[| EY CHAPTER - 3: RELIGIONS AND DHARMA Religion in India is characterised b 7 ian subcontinent isthe bithplace of fe eee ee ee ee ae | ergahism, Jainism, and Sikhism The preamble of Indian conch ta eee sroult state. Throughout Indias history, religion has been an important Gra Ge couse culture) Religious diversity and religious tolerance are both established ip the ae oa sr the Constitution of India has dectared the right o freedom of religion to pppeinaliey right, ‘According to the 2011 census, 79.8% of the population of India practices Hinduism, 14.2% adheres to Islam, 2.3% adheres to Christianity, 1.7% adheres to Sikhism, 0.7% adheres to mm and 0.4% adheres to sei) Zoroastrianism, Sanamahism and Judaism also have i$ several thousands of Indian adherents. India has the Parsis and Iranis) and Baha'i Faith ly exclusive to their native Persia. Buddhist ‘an ancient history in India, and each hi largest population of people adhering to Zoroastrianism (i.e. inthe world, even though these religions are otherwise large! a key concept with multiple meanings in Indian religions, such as Hinduism, ism, Sikhism and others) Although there is no direct single-word translation for bec Ht fed as "righteousness", “merit” or aa \ Dharma is Buddhism, Jaini dharma in European languages, it is commonly translate ral duties" governing individual conduct. as « ) ( Reaoshagthansloati Lene miss) \ In Hinduism, dharma is one of the four components of the Puru?artha, the aims of life, and signifies behaviours that are considered to be in accord with ?ta, the order that makes life and sboxe universe possible. }t includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and “right way of living”. It had a transtemporal validity. lob of buman berg tofamily Saseky hurvowsty (in Buddhism, dharma means "cosmic law and order" as expressed by the teachings of the Buddha)In Buddhist philosophy, dhamma/dharma is “* the mn, $04, ‘phenomena™,.9 ) (Dharma in Jainism refers to the teachings of Tirthankara ‘dinate ‘and the body of doctrine pertaining to the purification and moral transformation of human beings. path of righteousness and proper religious practice and "religious and mor (in Sikhism, dharma means one's own moral duties toward God, The concept of dharma was already in use inthe historical Vedic religion, and its meaning and conceptual scope has evolved over several millennia. The ancient Tamil moral text Tirukkua, despite being a collection of aphoristic teachings on dharma (aram), artha (porul), and kama (pam), is completely and exclusively based on 2 am, the Tamil term for dharma. As with the other components of the Puru7artha, the concept of dharma is pan-Indian.Terry haelmea secon cia akeauauuas According to Pandurang Vaman Kane, author of the authoritative book History Dharmasastra, the word dharma appears at least fifty-six times in the hymns of the Rigveda, an adjective or noun. According to Paul Horsch, the word dharma has its origin in the myth, Vedic Hinduism. The hymns of the Rig Veda claim Brahman created the universe from chagy they hold (dhar-) the earth and sun and stars apart, they support (dhar-) the sky away ang distinct from earth, and they stabilise (dhar-) the quaking mountains and plains. The gods, mainly Indra, then deliver and hold order from disorder, harmony from chag. Stability from instability — actions recited in the Veda with the root of word dharma, In hymn composed after the mythological verses, the word dharma takes expanded meaning ag , cosmic principle and appears in verses independent of gods. It evolves into a concept, claim, Paul. Horsch, that has a dynamic functional sense in Atharvaveda for example, where i becomes the cosmic law that links cause and effect through a subject. Dharma, in thes. ancient texts, also takes a ritual meaning. The ritual is connected to the cosmic, ang “dharmani" is equated to ceremonial devotion to the principles that gods used to create ord, from disorder, the world from chaos. Past the ritual and cosmic sense of dharma that link the current world to mythica universe, the concept extends to ethical-social sense that links human beings to each othe. and to other life forms. It is here that dharma as a concept of law emerges in Hinduism. Dharma and related words are found in the oldest Vedic literature of Hinduism, in later Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, and the Epics; the word dharma also plays a central role in the literature of other Indian religions founded later, such as Buddhism and Jainism.[18] According to Brereton, Dharman occurs 63 times in Rig-veda; in addition, words related to Dharman also | appear in Rig-veda, for example once as dharmakrt, 6 times as satyadharman, and once as dharmavant, 4 times as dharman and twice as dhariman. Indo-European parallels for “dharma” are known, but the only Iranian equivalent is Old Persian darman "remedy", the meaning of which is rather removed from Indo-Aryan dhérman, suggesting that the word "dharma' did not have a major role in the Indo-Iranian period, and was principally developed more recently under the Vedic tradition. Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian "subcontinent" derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings depicting dances and rituals. Neolithic pastoralists inhabiting the Indus Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife. Other South Asian Stone Age sites, such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central Madhya Pradesh and the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, contain rock att portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music.The Harappan people of the Indus Valley Civilisati ion, which laste different forms. Hinduism's origins include the cultural elem rents of the Indus Vall of Hinduism is the ‘CE. During the Epic Tent form including Rar » although these were ley Civilisation along with Rigveda, produced during and Puranic periods, the mayana and Mahabharata Orally transmitted through families for centuries prior to this period. After 200 BCE, several schools of thou ight were formally codified in the Indian hilosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshi ika, Purva-Mimamsa, and Vedanta.[40] Hinduism, atheistic schools and atheistic philosophies. Other This article may need to be rewritten to. comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You n help. The talk page may contain suggestions. (March 2020) The historical roots of Jainism in India have é of Parshvanatha, the 23th Tirthankar, and his Jain Philosophy, and to Mahavira (599-527 £), the 24th Jain Tirthankara. Jainism traces its roots further back to the first Tirthankara, ishabhanatha. Mahavira stressed on the five vows. been traced to the 9th century BCE with the Gautama Buddha, who founded Buddhism, was born to the Shakya clan just before igadha (which lasted from 546 to 324 BCE) rose to power. His family was native to the plains Lumbini, in what is now southern Nepal. Indian Buddhism peaked during the reign of Ashoka Great of the Mauryan Empire, who patronised Buddhism following his conversion and unified Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. He sent missionaries abroad, allowing ddhism to spread across Asia. Indian Buddhism declined following the loss of royal ronage offered by the Kushan Empire and such kingdoms as Magadha and Kosala.n, Please help improve this article by ged and removed. Bhakti Movement This section needs additional citation: adding citations to relia During the 44th-17th centuries, movement swept through Central and the eighth century in south India (Preser! onthwards. It was initiated by a loosely associat Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Vallabhacharya, Surdas, Exnath, Ramdas, Tukaram, and other mystics were taught that people could cast aside the heavy burdens complexities of philosophy, and simply expres their overwhel also characterized by an abundance of devotional literature in vernac sthnic languages of the various Indian states oF provinces. The Bhakti movem several different movements throughout India During the Bhakti movement, many Hindu grovPS regarded as outside the traditional Hindu caste system followed Bhakti traditions by worshipping/following saints belonging to their respective communities. For example, Guru Ravidas was 2 Chamar of Uttar Pradesh; Guru Parsuram Ramnami was 2 Chura of Chhattisgarh, an‘ Ram Naval was 2 Bhangi of d Maharishi Rajasthan. In their lifetimes, several of these saints even went to the ‘extent of fighting conversion from foreign missionaries, encouraging only Hi heir communities. In induism within t Assam for example, tribals were led by Gurudev Kalicharan Bramha of the Brahmo Samaj; in Nagaland by Kacha Naga; and in Central India by Birsa Munda, Hanuman Aaron, Jatra Bhagat, and Budhu Bhagat. 