992) has
business, most adults would feel obligated to recently renewed as Ògood enough
intervene when the friends of adolescents parenting.Ó Believing there are no typical
use alcohol or drugs. Although most families or parents, Scarr has suggested that
adolescents think parents have no right to chances are pretty good that unless the
comment on personal issues such as style of family or parents are considerably outside
clothes, most adolescents also regard the ÒnormÓ, they will not ruin their children
parental directives on moral issues and with their parenting style. Although some
may not accept ScarrÕs conclusions and
consider them controversial, this advice
appears to make sense since it allows
parents
to trust their judgement with their Baumrind, D. (1996).
expectations for what they deem reasonable Parenting: The discipline
and acceptable behavior for adolescents. controversy revisited. Family
Most adolescents are not victims of their Relations, 45, 405-414.
hormones. Adolescents are in fact changing
into adults and trying to learn to accept the Bell, R. (1987). Changing
resp Bodies, Changing Lives: A
onsibilities of adulthood. They look to Book for Teens on Sex and
adults and parents to treat them with respect Relationships. New York:
for their emerging capacities but they also Vintage Books.
need guidance. This guidance could be
especially critical in relation to ramifications Belsky, J., Steinberg, L., &
of the trend towards earlier pubertal Draper, P. (1991).
maturation which is experienced by the Childhood experience,
current generation of adolescents. interpersonal development,
and reproductive strategy: an
Baumrind (1996) recently offered evolutionary theory of
suggestions on how to effectively parent socialization. Child
which can be related to all adults working Development, 62, 647-670.
with todayÕs youth. Baumrind states adults
should focus on the optimal outcome Blos, P. (1979). T h e
expected for youth today. Three general Adolescent Passage. New
goals usually strived for are character, York: International
competence, and communion. Adolescents Universities Press.
with character would be responsible,
persistent and able to delay gratification. To Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979).
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behaviors from adolescents as a ÒnormalÓ Implications for research on
result of puberty and hormonal maturation, pharmacology. Journal of
and rightly so. Adolescent Health, 15, 663-
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