NOTES

1. WHAT ARE THE MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF VIETNAMESE HISTORY & CULTURE?

Vietnam boasts a rich historical tapestry marked by numerous conflicts, notably resistance wars against foreign
intruders. The Van Lang–Au Lac civilization witnessed Chao To's conquest of Au Lac in 179 BC, leading to the establishment of
the Nan Yue Kingdom until 111 BC. Subsequently, the Han Dynasty ushered in a 10-century era of Chinese dominance.
Throughout this period, brave Vietnamese uprisings against Chinese rule, such as those led by the Trung sisters, Ms. Trieu,
Phung Hung, Ly Bi, and Trieu Quang Phuc, were prevalent. The turning point arrived in 938 AD when Ngo Quyen triumphed
over the Southern Han troops on the Bach Dang River, heralding an era of independence. Following a protracted civil war among
12 warlords, Dinh Bo Linh successfully unified the country. In the Earlier Le Dynasty, Le Hoan emerged victorious against
invading Sung forces from China. The Tran Dynasty saw the Vietnamese army triumph against the formidable Mongolian–Yuan
troops, who attacked the country three times. In the Later Le Dynasty, Le Loi expelled the Ming troops and established control
in 1427-1428. However, subsequent divisions emerged, with the Northern Court under the rule of the Mac and the Southern
Court under the Le. The Trinh – Nguyen War, precipitated by the collapse of the Mac in 1592, endured until the 18th century
when the Tay Son brothers rose to prominence. In 1788 – 1789, Nguyen Hue's decisive victory over 290,000 Tsing troops led to
the inception of the Tay Son Dynasty. The 19th century brought French colonial aggression, culminating in the Indochina War
from 1846 to 1954, a resolute resistance against French imperialism. Post-French defeat, Vietnam found itself entangled in The
Vietnam War, a struggle against American intervention for national salvation. The triumphant general offensive and uprising in
1979 thwarted Neo-colonialism and unified the country. Following independence, Vietnam faced the Southwest Border War and
confronted a formidable Chinese force of 600,000 troops in 1979. Presently, the nation contends with ongoing territorial
disputes at sea with China.
Vietnam's cultural landscape is distinguished by a unique blend of acculturation, notably exemplified by Sinicization and
Desinicization. Sinicization, a dynamic process of cultural exchanges, encompasses both voluntary and compelled interactions.
The latter, a consequence of Chinese assimilation during a millennium of Chinese dominance, left a profound imprint on
Vietnamese society. Desinicization, however, reflects a deliberate departure from Chinese influences. Notably, the adoption of
Nom scripts, a deviation from Han scripts, incorporated newly invented characters representing native Vietnamese words. The
incorporation of Han-Vietnamese pronunciation further exemplified this departure. Similarly, Westernization and
Dewesternization have shaped Vietnam's cultural evolution since the 16th century. Westernization introduced both organic and
imposed changes, including the adoption of the Latin alphabet and the propagation of Catholicism and Protestantism, which
emerged as new religious facets in Vietnam. Dewesternization, conversely, is evident in the structuring of universities and the
education system, technological integration, and the adaptation of foreign words from Western languages into Vietnamese
pronunciation. The infusion of Marxist ideology through Ho Chi Minh further exemplifies this complex interplay. Presently,
Vietnam is engaged in a Dewesternization process to cultivate a modern Vietnamese culture that preserves its unique identity.
Simultaneously, traces of Hinduisation are discernible in cultural landmarks like the My Son Holy Land in central Vietnam,
underscoring the diverse influences that have contributed to Vietnam's cultural tapestry. The intricate interweaving of these
cultural elements reflects Vietnam's ability to adapt, evolve, and assert its distinctive identity amidst a rich history of
acculturation.
Vietnamese history and culture unfold across two distinct cycles of civilization, each playing a pivotal role in shaping the
nation's identity. The first cycle, characterized by the Red River civilization or Van Lang – Au Lac civilization, marked a period of
remarkable cultural achievements. Van Lang and Au Lac, the initial states of the Vietnamese people, showcased the nation's
ability to unite diverse tribes, indicating differentiation of classes and the strength to construct canals along the Red River. The
foundation laid during this civilization is integral to the very essence of Vietnamese culture, and without it, the Vietnam we
know today would not exist. Following the collapse of the Red River civilization, Vietnam endured ten centuries of Chinese
domination. The turning point came in 938 with Ngo Quyen's victory against the Southern Han on the Bach Dang River,
ushering in the second era of Vietnamese civilization known as the Great Viet/Dai Viet civilization during the Ly – Tran – Later
Le Dynasty. This period witnessed significant cultural advancements, and without Dai Viet civilization, the Vietnam of today
would not have emerged. However, the civilization's collapse in the 16th century led to division, civil wars, and peasant uprisings,
plunging Vietnam into colonization and a diminished standard of living. The 1986 Doi Moi Policy signaled a renewed hope for the
Vietnamese people to reclaim their civilization with the establishment of the Vietnamese Socialist Republic. Notably, Vietnamese
history and culture exhibit a unique development of socio-economic formations. While the European world transitioned
through primitive communism, slave-owning societies, federalism, and capitalism, the Vietnamese trajectory began with
primitive communism and progressed through the Asiatic mode of production, federalism, and then semi-feudal colonial society
intertwined with colonial capitalism. Unlike the European model, where remnants of old societies lasted briefly in the new,
Vietnamese socio-economic formations persisted without cessation up until 1945. For instance, primitive society persisted in
certain mountainous regions, devoid of landlords but characterized by distinctions between rich and poor. In essence, the
Vietnamese world experienced a continuous coexistence of multiple modes of production, underscoring the nation's rich and
diverse historical tapestry.