1s for verificatior ed material may be challen: under Muslim rule, the Bhakti Northem India. The Bhakti movement actually started in t-day Tamil Nat ), and gradually spread ted group of teachers Or saints. Dnyaneshwar, Meera Bai, Kabir, Tulsidas, Ravidas, Namdeo, ‘some of the saints in the North. They te and the subtle of ritual and cast ming love for God. This period was ular prose and poetry in the ent gave rise to ble sources. Unsoures when North India was Kabir sermonized a monotheism that appealed clearly to the poor and convinced them of their access to god with no liaison. He denied both Hinduism and Islam, as well as meaningless religious rituals, and condemned double standards. This infuriated the orthodox aristocracy. No one could frighten Kabir who was bold enough to stand up for himself and his beliefs. or even as a divinity truth incarnate. The Kabir Panth considers Kabir as its principal guru Kabir's influence is testimony to his massive authority, even for those whose beliefs and ly. For Sikhs he is a forerunner and converser of Nanak, practices he condemned so unsparing| the originating Sikh Guru (spiritual guide). Muslims place him in Sufi (mystical) lineages, and for Hindus he becomes a Vaishnavite with universalist leanings. Steer neha ion (1469-1539) was the founder of Sikhism, known endonymically as Sikh from / Ree ( Sikhism “Guru Nanak Dev Ji Dharm. The Guru Granth Sahib was first compiled by the fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjan Dev,writings of the first five Sikh gurus and others saints who preached the ‘therhood, including those of the Hindu and Muslim faith. Before the singh, tne GUTL rag Sahib was declared the eternal guru. Sikhism re qual before Waheauru, regardiess of colour, caste, or lineage paiats of fasting (vrata), Superstitions, idol worship, gremal god and follow the teachings of the 10 gurus, Gobind Singh, Sikh Rehat Maryada, and Nitnem. concept of universal leath of Guru Gobind cognises all humans as .) Sikhism strongly rejects the and circumcision. The Sikhs believe in one , the 5 K's of Sikhism, the hukums of Guru a Judaism Jews first arrived as traders from Judea in the city of Kochi, Kerala, in 562 BCE. More Jews came as exiles from Israel in the year 70 CE, after the destruction of the Second Temple. Sho cel Qeavad comet Prope. Christianity —~ A Christianity was introduced to India by Thomas tHe Apostle (a direct disciple of Jesus Christ), who visited Muziris in Kerala in 52 CE and proselytized natives at large, who are known as Saint Thomas Christians (also known as Syrian Christians or Nasrani) today. India's oldest church, the world's oldest existing church structure and built by Thomas the Apostle in 57 CE, called Thiruvithamoode Arappally or Thomaiyar Kovil as named by the then Chera king Udayancheral, is located at Thiruvithamcode in Kanyakumari District of Tamil Nadu, India) It is now declared an international St. Thomas pilgrim center. There is a general scholarly consensus that Christianity was rooted in India by the 6th century CE, including some communities who used Syriac liturgically, and it is a possibility that the religion's existence in India extends to as far back as the 1st century. Christianity in India has different denominations like Syrian Orthodox, Catholicism, Protestantism, Oriental Orthodox and others. (ost Christians reside in South India, particularly in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Goa) There are also large Christian populations in the North-east Indian states. Christianity in India was expanded in the 16th century by Catholic Portuguese expeditions and by Protestant missionaries in the 18th and 19th centuries. ‘ 7 yak OS ul? A Islam is the second largest religion in India, with 14.2% of the country's population or joughly 172 million people identifying as adherents of Islam (2011 census). It makes India the country with the largest Muslim population ‘outside Muslim-majority countries. Though Islam came to India in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders in lalabar coast, Kerala, it started to become a major religion during the Muslim rule in the Indian bcontinent) The Cheraman Juma Mosque is the first mosque in India located in Methala, dungallur Taluk, Thrissur District in Kerala.[83] A legend claims that it was built in 629 CE, lich makes it the oldest mosque in the Indian subcontinent which is still in use. It was built Malik Deenar, Persian companion of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad, on the orders of the iccessor of Cheraman Perumal, the Chera King of modern-day Kerala. Islam's spread in Indiamostly took place under the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526) and the Mughal Empire (1826-165) greatly aided by the mystic Sufi tradition. . we . 5 y anor = 08 ( Plielaisen ON ye S \ Hinduism is“an ancient retigion with the largest religious grouping in India, with around 966 million 2 as of 2011, composing 79:8% of the population. Hinduism is diverse, monotheistf, henotheisfn, polytheism,ypanentheism, pantheism, monism, atheism, animism, agnosticism, and gnosticism beingfepresented. The term Hindu, originally a geographicy description, derives from the Sanskrit, Sindhu, (the historical appellation for the Indus Riven), and refers to a person from the land of the river Sindhu. Hindus following the traditional religion call it Sanatana Dharma (or "Eternal Way’). The adherents of Sanatana Dharma call themselves as "Sanatani", the original word for the adherents of Sanatana Dharma. Hindu reformist Sects such as the Arya samaj do not use the term Sanatani. - Ohi Buddhism AIO Buddhism is an Indian, transtheistic religion and philosophy. Around 8.5 million Buddhists live in India, about 0.7% of the total population. Buddhism as a religion is practised mainly in the foothills of the Himalayas and is a significant religion in Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Ladakh, Darjeeling in West Bengal, and the Lahaul and Spiti districts of Himachal Pradesh} Besides, a significant number of Buddhists reside in Maharashtra. They are the Buddhists or Navayana Buddhists who, under the influence of B. R. Ambedkar embraced Buddhism in order to escape the casteist practices within Hinduism. Ambedkar is a crucial figure, along with Anagarika Dharmapala of Sri Lanka and Kripasaran Mahasthavira of Chittagong behind the revival of Buddhism in India in the 19th and 20th centuries. The escape of the 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzing Gyatso to India fleeing Chinese occupation of Tibet in 1959 and the setting up of the Tibetan Government in Exile at Dharamshala in Mcleodganj in Himachal Pradesh has also accelerated the resurgence of Buddhism in India. The effective religion in Sikkim, which joined the Indian Union in 1975 (making it India's 22nd state) remains Vajrayana Buddhism, and Padmasambhava or Guru Ugyen is a revered presence there. ‘Jainism es %eg ism is Indian religion and philosophical system originating in Iron Age India. Jains compose 0.4% (around 4.45 million) of India's population, and are concentrated in the states of Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan) Also present in India, Judaism is a monotheistic religion from the Levant. There is today a very small community of Indian Jews. There were more Jews in India historically, including the Cochin Jews of Kerala, the Bene Israel of Maharashtra, and the Baghdadi Jews near Mumbai. Since \ndian independence, two primarily proselyte Indian Jewish communities have developed in India: he Bnei Menashe of Mizoram and Manipur, and the Bene Ephraim, also called Telugu Jews. Of he approximately 95,000 Jews of Indian extraction, fewer than 20,000 remain in India. Some varts of India are especially popular with Israelis, swelling local Jewish populations seasonally.Pa Except Judaism, the other two reli igions have the he di " concept of beli and it is oe al ve moet to bring the non-believer to areal and the non-believer, religions had origin in the desert, and their founders came hem arn Nr®: All the tree became followers of the religion. 