MODULE II
Individual Behaviour: Individual Differences; Personality and Theories of Personality; Perception; Learning and Behaviour reinforcement; Classical Conditioning Theory of Learning.
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PERCEPTION
Definition: The process by which people select, organize, interpret, and respond to information from the world around them. Perception (consciously and unconsciously) involves searching for, obtaining, and processing information in the mind in an attempt to make sense of the world.
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Definitions of Perception
Perception can be defined as a process by which individuals organize & interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.
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Importance of Perception
Perception is an important input in individual behavior. It is helpful in the judgment about the individuals, eg. Suitability of a candidate in an interview depends on how his behavior is perceived by the interviewers
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Perceptual Lenses
We dont see things the way they are...
WE SEE THEM AS WE ARE.
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ENVIRONMENTAL STIMULI
FEELING HEARING SMELLING
SEEING
TASTING
SELECTIVE ATTENTION THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS PERCEPTUAL ORGANISATION AND INTERPRETATION EMOTION AND BEHAVIOUR
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Characteristics of stimuli or input
INFLUENCED BY SITUATION AND PERCEIVERS CHARACTERISTICS
Perceptual inputs Objects Events People
Perceptual Mechanism
Selection
Organisation
Interpretation
PERCEPTUAL PROCESS
BEHAVIOUR
Perceptual Outputs Attitudes Opinions Feelings
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Basic Elements in the Perceptual Process
Environmental Stimuli
Perceptual Selection * External factors * Internal factors * Taste * Hearing * Touch
Observation
* Smell * Sight
Perceptual Organization * Perceptual grouping
Interpretation * Perceptual errors * Attributions
Response
* Covert * Overt
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Perceiver:
Factors Influencing the Perceptual Process
Perception influenced by persons values, attitudes, past experiences, needs, personality Physical context, social context, organizational context Targets contrast, intensity, figure-ground separation, size, motion, repetition.
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Setting/Environment:
Perceived/target:
FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION
SITUATIONAL FACTORS
Work setting Social setting Time
CHARACTERISTICS OF PERCEIVER
CHARACTERISTICS OF PERCEIVED/TARGET
Expectations Experience Values Attitudes Personality
INDIVIDUALS PERCEPTION
Motion Size Appearance Proximity Sound Background
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CAN READ IT! CAN YOU?
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THE PERCEPTUAL GAP BETWEEN SUPERVISORS & WORKERS
SUPERVISORS SAY THEY GIVE: WORKERS SAY THEY GET:
PRIVILEGES 52 % 14 % MORE RESPONSIBILITY A PAT ON THE BACK SINCERE PRAISE TRAINING 64 % 48 % 10 %
82 % 13 %
80 % 14 % 9% 51 % 5%
INTERESTING WORK
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BARRIERS/ERRORS/BIASES IN PERCEPTION
The Similar-to-me Effect. Attribution error. First Impression Error-confirming ones expectation/primacy error. The Halo/Horn Effect. Selective Perception. Stereotyping. Self-fulfilling prophecy/pygmallion effect.
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Stereotypes
Judging someone on the basis of ones perception of the group to which that person belongs and thus cause problems in accurate retrieval of information. Can be misleading in case of employment interviews and one can lose a very deserving candidate too. Basically the person is having closed windows and doesnt let fresh, new ideas to pop-in.
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STEREOTYPING PROCESS
Develop social categories And assign traits To them. Person is identified with a Social category based on Observable information Assign social categorys Cluster of traits In the person
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Halo Effects
Halo effect = one attribute of a person or situation is used to develop an overall impression of that individual or situation. (positive aspect) Happens at organizing stage of perception. Common e.g., when we meet a new person who smiles at us, we have immediate first impression that the person is friendly. Can create distortion in performance appraisals, e.g., good communication skills = intelligent, responsible
Need to ensure appraisal based on facts, not biased
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Click to edit Master text styles Second level Third level Selective perception = tendency to Fourth level notice those Fifth aspects of a person or situation that are level
Selective Perception
consistent with or reinforce the perceivers existing attitudes, beliefs or needs. Influences attention stage what we notice. Most easily overcome by gathering perceptual info from others to see if one has only picked up on part of the picture.
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Projection
Projection = assigning ones personal attributes to another individual. Happens at interpreting stage of perception. E.g., when manager assumes subordinate reacts to a work opportunity the same way as the manager.
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Projection
Controlled through: self-awareness (realizing ones own needs) and strong empathy (being able to put oneself in the others position and understand their perspective)
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Self-fulfilling prophecy = the tendency to create or find in a situation or individual what one expects to find.
Because one believes something, one acts in a way that makes the outcome more likely. Negative example: assume individual has no ambition
Positive example: believe exceptional potential in employee so give challenge, support, praise; employee thrives in this attention and support, performing well, thus confirming managers expectations.
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so gives no challenging work; individual is bored and does not work well, confirming managers initial belief
Supervisors form Expectations About employees Employees behaviour Becomes consistent Expectations affect With supervisors SELF-FULFIILING Supervisors behaviour expectations Towards employee PROPHECY CYCLE Supervisors behaviour Affect employees Abilities and self-efficacy
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Contrast effect = when an individuals characteristics are contrasted with those of people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on those characteristics. Person in job interview appears stronger when immediately following a weak candidate. Awareness of potential distortion from contrast effect needed.
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FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and over estimate the influence of internal factors while making judgements about the behaviour of others.
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IS THE CAUSE OF THE BEHAVIOR SEEN AS INTERNAL OR EXTERNAL? WE LOOK FOR THREE TYPES OF INFORMATION TO DECIDE: DISTINCTIVENESS
IS THIS PERSONS PERFORMANCE DIFFERENT ON OTHER TASKS AND IN OTHER SITUATIONS?
CONSISTENCY
OVER TIME, IS THERE A CHANGE IN BEHAVIOR OR RESULTS ON THIS TASK BY THIS PERSON?
CONSENSUS
DO OTHERS PERFORM OR BEHAVE SIMILARLY WHEN IN A SIMILAR POSITION? 3030
You observe an individual complaining about the food, service and the dcor in a restaurant. To answer WHY? YOU OBSERVE:
No one else Complains ( CONSENSUS IS LOW)
This person Always complains In this res. (CONSISTENCY IS HIGH)
This person Also complains In other settings (DISTINCTIVENESS IS LOW)
INTERNAL ATTRIBUTION
He complained Because this person Is difficult to please
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You observe an individual complaining about the food, service and the dcor in a restaurant. To answer WHY? YOU OBSERVE:
Several others Also Complains ( CONSENSUS IS HIGH)
This person Never complains In this res. (CONSISTENCY IS LOW)
This person Does not complains In other settings (DISTINCTIVENESS IS HIGH)
EXTERNAL ATTRIBUTION
He complained Because this restaurants Service is terrible3232
Overcoming the perceptual errors
In judging and making inferences about others, an individuals perceptions are influenced by his beliefs, early experiences etc. After data have been received and interpreted, the perceiver should check whether his/her interpretations are right or wrong. .
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One way of checking is for the person himself or herself to indulge in introspection. S/he should put a series of questions to him/herself and the answers will confirm whether the perception is correct or otherwise Another way is to check the veracity about the interpretation with others.
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For improved usefulness
Train raters. Regular ongoing observation of employees. Limit number appraised by one supervisor. Clear standards. Avoid ambiguous terms like average. Applying Johari window. Being empathic.
Impression Management
People often systematically attempt to behave in ways that will create and maintain impressions which the person wants others to have of him or her
E.g., clothing, handshake, resume preparation for a job interview E.g., associating with right people, doing favours to gain approval, agreeing with others.
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