 2. WHAT WERE THE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE RED RIVER CIVILIZATION AND THE FORMATION OF VIETNAMESE
IDENTITY?
A nation's identity is a cornerstone of its culture, encompassing both mutable and immutable values. Vietnamese identity,
rooted in a rich cultural tapestry, manifests through four distinctive characteristics.
Firstly, there is a profound community consciousness among the Vietnamese people. Living as a closely-knit community,
they harbor robust nationalism and patriotism, valuing family, village, and country. Secondly, flexibility and synthesis are integral
to Vietnamese identity. Characterized by open-mindedness, the Vietnamese exhibit a lack of conservativeness, dogmatism,
xenophobia, and segregation. Notably, religious tolerance has been a hallmark of Vietnamese history, with a conspicuous
absence of religious wars. Thirdly, deep sentimentalism defines interpersonal relations in Vietnamese society. Cooperation is the
bedrock of relationships, and the societal structure incorporates familial positions as a form of address, such as calling older
women "aunts" and older men "uncles." Finally, Vietnamese identity places utmost respect for women at its core. Linguistically,
"cái" (female) is appended to significant entities like "Sông Cái" (Big River) and "ngón cái" (thumb). Notable historical figures like
Bà Điểm, Bà Quẹo, Hai Bà Trưng are invoked, showcasing a tradition of reverence for women. The formation of Vietnamese
identity can be traced back to the 8th century BC to the 2nd century BC, a period marked by the Red River civilization, where
Van Lang and Au Lac cultures coalesced. This era played a pivotal role in shaping Vietnamese identity, laying the groundwork for
the nationalism that would evolve later. The necessity of controlling water resources from the Red River compelled ancient Viet
tribes to unite and form solidarity for survival. Conflicts among primitive tribes led to their reunion, and archeological evidence
suggests a belief in an afterlife, with weapons buried in ancient tombs. In contrast to other ancient communes, such as Greek
and Latin, and Germanic communes, the Red River civilization was based on an Asiatic commune, characterized by public
ownership of land and the absence of private ownership. This communal structure fostered social stratification and laid the
foundation for the deep community consciousness ingrained in Vietnamese identity. Cultural exchanges during this period,
influenced by North China and Southeast Asia, engendered flexibility and synthesis, shaping the Vietnamese cultural landscape.
Agricultural practices, prevalent during this time, fostered deep sentimentalism, contributing to the emotional fabric of
Vietnamese identity. Additionally, the long-standing influence of Matriarchy in the region played a pivotal role in shaping
Vietnamese identity, instilling a deep-seated respect for women.
Indeed, the amalgamation of these multifaceted elements formed the bedrock of Vietnamese identity. Even before the era
of Chinese domination, the Vietnamese people possessed an independent culture and a richly diversified civilization. The
confluence of community-mindedness, flexibility, synthesis, deep sentimentalism, and respect for women forged a distinct
identity that flourished independently, contributing to the cultural tapestry that defines Vietnam. This pre-existing cultural
richness laid the groundwork for resilience and adaptation, enabling the Vietnamese people to navigate and shape their destiny
amidst various historical challenges and influences.

3. WHAT WERE THE PROCESSES OF SINICIZATION AND DESINICIZATION DURING OVER 10 CENTURIES OF
CHINESE DOMINATION? (EXPLAIN WHY THE VIETNAMESE PEOPLE COULD PRESERVE VIETNAMESE IDENTITY AFTER
OVER 10 CENTURIES OF CHINESE DOMINATION)
The theoretical framework of Sinicization, synonymous with Chinalization, delineates the process by which non-Han
Chinese societies come under the influences of the dominant Han Chinese state and society. In contrast, DeSinicization denotes
the deliberate elimination of Chinese influences. Together, these processes form the dynamic category of cultural exchanges, a
fundamental principle in cultural development within the realms of culturology and socio-cultural anthropology. The historical
backdrop of Sinicization and DeSinicization in Vietnam is rooted in the Chinese domination that spanned over 10 centuries.