'e from among the people who later Gandhi was very much impressed with i : ; the Semitic religions, : much contact with Judaism. He says that Jesus Christ and iaeaael though he did not have was highly impressed by the Sermon on the Mount, which, he sa Sage included the Christian and Islamic worship in his Ashram prayers, ys transformed him. He Religion in India is characterised by a diversit igi i i Indian. subcontinent is the birthplace of four of the eal nee pete eee i Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. The preamble of Indian constitution sicton he ae ve a secular state. Throughout India's history, religion has been an important part of the country’s ulture. Religious diversity and religious tolerance are, both established in the country by the aw; the Constitution of India has declared the right to freedom of religion to be a fundamental ght. According to the 2011 census, 79.8% of the population of India practices Hinduism, 14.2% dheres to Islam, 2.3% adheres to Christianity, 4.7% adheres to Sikhism, 0.7% adheres to uddhism and 0.4% adheres to Jainism. Zoroastrianism, Sanamahism and Judaism also have ancient history in India, and each has several thousands of Indian adherents. India has the gest population of people adhering to Zoroastrianism (i.e. Parsis and Iranis) and Baha'i Faith the world, even though these religions are otherwise largely exclusive to their native Persia. Religion plays a major role in the Indian way of life. Rituals, worship, and other religious tivities are very prominent in an individual's daily life; it is also a principal organizer of social . The degree of religiosity varies amongst individuals; in recent decades, religious orthodoxy d observances have become less common in Indian society, particularly amongst young in-dwellers.Rituals The vast majority of ‘ rituals at home. Observation of ritual ~ Devout Hindus perform daily chores su’ dawn after bathing (usually at a family sh foods before the images of deities), recitation singing hymns in praise of gods. / A notable feature in religious ritual is the division aaa ety yo pln Peg acts presuppose some degree of impurity, oF defilement eS a ich TUS bg overcome or neutralized, before or during ritual procedures. Pu usually with yaa ligic teristics include a belies ; |" i t religious action. Other charac! ict in thus a typical feature of most relig ie eRe retreat ae rma efficacy of sacrifice and concept of merit, gained through l works, that will accumulate over time and reduce sufferings in the next world. Muslims offer five daily prayers at specific times of the day, indicated by adhan (cay , prayer) from the local mosques. Before offering prayers, they must ritually clean themselves by performing wudu, which involves washing parts of the body that are generally exposed to dir dust. A recent study by the Sachar Committee found that 3-4% of Muslim children study | in religious rituals daily. Most Hindus obse Indians engage a om amongst regions, villages, and ng a ich as worshiping puja, fire sacrifice called Yaing as rine, and typically includes lighting a lamp ang o from religious scripts like Vedas, ang py n madrasas (Islamic schools). Dietary habits in India are significantly influenced by religion. According to a survey, 31% of Indian population claims to be vegetarianand mainly practice lacto-vegetarianism, Vegetarianism is less common among Sikhs, Muslims, Christians, Baha'is, Parsis, ang Jews)Despite the majority of population having no objection to meat consumption, globally Incig has the lowest meat consumption per capita. Non-vegetarian Indians mostly prefer poultry, fish, other seafood, goat, and sheep as their sources of meat. Hinduism forbids beef whilst islam forbids pork. The smaller populations of christians, tribals, and some dalit communities have no objection to eating either beef or pork. Jainism requires followers, from all its sects and traditions, to be vegetarian. Furthermore, the religion also forbids Jains from eating any vegetable that involves digging it from the ground. This rule, therefore, excludes all Root vegetables such as potatoes, sweet potatoes, ginger, carrots, garlic, radishes, etc. from a Jain diet. Ceremonies Oceasions like birth, marriage, and death involve what are often elaborate sets of religious customs. In Hinduism, major life-cycle rituals include annaprashan (a baby’s first intake of solid food), upanayanam ("sacred thread ceremony" undergone by boys belonging to some upper castes such as Brahmin and Kshatriya only), and shraadh (paying homage to a deceased et Jas to the findings of a 1995 national research paper, for most people in India, a betrothaf of a young couple placing an expectation upon an exact date and time of a futureding was @ matter decided by the parents in consultation with astrologers. A significant weuclon in the proportion of arranged marriages has however taken place since 1998, reflecting fn incremental change. Muslims practice a series of life-cycle rituals that differ from those of Hindus, Jains, and guddhists. Several rituals mark the first days of life including the whispering call to prayer, first path, and shaving of the head. Religious instruction begins early. Male circumcision usually takes place after birth; in some families, it may be delayed until after the onset of puberty. Marriage requires a payment by the husband to the wife, called Meher, and the solemnization of a marital contract in a social gathering. After the burial of the dead, friends and relatives gather to console the bereaved, read and recite the Quran, and pray for the soul of the deceased. Indian Islam is distinguished by the emphasis it places on shrines commemorating great Sufi saints. Pligrimages \The largest religious gathering ever held on Earth, 2019 Prayag Kumbh Mela held in Allahabad (officially known as Prayagraj) attracted around 120 million people from around the world. The largest religious gathering ever held on Earth, 2019 Prayag Kumbh Mela held in Allahabad (officially known as Prayagraj) attracted around 120 million people from around the world) ( Mahamagam Festival is a holy festival celebrated once in twelve years in Tamil Nadu) Mahamagam Festival, which is held at Kumbakonam. This festival is also called as Kumbamela of South. Maramon Convention, the largest annual Christian gathering in Asia, organised by the Mar Thoma Syrian Church. \Tawang Monastery in Arunachal Pradesh) was built in the 1600s, is the largest monastery in India and second-largest in the world after the Potala Palace in Lhasa, Tibet. Tawang Monastery in Arunachal Pradesh, was built in the 1600s, is the largest monastery in India and second-largest in the world after the Potala Palace in Lhasa, Tibet. (The Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh is the oldest stone structure in India) Built by Emperor Asoka in the 3rd century BCE, it houses the relics of Buddha Siddhartha’Gautama. Rumtek Monastery in Sikkim is one of the major tourist attractions of Northeast India. Many Hindu families have their own family patron deity or the kuladevata. This deity is common to a lineage or a clan of several families who are connected to each other through a common ancestor. The Khandoba of Jejuri is an example of a Kuladevata of some Maharashtrian families; he is a common Kuladevata to several castes ranging from Brahmins to Dalits. The practice of worshipping local or territorial deities as Kuladevata began in the period of the Yadava dynasty.[160] Other family deities of the people of Maharashtra are Bhavani of Tuljapur, Mahalaxmi of Kolhapur, Renuka of Mahur, and Balaji of Tirupati. India hosts numerous pilgrimage sites belonging to many religions. Hindus worldwide Fecognise several Indian holy cities, including Allahabad (officially known as Prayagraj),i, Ujain, Rameshwaram, and Vrindavan. Notable temple cities include Pyj ‘or Jagannath temple and Rath Yatra celebration; Tirumala - Tirupati, home fh .d Katra, home to the Vaishno Devi temple. Haridwar, Varana’ which hosts @ maj the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple; an nd Rameswaram compose the main pilgrimage circuit of g Se re = four holiest Hindu temples: Badrinath Temple, “scare Dham (on eedheash Temple and Ramanathaswamy Temple, respectively. The Himalayan Lalas caren Kedamath, Gangotr, and Yamunotri compose the smaller Chota Char Dham ae ee) pilgrimage circu. The Kumbh Mela (the "pitcher festival) is one of ine Coal finds pilgrimages that is held every four years; the location is rotated amonget eal Preveara, Haridwar, Nashik, and Uijain. The Thalaimaippathi at Swamithope isthe leading pilgrim center for the Ayyavazhis (NN Minority beliefs and sects Hinduism contains many different sub-cultures just like most other rligions)a sect is g subgroup of a religious, political, or philosophical ice ster, snety an offshGot of a larger group. The major aspects outined above hold true for the majority of the Hindu Population, but not all. Just as each state is home to an individual language, Hinduism harbors various sub. cultures whose traditions may or may not be shared by other Indians. A sect from Gujarat called the Prejapatis for example, holds water as the sacred omament to every meal. Before and after a meal, an individual is expected to pour water in the palms of their right hand and sip the water three times. This is often seen as a purification gesture: food is regarded as being holy and every individual must purify themselves before touching their food. Other minor sects in India cary no specific name, but they are uniquely identified by the last names of each famiy, This convention is used more frequently in South India than in North India. For example, a relatively prominent sect in southern India prohibits making important decisions, commencing new tasks, and doing other intellectually or spiritually engaged actions after sunset. Historians believe that this tradition was derived from the concept of Rahukaalam, in which Hindus believe that a specific period of the day is inauspicious. Stringent family beliefs are thought to have led to the development of a more constrained religious hierarchy. Over time, this belief was extended to discourage taking major actions and even staying awake for long periods after sunset. Examples of families which follow this tradition include Gudivada, Padalapalli, Pantham, and Kashyap. MATHAS (TRADITIONS) - SHAIVA, VAISNAVA, JAINA, BOUDDHA, VEERASHAIVA LINGAYATA, AND SIKH Matha is a word that originated in the Sanskrit language which is regarded as one of the oldest languages of the world and even the language Hindi is said to be derived from it. It refers ‘0 @ place of study which can either be an institute or college or school. In Buddhism and Jainism, it also refers to a monastery. These were established by Adi Shankaracharya who was 1m Indian guru (teacher), sos and theologist. He was born in 44 BCE in Chidambaram N — A az| ue and he was the one who consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta (non-dual is a part of Hinduism which refers to the attainment of the higher self of one's true identity. Mathas took time to grow and during the period of the second half of 1st millennium CE as proved by the archaeological pieces of evidence. In these institutes, sannyasis (monks) and gurus were led by oe (teachers). The main purpose of these institutes was set for the attainment of “Moksha” which means free from the cycle of rebirth. These also taught the disciples about medicine, dance, art, etc. These ancient Mathas are mainly found in southern india for example in the states like Kerala, Andra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, etc. Five major rules for students learning in Mathas which were later adopted by Jains and Buddhists are: a) Tonotinjure living beings b) Tobe truthful ¢) Tonot take another's property 4) To practice self-restraint (continence) e) Tobe tolerantfiberal The four Mathas aré’ called Advaita Mathas and these were taken care of by disciples of Adi Shankaracharya known as Shankaracharya. In each direction, there is one matha situated. In the north, it is in Badrinath, in the south, itis in Sringeri, in the east, it is in Jagannatha Puri, in the west, it is in Dwarka. These are as follows) 1) Govardhana Math, Puri, Orissa This is the eastern part of Advaita Mathas and it is present in the beautiful city of Puri in Orissa. It was formed around 483 BC. Swami Nischalananda Saraswati is the current Shankaracharya. This math has been connected to the Jagannath temple. Deities like Lord Vishnu, Lord Shiva, Goddess Vimala are worshipped here. Ardhanareshwara Shiva and Krishna are put up by Adi Shankaraya. Its history goes back to its first holder or leader that was Padmapadacharya.) abSO SUA temple According to the legend, this matha also holds connections with the Jagannath temple which is also situated at Puri. Another matha that is regarded as its substitute was made around the same time and it is called Sankarananda Math. A tradition named Samudra Aarti also takes place. It was started nine years ago by present Shankaracharya. It is a prayer made to the sea on the day or special occasion of Paush Purima. It is said to have a connection with Jagannath temple which is also located in Puri and thus it is regarded as Govardhananthatha. It does contain one more sub-matha which was built around at the same time and it is regarded as Sankarananda Matha. It covers all the eastern Indian sub-continent including stated like Mizoram, Tripura, Bihar, and countries like Bhutan, Nepal, Bangladesh, elc. Padmapadacharya preached the concept of 'Prajnanam Brahma’ (Consciousness is Brahman) which formed based on Rig Veda.OU CLUC ena ant nm Rca se Fig: Govardhana Math, Puri, Orissa | | 2) Sringeri Sharada Peetham, Chikkamagaluru, Karnataka: eee Bee Fig: Sringeri Sharada Peetham, Chikkamagaluru, Karnatakane is the Vidyashankara Linga Temple dedicat ‘Amba dedicated to Goddess Saraswati ( godde: in Sringeri. The Shiva temple was made durin famous Hindu matha with almost all major go Vishnu, Lord Shiva, Lord Brahma, Goddess §; eighty-five kilometers in size stretched across the south es knowledge )J It was made around 800 AD fe reign of 4N@ Vijayanagara Empire. It is a leities being worshipped by people like Lord ‘araswati, Goddess Lakshmi, etc. This matha is side of India, led to Lord ce the other one is Sharda ) Sureshwaracharya was the first lea der of this math: jon of the matt : ‘a. There are ma forma on ates Hered - place. One is associated with Rishi (monk aah pala ol Shankara saw a huge snake forming an umbrella hastnge) oo i. 0 protect the the hot sun. TI or ihe he current leader of the matha is Sri Vidhushekhara Bharati Mahaswami appointed in 2015. After the Vijayanagara era, came the Keladi era then the Maratha era but stil, the matha has stood alll this time wi with glory. It has also found its i i refe and Mahabharata (both are ancient Sanskrit epic). It was the basis of Yajur Nee, 7 3) Dwarka Matha, Dwarka, Gujarat: Fig: Dwarka Matha, Dwarka, Gujarat This is the western Peeth or Matha. It is present on the coastal shore of Gujarat. This matha is also called as Kalika Matha. It was built during the eighth century CE. It represents the Sam Veda. It is present in the coastal city of Gujarat that is Dwar is also known asDs Kalika ) This matha is in the west and the Sharada Matha is in the southern side of In Both of these are together called as Sharada Peeth. Shri Yogeshwarananda succeeded Shri Bharati who was invited to lead this matha in 1925 after the position was empty due tg retirement of Shri Trivikrama Tirtha who was the head of the matha till 1921. In 1945, Shri Abhinava Saccidananda Tirtha took the seat of this matha. Sam Veda is the third Veda amongst of the total four Vedas that have existed in the Hindu mythology. It was first headed by Hasta Malanka. [ 4) Jyotir Matha, Badrikashram, Uttarakhand ( } Fig: Jyotir Matha, Badrikashram, Uttarakhand This is the northern matha present in the Badrikashram village of Uttarakhand. It is also jarded as Jyotir Peetha. It is also one of the-four Mathas established by Adi Shankaraya. It presents the last Veda that is Atharva vai es established in 820 AD. During the 18th ntury, it was headed by Swami Ramakrishnd Tirtha but this seat remained empty for the next 165 years and then it was filled by Swami Bramhanada Sarswati in 1941) {t is the northern monastery. During the British period, all the words and texts were iscarded by them but still somehow the work is present and the stories and the Vedic inatana Dharma has been passed by the native people from time to time to protect Hinduism | and keep the principles of Adi Shankaracharya awake in the future generations to come.i , ; acharaya is regarded as the first head of this matha and he was also appointed by Adi karacharya. On September 23rd, 2017 Shankaracharya stepped down and till now no one een appointed as the next head of the Jyotir matha or peeth. It is the headquarter of Giri, parbat, and Sagar sects of Dashmi monistc order. shan has haivism is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme sl "Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions ranging from gevotional dualistic theism such as Shaiva Siddhanta to yoga-orientated monistic non-theism such as Kashmiri Shaivism. It considers both the Vedas and the Agama texts as important sources of theology. (shaivism developed as an amalgam of pre-Vedic religions and traditions derived from the | southern Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta traditions and philosophies, which were assimilated in the non- ~ Vedic Shiva-tradition) In the process of Sanskritisation and the formation of Hinduism, starting in the last centuries BCE, these pre-Vedic traditions became aligned with the Vedic deity Rudra and other Vedic deities, incorporating the non-Vedic Shiva-traditions into the Vedic-Brahmanical fold. Both devotional and monistic Shaivism became popular in the 1st millennium CE, rapidly becoming the dominant religious tradition of many Hindu kingdoms. It arrived in Southeast Asia shortly thereafter, leading to the construction of thousands of Shaiva temples on the islands of indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with Buddhism in these regions. Shaivite theology ranges from Shiva being the creator, preserver, and destroyer to being the same as the Atman (Self) within oneself and every living being. It is closely related to Shaktism, ‘and some Shaivas worship in both Shiva and Shakti temples. It is the Hindu tradition that most accepts ascetic life and emphasizes yoga, and like other Hindu traditions encourages an individual to discover and be one with Shiva within. The followers of Shaivism are called *Shaivites" or "Saivas". The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, including Rudra. The term Shiva also connotes “liberation, final emancipation" and “the auspicious one’, this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics and the Puranas, as an auspicious deity who is the "creator, reproducer and dissolver". The Sanskrit word saiva or shaiva means "relating to the god Shiva", while the related beliefs, practices, history, literature and sub-traditions constitute Shaivism. The reverence for Shiva is one of the pan-Hindu traditions found widely across India predominantly in Southern India, Sri Lanka, and Nepal. While Shiva is revered broadly, Hinduism itself is a complex religion and a way of life, with a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions. It has no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing ibody, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be poytheist pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic, or humanist. * Shaivism is @ major tradition within Hinduism with a theology that is predominant relateg to the Hindu god Shiva. Shaivism has many different sub-traditions with regional variations differences in philosophy. Shaivism has a vast literature with different philosophical ranging from nondualism, dualism, and mixed schools. schools Origins and History The development of various schools of Shaivism from early worship of Rudra, The origins of Shaivism are unclear and a matter of debate among scholars, as itis an amalgam of pre-Vedic cults and traditions and Vedic culture Indus Valley Civilisation Some trace the origins to the Indus Valley civilization, which reached its peak aroung 2500-2000 BCE.) Archeological discoveries show seals that suggest a deity that somewhat appears like Shiva.)Of these is the Pashupati seal, which early scholars interpreted as someone seated if a meditating yoga pose surrounded by animals, and with hors. This "Pashupati* (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit pasupati) seal has been interpreted by these scholars as a prototype of Shiva. Gavin Flood characterizes these views as "speculative", saying that itis not clear from the seal ifthe figure has three faces, or is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure. ‘ Other scholars state that the Indus Valley script remains undeciphered, and the interpretation of the Pashupati seal is uncertain. According to Srinivasan, the proposal that iti proto-Shiva may be a case of projecting "later practices into archeological findings". Similarly, Asko Parpola states that other archaeological finds such as the early Elamite seals dated to 3000-2750 BCE show similar figures and these have been interpreted as “seated bull" and not a yogi, and the bull interpretation is likely more accurate. Puranic Shaivism During the Gupta Empire (c. 320-500 CE) the genre of Purana literature developed in Indi, ) and many of these Puranas contain extensive chapters on Shaivism — along with Vaishnavism, Shaktism, Smarta Traditions of Brahmins and other topics — suggesting the importance of Shaivism by then) The most important Shaiva Puranas of this period include the Shiva Purana and the Linga Purana. Post-Gupta Development Most of the Gupta kings, beginning with Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) (375-413 CE) were known as Parama Bhagavatas or Bhagavata Vaishnavas and had been ardent promoters of Vaishnavism. But following the Huna invasions, especially those of the Alchon Huns circa 500CE, the Gupta Empire declined and fragmented, ultimately collapsing completely, with the effect of discrediting Vaishnavism, the religion it had been so ardently promoting. The newly arising regional powers in central and northern India, such as the Aulikaras, the Maukharis, the Maitrakas, the Kalacuris or the Vardhanas preferred adopting Shaivism instead, giving a strong impetus to the development of the worship of Shiva. Vaisnavism remained strong mainly in the jeritories which had not been affected by these events: South India and Kashmir, Major scholars of competing Hindu traditions from the second half of the 1st millennium £, such as Adi Shankara of Advaita Vedanta and Ramanuja of Vaishnavism, mention several Shaiva sects, particularly the four groups: Pashupata, Lakulisha, tantric Shaiva and Kapalika. he description is conflicting, with some texts stating the tantric, puranik and Vedic traditions of Shaivism to be hostile to each other while others suggest them to be amicable sub-traditions. Some texts state that Kapalikas reject the Vedas and are involved in extreme experimentation, ile others state the Shaiva sub-traditions revere the Vedas but are non-Puranik. South India Shaivism was the predominant tradition in South India, co-existing with Buddhism and jainism, before the Vaishnava Alvars launched the Bhakti movement in the 7th century) and influential Vedanta scholars such as Ramanuja developed a philosophical and organizational amework that helped Vaishnava expand, Though both traditions of Hinduism have ancient ts, given their mention in the epics such as the Mahabharata, Shaivism flourished in South \dia much earlier. The Mantramarga of Shaivism, according to Alexis Sanderson, provided a template for the ater though independent and highly influential Pancaratrika treatises of Vaishnava. This is idenced in Hindu texts such as