Despite this prolonged influence, the Vietnamese people exhibited resilience and astuteness in preserving their distinct identity
through a practice known as acculturation. The period of Chinese rule saw the division of Vietnam into administrative sub-units,
such as Chiao Chih (Giao Chỉ) and Chiu Chen (Cửu Chân), under the umbrella of Chiao Chou (Giao Châu). Chinese rulers
implemented policies that included political and military suppression, economic exploitation, and cultural assimilation. The
Chinese sought to impose their language, attire, and customs on the Vietnamese population, leading to a significant challenge to
the preservation of Vietnamese identity. Despite the challenges posed by Sinicization, the Vietnamese people navigated the
complex dynamics through both normal and compulsory exchanges. Normal exchanges allowed for mutual learning between
the Vietnamese and Chinese, fostering development through shared knowledge. However, compulsory exchanges, often driven
by assimilation efforts, were met with resistance. Vietnamese people employed strategies of DeSinicization by selectively
accepting, receiving, improving, and adapting cultural elements to resist assimilation. Language and religion emerged as the
primary arenas for the Sinicization and DeSinicization processes. In terms of language, Chinese authorities aimed to eradicate
the Vietnamese spoken language. However, the Vietnamese response involved strategic DeSinicization, incorporating the best
elements while preserving and enriching their native language. Han script was accepted and learned, but the Vietnamese
maintained their spoken language in villages and developed Han-Viet pronunciation. Additionally, the creation of Nom scripts, a
system based on Chinese characters but enriched with newly invented characters representing native Vietnamese words,
showcased a deliberate effort to safeguard and enhance Vietnamese vocabulary.
 In essence, the historical saga of Sinicization and DeSinicization in Vietnam illustrates the intricate dance between
preserving cultural identity and adapting to external influences, resulting in a resilient and enriched Vietnamese cultural
tapestry. In the realm of religion, the interplay of Sinicization and DeSinicization manifested as a nuanced combination of
Confucianism, Taoism, and Chinese Buddhism in Vietnam. The Vietnamese people adeptly accepted and selectively
incorporated the advantageous aspects of these belief systems. Confucianism exerted a profound influence, particularly in
education and politics. Vietnamese society embraced the respect for intellectuals and learning, emphasizing social bonds
through concepts like "Tam cương" (the relationship between emperor and servant, father and son, husband and wife) and the
"Ngũ thường" (Five Virtues: humanism, etiquette, loyalty, intelligence, and sincerity). While Confucianism left its mark on
Vietnamese culture, there was a discernible departure from certain Confucian tenets that did not align with Vietnamese values.
Notably, the idea of not respecting manual labor and women in Confucianism was not wholly adopted, as evidenced by the
cultural adage "first my wife, second my heaven" ("nhất vợ nhì trời") in daily dialogues. Buddhism, a predominant faith in
Vietnam, witnessed a unique amalgamation of influences. While some aspects, like the concept of Phật, were influenced by
Chinese Buddhism, other facets were directly imported from India, contributing to the development of a distinctive Vietnamese
Buddhist tradition known as "Tam giáo đồng nguyên," a harmonious fusion of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. This
synthesis extended to the adoption of Chinese orders and the centralization of the monarchy court, showcasing a strategic
blending of cultural elements. The consequences of Sinicization and DeSinicization hold profound significance for Vietnamese
culture. This intricate dance between acceptance and adaptation was, in essence, the optimal strategy to preserve Vietnamese
identity and foster cultural development. It became the bedrock for the emergence of the second era of Vietnamese civilization,
known as Dai Viet or the Great Viet civilization. This period saw the flourishing of a diversified and enriched Vietnamese culture,
firmly grounded in the wisdom of selectively embracing external influences while safeguarding the essence of Vietnamese
identity.

4. What were the formation and development of Đại Việt civilization under Lý – Trần Dynasty?
The formation of the Dai Viet civilization was intricately woven through the fabric of historical needs, driven by political,
cultural, and socio-economic imperatives. Politically, the imperative arose from more than a millennium of Chinese dominance,
compelling the Vietnamese people to safeguard their sovereignty and independence. The specter of Chinese conquest
necessitated reunification and solidarity, serving as crucial prerequisites to prevent the recurrence of subjugation. In 968, the
cessation of anarchy among the 12 warlords by Dinh Bo Linh marked a turning point. To counter decentralization and ensure the
unity of the country, the adoption of a centralized monarchy became imperative. The Chinese model of a centralized monarchy,
with the emperor as the son of heaven wielding absolute power, was embraced to create a formidable state. This political
structure proved pivotal in withstanding external threats, such as Le Hoan's victory over the Sung army, leading to the
establishment of the Earlier Le Dynasty in 981. Culturally, the origins of Van Lang – Au Lac persisted, encompassing
community-mindedness and the reverence for filial piety ("Hiếu"). However, with cultural exchanges over ten centuries, a
synthesis emerged, culminating in the unique cultural needs of the Dai Viet civilization. The Lý – Trần Dynasty witnessed the
harmonious combination of ancestral roots and creative developments, forming a distinctive cultural landscape.
Socio-economically, the Dai Viet civilization was shaped by the conditions of wet rice agriculture. This system, involving canals
and dams for water control, mirrored the Asiatic mode of production. Public ownership dominated before Chinese domination,
but with Chinese influence, private ownership by a small number of Chinese landlords emerged. However, Vietnamese landlords
were even scarcer. By the 10th century, public ownership still constituted three-quarters of the land. Under the Lý – Trần
Dynasty, there was a deliberate effort to inherit, continue, and develop the wet rice agriculture system. This involved enhancing
labor, productivity, and overall capacity. Unfortunately, the collapse of the Dai Viet civilization in the 16th century led to a
devastating famine, resulting in widespread starvation and death. In essence, the Dai Viet civilization, molded by political unity,
cultural synthesis, and socio-economic adaptations, encapsulated the resilience and dynamism of the Vietnamese people in the
face of historical challenges.
The development of the Dai Viet civilization stands as a pinnacle achievement in culture, encompassing both material and
intellectual dimensions. In terms of material accomplishments, Dai Viet demonstrated remarkable feats in infrastructure and
architecture. Over 10,000 kilometers of canals in North Vietnam, constructed during this era, endure to this day. The Thang
Long imperial citadel, spanning 40 km2, was a testament to the grandeur of architectural endeavors. Iconic structures like the
One Pillar Pagoda, Pho Minh Temple, and Quy Dien Tower showcased the sophistication and skill of Vietnamese builders.
Handicrafts thrived in specialized villages such as Bát Tràng, renowned for pottery, as well as various others excelling in
ceramics, textiles, and bronze casting techniques. The development of on-water transportation added another layer of
sophistication to the material aspects of the civilization, symbolizing the apex of wet rice agriculture. Intellectually, Dai Viet's
achievements were equally notable. The cultural tolerance that prevailed facilitated a unique fusion of Buddhism, Confucianism,
and Taoism. This amalgamation, often described as "3 within 1, 1 within 3," permeated the Vietnamese mind and spirit. Buddhism
left its mark on sentimental feelings, Confucianism shaped education, politics, and social relations, and Taoism influenced the
Vietnamese perspective on harmonious coexistence with nature. The synthesis of these three religions contributed significantly
to the formation of Vietnamese identity. Lý Anh Tông's establishment of the school of three religions, where monks from
Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism were educated simultaneously, exemplified this harmonious integration. Monks of these
religions even held official positions, demonstrating a remarkable level of tolerance and cooperation. The influence of these
religions extended into poetry and literature, shaping the cultural and intellectual landscape of Dai Viet. The intellectual
achievements were not confined to the realm of religion. Dai Viet showcased a deep and unique nationalism, marked by a
distinct political and military art. Political art was characterized by special relationships, such as the bond between general and
army, the formation of a royal family with the emperor and officials, and diplomatic measures to maintain cohesion between the
majority and minority populations through political marriages. Military art encompassed a strategic combination of guerilla and
regular armies, diplomatic finesse, and segregation tactics to successfully resist Mongolian invasions. In matters of governance,
Dai Viet implemented a writing court and criminal court, demonstrating an advanced legal system. Education saw the
establishment of the first national school, Quoc Tu Giam, reflecting a commitment to intellectual development. In essence, the
Dai Viet civilization represented a harmonious convergence of material and intellectual achievements, leaving an enduring
legacy in the annals of Vietnamese history.
In conclusion, the legacy of the Dai Viet civilization is indelibly woven into the fabric of Vietnam's history and identity.
The material and intellectual achievements of Dai Viet not only laid the foundations for the thriving nation we recognize today
but also continue to shape the cultural, social, and political landscape for successive generations. The resilience, ingenuity, and
harmonious synthesis of various elements within the Dai Viet civilization have left an enduring imprint on the Vietnamese
collective consciousness. Without the Dai Viet civilization, Vietnam as we know it would not exist, underscoring the profound
and lasting impact of this historical epoch on the nation's trajectory. The ongoing inheritance of values, traditions, and cultural
richness from Dai Viet serves as a testament to its enduring significance in shaping the identity and continuity of Vietnam
through the ages.

5. WHAT WERE THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC, AND POLITICAL TRANSFORMATIONS DURING THE PERIOD OF THE 15TH –
18TH CENTURY?
The historical backdrop from the 15th to the 18th century in Vietnam witnessed a series of political transformations and
socio-economic shifts, both positive and negative.
On the negative side, the most significant challenge was the three-century division of the country into the northern and
southern parts. Historically, unity strengthened a nation, while division weakened it. Civil wars among feudal groups, such as the
conflicts between Mạc and Nguyễn Kim, Trịnh and Nguyễn, and later Tây Sơn against Nguyễn Ánh, further exacerbated the
destabilizing effects. However, on the positive side, this period also saw notable peasant movements, particularly the Tây Sơn
uprising during the 16th to 18th centuries. The Tây Sơn brothers' peasant wars successfully challenged existing political regimes,
defeating both local powers and foreign invaders like the Siamese and Tsing armies. Socio-economic changes during this time
were marked by alterations in land ownership. While public ownership dominated from the 11th to the 15th century, accounting
for two-thirds of the land, by the 18th century, there was a shift towards decreasing public land and increasing private land. The
reduction of public land to one-third and the rise of small peasants and landlords reflected positive changes. However, the
peasant movements struggled to address the underlying question of historical needs, resulting in a crisis. Moreover, new factors
emerged in society, signaling the onset of capitalism with a higher development of commodity economics and the advent of
wage labor. The establishment of handicrafts factories indicated class differentiation, yet the growth of these elements
remained slow due to the conservatism of multi-mode production and feudalism. The entrenched communal land system in
Vietnam kept peasants tied to their villages, unlike in Europe where peasants left to form factories, hindering the development
of capitalist seeds.