the Isvarasamhita, Padmasamhita and Paramesvarasamhita. In Balinese Hinduism, Dutch ethnographers further subdivided Siwa (shaivaites) Sampradaya” into five - Kemenuh, Keniten, Mas, Manuba and Petapan. This classification was © accommodate the observed marriage between higher caste Brahmana men with lower caste The Gaudiya Math was formed on 6 September 1920, about 30 months after Srila aktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura took sannyasa, the renounced order of life. On 7 March 818, the same day he took sannyasa, he established the Sri Chaitanya Math in Mayapura, fer recognised as the parent body of all the Gaudiya Math branches) Its purpose was to pread Gaudiya Vaishnavism, the philosophy_of the mediaeval Vaisnava saint Sri Caitanya lahaprabhu, through preaching and publishing. By the time of the founder's death (1 January 937), the Gaudiya Math had established 64 branches. Most were in India, but preaching ntres were maintained for a time in Burma, England and Germany. A. C. BhaktivedantaeR er none tt ay le of Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura, was the founder of the Consciousness (ISKCON), which also became known as the { swami Prabhupada, a discipl International Society for Krishna Hare Krishna movement. follows the same philosophical doctrine of dualism and non-dualism ag of salvation is that the devotee after death goes to the erving his tutelary deity Radha Krishna for all time Unie the Chaitanyaites who look upon Radha as Krishna's wife the Gowdlya Vaishnavites regard Her as His mistress, because itis their belief that love or Bhakti can be manifested in its supreme form in the relation of a mistress and not in any other relationship. The Gowdiya Vaishnavites do not observe caste barriers. Persons belonging to different castes are admitted into this order. However, more offen than not caste restrictions are observed at the time of taking meals. The ascetics of this kogie Abioel three strands of tus) necklace quite close to the neck. Their common dress comprises white garments, but a large umber of those of the Gaudiya Mission have taken to ochre coloured clothes. The tilak mark which is like that of the Chaitanyaites, consists of two white perpendicular lines, joined over the bridge of the nose, from which another white line is extended down the ridge of the nose to its tip. The names of the male ascetics end in Dasa and those of female ones in Das. The ascetics of Gowdiya Vaishnavite sect observe Ramanavami (the 9th day of the bright half of Chaitra), Narshimha-Jayanti (the 14th day of the bright half of Vaisakha), Janmastami (the 8th day of the dark half of Sravana) and Vantanadvadasi (the 12th of the bright half of Bhadra). They also observe Chaitanya anniversary which falls on the 15th day of the bright half of Phalguna) and observe fasting on all the lunar fortnights. Gowdiya Vaishnav: the Chaitanya Vaishnava. Their idea Golaka where he gets the privilege of s ( Jaina Mathas Jainism also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas ‘and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of Dharma}) with the first in the current time cycle being Rishabhadeva, whom the tradition holds to havé lived millions of years ago, the twenty-third tirthankara Parshvanatha, whom historians date to the 9th century BCE, and the twenty-fourth tirthankara Mahavira, around 600 BCE. Jainism is considered to be an eternal dharma with the tirthankaras guiding every time cycle of the cosmology. The three main pillars of Jainism are ahi?sa (non-violence), anekantavada (non- absolutism), and aparigraha (asceticism). Can monks, after positioning themselves in the sublime state of soul consciousness, take five main vows: ahi?sa (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya (not stealing), brahmacharya (chastity), and aparigraha (non-possessiveness). These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to a predominantly vegetarian lifestyle./Parasparopagraho jivanam (the function of souls is to help one another) is the faith's motto, and the ?amokara mantra is its mos' common and basic prayer. (Jainism is one of the world's oldest religions in practice to this day) It has two major anciént sub-traditions, Digambaras and Svetambaras, with different views on ascetic practices,gender, and the texts that can be consid laypersons (sravakas and sravikas). The §, Mandirvasi, Deravasi, and Sthanakavasi, Th lered canonical; both have mendicants supported by 'vetambara tradition in turn has three sub-traditions: Jains, who reside mostly ray aon has between four and fve milion followers, ome : Yin India. Outside India, some of the largest communities are in Canada, Europe, and the United States, with Japan hosting a fast-growing community of converts. Major festivals include Paryushana and Dee it a Aeshaya Tite sea Lakshana, Ashtanika, Mahavir Janma Beliefs and philosophy Jainism is transtheistic and forecasts th substance dualism, and the actual realizatio of both parallelism and inleractionism.) at the universe evolves without violating the law of " of this principle plays out through the phenomena Drayya (Ontological facts) Dravya means substances or entity in Sot universe is made up of six eternal substances: sentient beings or souls (jva), non-septient substance or matter (pudgala), the principle of motion (dharma), the principle of rest (dharma), space (akasa), and time (kala). The last five are united as the ajiva (non-living). Jains distinguish a substance from a complex body, or thing, by declaring the former a simple indestructible element, while the latter is a compound made of one or more substances that can be destroyed. Tattva (Soteriological facts) os Tattva connotes reality or truth in Jain philosophy and is the framework for salvation. According to Digambara Jains, there are seven tattvas: the sentient (iva or living), the insentient (ajiva or non-living), the karmic influx to the soul (Asrava, which is a mix of living and non-living), the bondage of karmic particles to the soul (Bandha), the stoppage of karmic particles (Sa?vara), the wiping away of past karmic particles (Nirjara), and the liberation (Moksha). Svetambaras add two further tattvas, namely good karma (Punya) and bad karma (Paapa). The true insight in Jain philosophy is considered as “faith in the tattvas". The spiritual goal in Jainism is to reach moksha for ascetics, but for most Jain laypersons, it is to accumulate good karma that leads to better rebirth and a step closer to liberation. Bouddha Mathas A Buddhist temple or Buddhist monastery is the place of worship for Buddhists, the followers of Buddhism. They include the structures called vihara, chaitya, stupa, wat and Pagoda in different regions and languages) Temples in Buddhism represent the pure land or pure environment of a Buddha) radon Buddhist temples are designed to inspire inner and outer Peace.Its architecture and structure varies from region to region. Usually, the temple consists ngy only of its buildings, but also the surrounding environment. The Buddhist temples are designey to symbolize five elements: fire, air, water, earth and wisdom.) The design of temples in India was influenced by the idea of a place of worship ag g representation of the universe. For Buddhist temple complexes one tall temple is often central located and surrounded by smaller temples and walls. This center surrounded by oceang lesser mountains and a huge wall) 7 AChaitya, Chaitya hall or Chaitya-griha refers to a shrine, sanctuary, temple or prayer hay in Indian religions. The term is most common in Buddhism, where it refers to a space with a stupa and a rounded apse at the end opposite the entrance, and a high roof with a rounde profile. Strictly speaking, the chaitya is the stupa itself, and the Indian buildings are chaitya halls, but this distinction is often not observed. Many of the early Chaitya were rock-cut, as in Karla caves or Ajanta. Some of the earliest free-standing temples may have been of a circular type. Ashoka also built the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya circa 250 BCE, a circular structure, in order tp protect the Bodhi tree under which the Buddha had found enlightenment. The Bairat Temple ig also a round structure, which can be seen through archaeological remains. Representations of this early temple structure are found on a 100 BCE relief sculpted on the railing of the stupa at Bharhut, as well as in Sanchi. From that period the Diamond throne remains, an almost intact slab of sandstone decorated with reliefs, which Ashoka had established at the foot of the Bodhi tree. These circular-type temples were also found in later rock-hewn caves Such as Tulja Caves or Guntupalli. | Veerashaiva Lingayata Mathas \.