Socially, the class structure underwent changes in the 18th century, marked by a decrease in the number of notables and
a rapid increase in landlords, tenants, and small peasants. However, a deep contradiction persisted between landlords and
peasants. The absence of significant industrial development and progressive classes, such as capitalists and workers, resulted in
a lack of strata and revolution in society, culminating in a comprehensive crisis.

6. WHY DID THE NGUYỄN COURT LOSE THE INDEPENDENCE OF VIETNAM IN THE LATE 19TH CENTURY?
The historical background during this period, marked by French colonial intrusion into Vietnam, unfolded as follows: On
August 31st, 1858, the French initially arrived in Vietnam in Đà Nẵng. Following their failure in the Đà Nẵng battle, the French
redirected their efforts towards Gia Định. By 1862, through the Nhâm Tuất agreement, the French gained control over three
eastern provinces (Biên Hòa, Gia Định, and Định Tường) and three western provinces (Vĩnh Long, An Giang, and Hà Tiên) by
1867, establishing their rule over southern Vietnam. In 1873, the French attacked Hà Nội citadel for the first time, resulting in the
death of Nguyễn Tri Phương. The second agreement in 1874 officially acknowledged French domination in Vietnam. In 1882, the
French launched a second attack on Hà Nội, leading to the suicide of Hoàng Diệu. The Harmand agreement was signed in August
1883, followed by the complete surrender agreement known as the Patenotre treaty in 1884. The reasons behind Vietnam losing
its independence encompass both objective and subjective factors. Objectively, the changing landscape of global capitalism in
the 19th century witnessed the transition from capitalism of free competition to imperialism, characterized by monopolized
capitalism. France emerged as one of the imperialist powers, and the objective trend of capitalism's development was marked by
the need to expand and secure new natural resources, markets, and sources of cheap labor through colonialism. This objective
process of colonization unfolded worldwide, particularly in Asia, Latin America, and Africa. However, some countries, like
Thailand and Japan, managed to avoid colonization due to effective leadership and strategic policies. Japan, for instance,
underwent the Meiji reform, similar to a capitalist revolution, modernizing the country with a focus on industrialism and
capitalism. In contrast, Vietnam's leadership, under Tự Đức emperor, rejected proposals for similar reforms presented by figures
like Nguyễn Trường Tộ, leading to a significant decline. Thailand, positioned as a buffer area between Britain and France,
successfully balanced the influence of both powers through open-door policies. Ultimately, the subjective aspect, especially the
policies of feudal authorities in Asia, played a crucial role in determining whether a country succumbed to colonization or
successfully navigated the challenges posed by imperialist powers.
The subjective reasons for Vietnam's loss of independence during this period can be attributed to the mistakes made by
the Nguyễn Dynasty in both internal and external policies. Economically, the Nguyễn Court implemented a closed-door policy,
ceasing exchanges with foreigners and adhering to outdated agricultural practices with low capacity and productivity. The
absolute ownership of the landlord class hindered economic development, supporting feudalism, which was regressive in the
19th century. Barriers to import and export, such as heavy taxes, stifled the growth of handicrafts and industry, and the absence
of modernization in the monetary system hampered economic progress. In social policy, there existed a profound contradiction
between the landlord class and small tenant peasants, leading to numerous peasant uprisings. Peasants faced heavy taxes, labor
levies, and rice rents imposed by landlords, exacerbating inequality in society. The feudalist class, comprising notables and
bureaucratic ranks, became the ruling class, while peasants and laborers became the ruled class. Politically, the Nguyễn Court
adopted a centralized power model similar to the Tsing feudalist monarchy, resulting in a bureaucratic system with elements of
dictatorship. Criticism of the emperor was stifled, leading to corruption within the court. Attempts by reformer Nguyễn Trường
Tộ to propose reforms similar to the Meiji reform were ignored due to a lack of understanding of Western countries. In the
military sphere, the weakness of the Nguyễn army stemmed from a lack of modern weapons, inadequate training, and a dearth
of effective strategies to defend the country. The absence of a strong navy and powerful warships further weakened Vietnam's
military capabilities. Culturally, education remained unchanged, with traditional practices hindering national development. The
exclusive focus on Confucianism, particularly the reactionary Sung Confucianism, defended obsolete relationships between the
king and servants, undermining progress. The Nguyễn Court's resistance to new religions, exemplified by the persecution of
Christian believers, further hindered cultural flexibility. Moreover, the Nguyễn Court pursued misguided strategies during
French attacks, failing to capitalize on favorable moments for counterattacks. The signing of negotiation agreements when there
were opportunities for counterattacks and the failure to respond to a limited number of French troops during 1858-1861 were
deemed unreasonable national defense policies.

7. WHAT WERE THE CULTURAL, AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATIONS IN VIETNAM UNDER THE FRENCH
DOMINATION AND EXPLOITATION IN THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY?
After the Patenotre agreement in 1884, the period from 1897 to 1913 marked the first phase of French exploitation in
Vietnam under General Governor Paul Doumer. This phase focused on establishing infrastructure for the mining industry.
Following World War I, from 1919 to 1928, the second phase of exploitation, under General Albert Sarraut, targeted agricultural
exploitation in the Mekong Delta while still continuing mining activities in North and Central Vietnam. The overarching colonial
objective of the French was the exploitation of Vietnam, aiming for higher monopoly interests through the utilization of cheap
labor and raw material resources. Colonial policies in Vietnam and Indochina were multi-faceted. In politics, the French
implemented a "divide to rule" strategy, fostering internal conflicts among the Vietnamese, accompanied by brutal suppression.
Culturally, assimilation efforts were made through Westernization and a "stupid people" policy. Economically, the focus was on
colonial exploitation to extract maximum super interests. Summarily, the basic policies encompassed four key aspects. Firstly,
the French aimed to maintain the "multi-mode of production" in the socio-economic formation, continuing outdated modes
instead of fostering modernization. Secondly, France sought to keep Vietnam within the orbit of the worldwide market of
French colonialism, achieving trade surpluses for 41 out of 50 years from 1890 to 1939. Thirdly, privileges and concessions were
granted to French businessmen, providing them with priority to monopolize trade. Fourthly, the French aimed to limit
industrialization, concentrating on exploiting mining industries while restricting manufacturing industries to prevent
competition with French industries. Under French domination in the early 20th century, Vietnam underwent both negative and
positive transformations. Economically, the "economic traite" policy exploited Vietnam for the benefit of France, but there were
signs of economic modernization and the emergence of capitalist urbanization in cities like Sài Gòn, Hà Nội, and Hải Phòng.
Societal changes included the differentiation of classes, with the development of a strong landlord class and the emergence of
capitalist, small bourgeoisie, and worker classes. Culturally, acculturation efforts included Westernization and
Dewesternization, with the introduction of Christianity and Catholicism.
In conclusion, while the negative aspects of French colonial rule are acknowledged, it is essential to recognize the
positive transformations that occurred, paving the way for Vietnam's continued development.

8. What was the crisis of way for national salvation from the late 19th until the early 20th century?
Examining the historical background, since the French attack in 1858, Nguyễn Dynasty consistently employed ineffective
national defense strategies. Between 1861 and 1867, numerous patriotic uprisings led by figures like Nguyễn Trung Trực, Trương
Định, Thủ Khoa Huân, and others emerged, yet most met with failure. Tự Đức's passing in July 1883 initiated a succession crisis,
with three emperors—Dục Đức, Hiệp Hòa, and Kiến Phúc—within a few months. In May 1884, Hàm Nghi ascended the throne,
and in July 1885, the "Cần Vương proclamation," rallying support against the French, was issued. During the late 19th and early
20th centuries, three significant patriotic movements unfolded. In the late 19th century, the prominent "Cần Vương
proclamation" featured uprisings like Ba Đình, Bãi Sậy, Hương Khê, and Hoàng Hoa Thám. These movements, rooted in feudalism
and influenced by Confucianism, faltered due to insufficient preparation and a lack of solidarity. The feudal ideology proved
obsolete, and the failure left Vietnamese patriots in a crisis regarding the path to national salvation. The early 20th-century
patriotic movements were influenced by reformist movements in China and Japan. Chinese reformists Kang Yew Wei and Liang
Ki Chao, advocating for a shift from feudalism to democracy, inspired Vietnamese Confucianists. Japan's Meiji reform also
influenced Vietnamese patriots, including Phan Bội Châu and Phan Chu Trinh. Phan Bội Châu sent Vietnamese students to Japan
but faced challenges from French authorities, leading him to China, Thailand, and eventual capture by the French in Shanghai.