__Lingayatism or Veera Saivism is a Hindu denomination based on Shaivism. Initially known as Veerashaivas, since the 12th-century adherents of this faith are known as Lingayats. The terms Lingayatism and Veerashaivism have been used synonymously, but Veerashaivism may refer to the broader Veerashaiva philosophy which predates Lingayatism, to the historical community now called Lingayats, and to a contemporary (sub)tradition within Lingayatism with Vedic influences. \Veerashaiva Cingayatism was revived, by the 12th-century philosopher and statesman Basava in Karaiaka. ingayatism may refer to the whole Veerashaiva Lingayat community, but also to a contemporary sub-tradition dedicated to Basava's original thought, and to a movement within this community which strives toward recognition as an independent religion. Lingayat scholars thrived in northern Karnataka during the Vijayanagara Empire (14th—18th century). In the 21st century, some Lingayats have sought legal recognition as a religion distinct from Hinduism and Veerashaivas, a request which has gained political support from the Congress-led Karnataka government, but is opposed by others.ye EE RPE EES PEPER sO EE EEE a Lingayatism is generally considered a Hindu sect because their beliefs include many ind elements. Worship is centered on Shiva as the universal god in the iconographic form of ishtalinga. Lingayatism emphasizes qualified monism) with philosophical foundations similar to those of the 11th-12th-century South Indian philosopher Ramanuja. Lingayatism rejects any form of social discrimination including the caste system and authority of Vedas and Puranas. Contemporary Lingayatism is influential in South India, especially in the state of Karnataka. Lingayats celebrate anniversaries (jayanti) of major religious leaders of their sect, as well as Hindu festivals such as Shivaratri and Ganesh Chaturthi) Lingayatism has its own pilgrimage places, temples, shrines and religious poetry based on Shiva. Today, Lingayats, along with Shaiva Siddhanta followers, Naths, Pashupaths, Kapalikas and others constitute the Shaivite population. Lingayatism The origins of Lingayatism is traced to the 11th- and 12th-century CE in a region that includes northern Karnataka and nearby districts of South ni Te region was a stronghold of Jainism and Shaivism. According to Iyer and other scholars, the Lingayatism theology emerged as a definitive egalitarian movement in this theological milieu, growing rapidly beyond north Karnataka, The Lingayats, states Burjor Avari quoting Jha, were “extremely anti-Jain". The \Veerashaiva philosophy enabled Lingayats to "win over the Jains to Shiva worship". The Lingayats were also anti-Brahmin as evidenced by the polemics against the Brahmins in early \Veerashaiva literature. (According to a tradition which developed after Basava's time, Veerashaivism was transmitted by five Panchacharyas, namely Renukacharya, Darukacharya, Ekorama, Panditharadhya, and Vishweswara, and first taught by Renukacharya to sage Agasthya, a Vedic seer) A central text in this tradition is Siddhanta Shikhamani, which was written in Sanskrit, and gives an elaboration of "the primitive traits of Veerashaivism in the Vedas and the Upanishads” and "the concrete features given to it in the latter parts (Uttarabhaga) of the Saivagamas.” While \Veerashaivas regard the Siddhanta Shikhamani to predate Basava, it may actually have been composed in the 13th or 14th century, post-dating Basava. According to Sri Sharanbasava Devaru of Charanteshwar Mutt, interviewed in 2013, Lingayatism is a separate religion, distinct from the Hindu cultural identity, while Veerashaivism is a Shaivite sect "based on Vedic philosophy." Sri Sharanbasava Devaru further states that Veerashaivism “started gaining importance only after 1904 with some mutts mixing Veerashaivism with Lingayatism." According to India Today, while "Veerashaivas' claim that the two communities are one and the same," orthodox Lingayats claim that they are dierent) Lingayats claim that Veerashaivas do not truly follow Basava, accept Vedic literature, and "worship idols of Lord Shiva." \Veerashaivas further “owe allegiance to various religious centres (mutts), the Lingayats mostly follow their own gurus.”UL RS Ta (Sikh Mathas Sikhism or Sikh Dharma, is an Indian religion that originated in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent, around the end of the 16th century CE. It is the most recently foundes major organized faith and stands at Lon worldwide, with about 25-30 milion adherents (known as Sikhs) as of the early 21st centui Sikhism developed from the spiritual tedchings of Guru Nanak (1469-1536), the fath's fry ur and the nine Sikh gurus who succeeded him. The tenth guru, Gobind Singh (1666-1709, named the Sikh scripture Guru Granth Sahib as his successor, bringing to a close the line o) human gurus and establishing the scripture as the 11th and last eternally living guru, a religious spiritualfife guide for si) Guru Nanak taught that living an “active, creative, and practical ite: of “truthfulness, fidelity, sélf-control and purity" is above metaphysical truth, and that the idea, man "establishes union with God, knows His Will, and carries out that Will’. Guru Hargobing, the sixth Sikh Guru (1606-1644), established the concept of mutual co-existence of the mig (political’temporal’) and piri (‘spiritual’) realms. ‘The core beliefs of Sikhism, articulated in the Guru Granth Sahib, include faith ang meditation inthe name of the one creator, divine unity and equality of all humankind; engaging in seva (‘selfless service’); striving for justice for the benefit and prosperity of all; and honest Conduct and livelihood while living a householder's life. Following this standard, Sikhism rejects claims that any particular religious tradition has a”monopoly on Absolute Truth. Sikhism emphasizes simran which can be expressed musically through kirtan, or internally through naam japna (‘meditation on His name’) as a means to feel God's presence. It teaches followers to transform the "Five Thieves" (i.e. lust, rage, greed, attachment, and ego). The majority of Sikh scriptures were originally written in the alphabet of Gurmukhi, a script standardised by Guru Angad out of La??a scripts historically used in present-day Pakistan and North India. Adherents of Sikhism are known as Sikhs, meaning ‘students’ or ‘disciples’ of the Guru. The English word Sikhism derives from the Punjabi verb Sikhi, which connotes the “temporal path of learning" and is rooted in the word sikhana (‘to lear’). Philosophy and teachings The Definition of Sikh is any human being who faithfully believes in: | One Immortal Being. Il. Ten Gurus, from Guru Nanak Sahib to Guru Gobind Singh Sahib. Wl The Guru Granth Sahib. IV. The utterances and teachings of the ten Gurus. V. The baptism bequeathed by the tenth Guru, and who does not owe allegiance to any other religion, is a Sikh. Ina literal sense, God has no gender in Sikhism, though metaphorically, God is presented as masculine and God's power as feminine. For example, God is repeatedly referred to by the name akaal purkh (‘beyond time and space’) and nirankar (‘without form’) by the tenth guru GuruGobind singh Ji, but he also refers to God as his father, and God's creative power as his mother. Similarly, another example is that the scripture and eternal guru, the Guru Granth Sahib gays that all humans are soul-brides who long to unite with their husband Lord. In addition, the the Guru Granth Sahil sus also wrote in ahib that there are srpscendental God has created life. Wee ities) CU all) tr Singing and Music Sikhs refer to the hymns of the gurus as Gurbani (‘Guru's