Meanwhile, Phan Chu Trinh believed in cooperation with the French, misunderstanding the exploitative nature of French
colonialism. The failures of the early 20th-century movements stemmed from flawed strategies. Phan Bội Châu erred by
misjudging Japan's imperialistic nature and neglecting the socio-economic transformations and contradictions in Vietnamese
society. Both Phan Bội Châu and Phan Chu Trinh failed to recognize the significance of the peasant class, comprising 90% of the
population. They misunderstood the enemies and the role of the progressive class, given the limited presence of a leading class
at the time. In essence, the historical limitation was the absence of a leading class during the early 20th century, rendering even
talented figures like Phan Bội Châu and Phan Chu Trinh unable to overcome the crisis and historical constraints. The third
patriotic movement unfolded in the aftermath of World War I. During the 1920s, Vietnam experienced influences from China
with the "Three People" slogan (independence, happiness, freedom), the French Revolution ideology, and the Soviet Union,
particularly the October Revolution. In the capitalist class, reformism gained traction with the establishment of the
Constitutional Party by Bùi Quang Chiêu, aiming for political reform. Various movements, including struggles against the
monopoly of the Sài Gòn port and activities by small bourgeoisie and intellectuals, emerged. Progressive newspapers like
"Cracked Bell" by Nguyễn An Ninh and political parties such as the Party of Mind by Phạm Hồng Thái and the Vietnamese
Revolutionary Party contributed to the criticism of French colonialism. However, these movements faced challenges similar to
previous periods. The failure stemmed from adopting incorrect approaches to saving the country. Many parties failed to identify
the enemies accurately and lacked a clear strategy for national salvation. While French colonialists were recognized as
adversaries, the landlord class was not identified as the second enemy of the Vietnamese people. As a result, the basic
contradictions in Vietnamese society after World War I went unrecognized. Lack of clarity on revolutionary forces and the
absence of a leading class led to a spontaneous process with flawed methodologies, causing division, lack of solidarity, and no
unification. Vietnam continued to grapple with crises. To overcome these challenges, influences from the October Revolution
and the activities of Nguyễn Ái Quốc (later known as Hồ Chí Minh) played a pivotal role. In 1911, Nguyễn Tất Thành left Sài Gòn in
search of national salvation. He respected figures like Phan Bội Châu and Phan Chu Trinh but recognized the need for a different
approach. By 1920, Nguyễn Ái Quốc had become the first communist in Vietnam and joined the French Communist Party. Over
the next decade, he worked to disseminate Marxism and Leninism in Vietnam, offering a new path for national salvation. In
August 1925, he founded the Association of Revolutionary Youths and engaged in various activities, including publishing the
"Youths" newspaper and opening training classes in Guangzhou to prepare for the party's formation. He clarified the enemies of
the Vietnamese people, identified the revolutionary forces, and pointed out potential allies for cooperation. The dignified role of
the communist party emerged, culminating in the establishment of the Vietnamese Communist Party in February 1930 by
Nguyễn Ái Quốc, marking the resolution of the crisis in the path for national salvation.

9. WHAT WERE THE REASONS FOR THE VICTORY OF THE AUGUST REVOLUTION IN 1945?
After the establishment of the Vietnamese Communist Party in 1930, later transformed into the Indochina Communist
Party, a 15-year preparation unfolded in three distinct periods of movements leading up to the swift and decisive August
Revolution in 1945, which declared Vietnam's independence. The victory of the August Revolution in 1945 can be attributed to
both objective and subjective reasons. The most crucial objective reason was the failure of fascism in World War II. As Japanese
fascists surrendered in 1945, a highly favorable condition emerged for the Vietnamese revolution. The overall defeat of fascism,
marked by the collapse of German fascism in May 1945, created a turning point and provided an opportune moment for
Vietnamese uprisings. While Western historians often consider this the primary factor, it is crucial to recognize the significance
of subjective reasons. The subjective reasons are rooted in the leadership of the Indochina Communist Party, led by Hồ Chí
Minh, and the heroism of the Vietnamese people. The party's 15-year preparation, characterized by a meticulous strategy and
the ability to seize favorable moments, played a pivotal role. Hồ Chí Minh's concise manifesto and Trần Phú's thesis guided the
party in leading the masses through economic and political struggles, eventually transitioning to military struggles and awaiting
opportune moments for armed uprisings. Revolutionary forces were comprised of peasants, proletariats, small bourgeoisie, and
national capitalists. International solidarity from colonial people in Western countries and the global proletariat was recognized
as essential. The high tide of 1930-1931, exemplified by the Soviet Union in Nghệ-Tĩnh, represented the initial groundwork.
Although this revolutionary government was violently suppressed by the French and ultimately collapsed, it left profound
implications. The Soviet Union in Nghệ-Tĩnh showcased the Vietnamese Communist Party's commitment to the lines of
Vietnamese revolution, emphasizing solidarity among classes. Despite its failure, the episode yielded valuable lessons and
experiences that guided future uprisings. The third phase of preparation, spanning from 1939 to 1945, directly paved the way for
the August Revolution and unfolded in three distinct periods. From 1939 to 1941, strategic lines for the revolution were
delineated through three Central Committee meetings of the Indochina Communist Party: the 6th (November 1939), 7th
(November 1940), and 8th (May 1941), the latter of which saw the return of Nguyễn Ái Quốc to Vietnam. In 1940, Nguyễn Ái Quốc
foresaw the impending failure of fascism, prompting various countries, including Vietnam, to contemplate uprisings. The key
objectives were clearly outlined during these meetings, emphasizing national liberation. Two strategic goals emerged: defeating
the French for national independence and challenging the landlord class for the "land-to-the-tiller" slogan. Eventually, this
evolved into the broader objective of acquiring land from enemies (French and reactionary landlords) and redistributing it to
poor and landless peasants, fostering crucial solidarity. Additionally, national unity was fostered through the establishment of
the "Front" – a coalition for great national solidarity encompassing various classes, ranks, and strata. The Việt Minh Front was
specifically established during the 8th meeting. The central focus during this period was the preparation for military uprisings,
which necessitated determining favorable moments, forces, and clearly defining the structure of uprisings in Vietnam. Local
uprisings were initiated as preliminary actions, setting the stage for a general uprising during opportune moments. From 1941 to
March 9, 1945, efforts were concentrated on building revolutionary forces and bases. The Việt Minh Front was instrumental in
organizing political forces, including women, youths, and peasants, rallying for national salvation. On the military front,
following the Bắc Sơn uprisings in 1940, Hồ Chí Minh established small guerrilla units known as Bắc Sơn guerrillas, subsequently
evolving into an army for national salvation – the platoon. The National-liberating Vietnamese army for propaganda was
founded on December 22, 1944. Bases were established in the mountainous provinces of North Vietnam, such as Cao, Bắc, Lạng,
Hà, Tuyên, and Thái. Notably, Cao Bằng, connected with Bắc Sơn - Võ Nhai base, laid the foundation for Việt Bắc base. In the
third period, from March 9 to August 1945, local uprisings were the focal point. While Japan and France had co-dominated
Vietnam from fall 1940 to March 1945, the balance shifted on March 9 when the Japanese swiftly overturned French domination
to assume power. The impending collapse of fascism due to an imbalance between the Allied Army and Fascism presented a new
opportunity. In June 1945, Việt Bắc base was established, and local uprisings intensified in mountainous regions. Hồ Chí Minh
astutely predicted Japanese surrender, initiating political struggles and mass movements to avert a devastating famine. The
August 1945 national conference in Tân Trào marked the official commencement of the uprising. Within just two weeks of the
first uprising on August 14th, the general uprisings unfolded, taking advantage of the opportune time before the Allied Army
arrived to disarm the Japanese. The decision not to initiate the revolution earlier was attributed to the power imbalance
between Vietnamese revolutionaries and Japanese forces, as well as the significant military presence in the region.

10. IN YOUR OPINION WHAT DO YOU THINK ABOUT THE VIET NAM WAR (1955 – 1975)?
According to Mark Bradley, the notion that re-establishing a positive relationship with America after the August
Revolution could have averted the Vietnam War is contested by many who argue that the conflict was inevitable. Rather than a
mere confrontation between two countries, the war unfolded as a clash between capitalism and socialism. Several factors
underscored the significance of Vietnam in this ideological struggle: its crucial strategic position and abundant resources. The
aftermath of World War II witnessed Vietnam's remarkable achievements in national liberation movements, propelling the global
anti-imperialist cause. The 1945 August Revolution led to the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, fostering
the potential spread of socialism in Southeast Asia and beyond. The indirect U.S. intervention in Vietnam through support to
French colonialism, starting in 1956, was prompted by the fear of socialism expanding in the region. The U.S. employed various
strategies during its involvement, including the one-sided war or Eisenhouse strategy, marked by the flexible response
encompassing special, local, and all-out wars. Vietnam, lacking a conventional army, relied on political force and guerrilla
tactics, exemplified by mass struggles such as the Dong Khoi uprising. The special war involved a comprehensive approach,
combining political and military forces across three fronts: mountainous, rural and delta, and urban regions. The military force
comprised the guerrilla army, local army, and regular army. The period before 1968 witnessed a combination of offensives and
uprisings, while from 1968 to 1975, there was a shift to a general offensive and uprising. In the special war, the U.S. deployed over
560,000 well-armed puppet soldiers by the end of 1964, seeking to suppress revolutionary forces. In contrast, the people in
South Vietnam expanded their resistance in three fronts: military, politics, and propaganda. Key victories in battles like Ap Bac
(My Tho) in 1963 and Binh Gia (Vung Tau) in 1964 signaled the failure of the U.S. special war strategy. The local war, initiated by
the U.S. in March 1965, aimed to halt the spread of people's struggles in South Vietnam. Despite the increasing number of
American soldiers, Southern revolutionary forces persevered, defeating U.S. attacks in the South. The U.S. resorted to bombing
the North, culminating in the "Air Dien Bien Phu" battle in late 1972, forcing the signing of the Paris Convention in 1973. The U.S.
violated the agreement, supporting Nguyen Van Thieu's invasion of the liberated zone. The General Attack and Uprising in
spring 1975 led to victory, declaring Vietnam's independence and unity. This triumph underscored the political independent
strategy of the Vietnamese Communist Party, mobilizing the entire nation to achieve two strategic tasks simultaneously. The
victory's roots lay in the traditional patriotism of the Vietnamese people and their revolutionary heroism. The effective
contributions from the North, solidarity among the three Indochinese countries, and global support, particularly from the USSR,
China, and other socialist nations, played pivotal roles in the triumph over an imperialist enemy.