word’). Shabad Kirtan is the singing of Gurbani, The entire verses of Guru Granth Sahib are written in a form of poetry and rhyme to be recited in thirty-one Ragas of the Classical Indian Music as ‘specified. However, the exponents of these are rarely to be found amongst the Sikhs who are-conversant with all the Ragas in the Guru Granth Sahib. Guru Nanak started the Shabad Kirtan tradition and taught that listening to Kirtan is a powerful way to achieve tranquility while meditating, and singing of the glories of the Supreme Timeless One (God) with devotion is the most effective way to come in communion with the Supreme Timeless One. The three morning prayers for Sikhs consist of Japji Sahib, Jaap Sahib, and Tav-Prasad Savaiye. Baptised Sikhs (Amritdharis) rise early and meditate, then recite all the Five Banis of Nitnem, before breakfast. Five Banis consists of Jap Ji Sahib, Jaap Sahib, Tav-Prasad Savaiye, Chaupai Sahib, Anand Sahib and recitation of the banis paath is followed by Ardas in which Sarbat da Bhala principle is taught by Gurus which literally means blessings for everyone, blessings to humankind in good faith without discrimination. Understanding Castes and Traditions (M.N Srinivas) Mysore Narasimhachar Srinivas (1916-1999) was an Indian sociologist and social anthropologist. He is mostly known for his work on caste and caste systems, social stratification, Sanskritisation and Westernisation in southern India and the concept of ‘dominant caste’. He is considered to be one of the pioneering personalities in the field of sociology and social anthropology in India as his work in Rampura (later published as The Remembered Village) remains one of the early examples of ethnography in India. That was in contrast to most of his contemporaries of the Bombay School, who focused primarily on a historical methodology to conduct research, mainly in Indology. Srinivas earned his doctorate in sociology from the University of Bombay (later renamed as University of Mumbai) and went to All Souls College, University of Oxford for his fellowship. Although, he had already written a book on family and marriage in Mysore and completed his PhD at University of Bombay before he went to the University of Oxford in the late 1940s for further education, his training there played a significant role in the development of his ideas. Srinivas taught in various institutions of repute like University of Delhi, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore and National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bangalore.| Contribution to Indi iology and social anthropology In a Frontline obituary, Parvathi Menon described him as India's most distinguishey sociologist and social anthropologist. His contribution to the disciplines of sociology and soci anthropology and to public life in India was unique. It was his capacity to break out of thy strong mould in which (the mostly North American university oriented) area studies had bee, shaped affer the end of the Second World War on the one hand, and to experiment with th, disciplinary grounding of social anthropology and sociology on the other, which marked his originality as a social scientist. It was the conjuncture between Sanskritic scholarship and the strategic concems of the Western Bloc in the aftermath of the Second World War which largely shaped South Asian area studies in the United States. During the colonial era, the Brahmins or Pandits were acknowledged as important interlocutors of Hindu laws and customs to the British colonia administration. The colonial assumptions about an unchanging Indian society led to the curious assemblage of Sanskrit studies with contemporary issues in most South Asian departments in the US and elsewhere. It was strongly believed that an Indian sociology must lie at the conjunction of Indology and sociology. Srinivas’ scholarship was to challenge that dominant paradigm for understanding Indian society and would in the process, usher newer intellectual frameworks for understanding Hindy society. His views on the importance of caste in the electoral processes in India are well known. While some have interpreted this to attest to the enduring structural principles of social Stratification of Indian society, for Srinivas these symbolised the dynamic changes that were taking place as democracy spread and electoral politics became a resource in the local world of village society. By inclination, he was not given to utopian constructions: his ideas about justice, equality and eradication of poverty were rooted in his experiences on the ground. His integrity in the face of demands that his sociology should take into account the new and radical aspirations was one of the most moving aspects of his writing. By the use of terms such as Sanskritisation, "dominant caste", "vertical (inter-caste) and horizontal (intra-caste) solidarities", Srinivas sought to capture the fluid and dynamic essence of caste as a social institution. As part of his methodological practice, Srinivas strongly advocated ethnographic research based on Participant observation, but his concept of fieldwork was tied to the notion of locally bounded sites. Thus some of his best papers, such as the paper on dominant caste and one on a joint family dispute, were largely inspired from his direct participation (and as a participant observer) in rural life in south India. He wrote several papers on the themes of national integration, issues of gender, new technologies, etc. It is really surprising as to why he did not theorise on the methodological implications of writing on these issues which go beyond the village and its institutions. His methodology and findings have been used and emulated by successive researchers who have studied caste in India. =aHe received many honours from the University of Bombay, the Royal Anthropological Institute, and the Government of France; in 1977, he has received the Padma Bhushan from the president of India; and he was the honorary foreign member of three academies: the British Academy, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the American Philosophical society. National Translation Mission of the Ministry of Human Resource Development of Government of India has selected his works, Social Change in Modern india and Caste in Modern India for translation into Indian languages. The latter one has already been published in Maithili language. aa si oaches to cas The scholars using the attributional approach stress the attributes of a caste. However, each of them lays emphasis on one or other of these attributes and how they affect interaction. In the case of Srinivas’ writing in the 1950s, we find that he chooses to study the structure of relations arising between castes on the basis of these attributes. Thus he introduces a dynamic aspect of caste identity very forcefully. Before the concept of Sanskritization Srinivas put forth the concept of Brahminization where the lower caste adopted the practices of the Brahmins to improve their social status. During his study of north India Srinivas observed that the lower castes adopted the practices of the upper castes and not only Brahmins and so he called the concept as Sanskritization. This aspect becomes clearer in Srinivas's work on positional mobility known as 'Sanskritization’. Sanskritization is a process whereby a caste attempts to raise its rank within 1e caste hierarchy by adopting the practice, the attributes of the caste or castes above them, the rank order. This is to say the ‘low attributes are gradually dropped and the ‘high’ {tributes of the castes above them are imitated. This involves adoption of vegetarianism, clean cupations and so on. Closely connected is the concept of dominant caste.REVIEW QUESTIONS Conceptual Type Questions 4. What is Dharma? 2. Give the meaning of Semitic Religion 3. What is Caste? Descriptive Type Questions 4. Discuss about the Religions and Dharma. ut the Semitic Religions and Way of Life. 2. Explain abot isnava, and Jaina, t the Mathas in India related to Shaiva, Vai e Mathas of Bouddha, Veerashaiva Linga’ e understanding Castes and Traditions by 3, Discuss abou! yata, and Sikh. 4, Explain about thi M.N Srinivas. 5. Discuss about th