CO1 - South hem = water hem, 81 water,

19 land
Geology - scientific study of Earth - Oceans: pacific, atlantic, indian,
Physical Geology - the study of earth’s antarctic, arctic
material, changes in surface and interior,
forces that cause changes Biosphere - all,once living materials

The need for geology, nonmetals(clay, rock Geosphere - solid rocky earth
salt) 8,666kg/py
Metals 147kg/py - Planetary differentiation: created
Energy(petroleum, coal, natural gas, earths structure, denser materials
uranium) sinks
- Layering by Chemical(solid,
Earth as a system - portion of the universe liquid): Crust, Mantle, Core
that can be isolated from the rest, interacts
to support life - Crust: Thinnest, Continental,
Oceanic
a. Closed system - self contained - Continental: Granitic, less dense,
system, exchange of energy but not older
matter - Oceanic: Basaltic, denser, younger
b. Open system - energy and matter
flow in and out - Boundary bet. Crust and mantle:
Mohorovicic Discontinuity; Andrija
Atmosphere - gases envelop the earth,
shallow than geosphere, 78%nitrogen, 21% - Mantle:thickest, upper composed of
oxygen, 1% other gases such as co2, peridotite, composed of olivine
helium, nitrogen - Boundary bet. Mantle and core:
Gutenberg Dis.; Beno
Layers: Thanks So Much Tita Eden
- Troposphere, lowest, weather, - Core: densest, mostly iron and
normal laps rate=6.5c/km, inverse, nickel, 16%
- Stratosphere, airplanes, ozone, - Boundary bet inner and outer:
directly Lehmann Disc; Inge
- Mesosphere, coldest temp, least
explored, inverse
- Thermosphere, no defined upper - Layering by physical (density,
limit, ISS, directly composition,mechanical): LAMOI,
- Exosphere Lithosphere, Asthenosphere,
Mesosphere, Outer Inner Core
Hydrosphere - water on earth
- 71% of earth surface, 97.5 salt, 2.5 - P rimary - wave - solid and liquid
fresh - S hear- wave - only solid
- North hem = land hem, 61 water, 39
land
 - Lithosphere - crust + uppermost Plate tectonic mechanism of movement
mantle, rigid break due to stress, - Lithosphere broken into plates
sites of earthquakes, broken into - Plates floats in weak asthenosphere,
lithospheric plates where rocks are near melting point,
plastic or ductile behavior, like slow
- Asthenosphere - Weak, litho floats, flow of honey
where convection occurs - Asthenosphere; convection, hot
material rises, colder material sinks
- Mesosphere- lower portion of
mantle, increase in - SInce plates are in constant
pressure=strengthens with depth, motion,interaction occur along
hot gradual flow boundaries, established to plot volcc
and eq
- Outercore - liquid layer, no s waves,
generates magnetic field Types of boundaries

- Innercore - solid due to immense 1. divergent(spreading centers)

pressure - plates moving away, oce: Mid
oceanic ridge, con:Continental rift
Feedback Mechanism - Global ridge system - longest
- Positive - enhances, drives change topographic features, dividing
- Negative - resists change, maintains iceland
system
2. Convergent
Continental drift - Plates moving towards
- Single supercontinent exists, - Oce - con = Volcanic arc
Pangaea - Oce - Oce = Island
- Alfred Lothar Wegener - Con - Con = mountain range
- Evidences: Jigsaw puzzle, fossil
evidence (Mesosaurus, glossopteris, 3. Transform Fault Boundaries
Lystrosaurus), geologic rock types - Sliding horizontally past
and geologic structures, ancient - Fault zones, and earthquakes
climate boundaries
- Rejected - inability to provide - Left-lateral strike slip - sinistral fault
acceptable mechanism for the - Right lateral strike slip - dextral fault
movement

The theory of plate tectonics - Grand Atoms, Elements, and building blocks of
Unifying theory of Geology the earth
- Lithosphere being broken into plates
that are in motion Mineral
- Explains origins of volcanoes, f - naturally occurring, inorganic,
zone, sea floor, crystalline solid with specific
chemical composition
 - Consistent and recognizable 2. Sulfates - SO4
physical and chemical properties 3. Sulfides - S
4. Oxide - O
Rocks - aggregates of minerals 5. Native element - C
Atoms - smallest, electrically neutral
Element - species of atom, defined by AN Solid solutions series - range of
Atomic number - number of protons composition in common silicate minerals
Polymorphism - have the same compo, diff
Isotopes - atoms of an element with diff crysta structure
num of neutrons but same num of protons
Stable Iso - retain all the pro and neu - Composed of 5 groups of
through time, used to track climate minerals(feldspars, pyroxenes,
Unstable Iso/radioactive - lose pro and amphiboles,micas,quartz)
neu over time - Identification of minerals - by phys
properties and mineral identification
Ions - zero charge, group of atoms with diff key
num of pro and elec, diff charge can bond
Bonding - controlled by valence(outermost Color - visible hue of mineral
shell electrons) Streak -color left behind when scraped
Luster - way light reflects
Types of bonding Hardness - scratch resistance
1. Ionic - transfer of valence electrons External crystal form - exeter geometric
2. Covalent - sharing of valence form
electrons Cleavage - breakage along flat weaker
3. Metallic - flow freely through out planes
metals Fracture - irregular breakage along
stronger bonds
Crystalline Structures Specific gravity - density relative to water
- Must be close proximity
- SILICATE = oxygen + silicon

Silicon-Oxygen Tetrahedron Special properties of Minerals

- Strongly bonded silicate ion
Striations - straight parallel lines
- The more shared oxygen, more Magnetism - attracted to magnet
complex silicate structure Double refraction - two images are visible
Isolated - non shared Chemical test- bubbles in certain
Chain Silicates - 2 shared substance
Double chain - alternating 2 or 3
Sheet - 3 shared Conditions of Mineral formation
Framework - 4 shared
Precipitates - form from crystallizing liquid
Non silicate minerals Biological activity - formed from actions of
1. Carbonates - CO3 living organisms
Sublimation - from as gases from vol vents
Formation of Atmospheres
Beyond the Earth - Formed either by grav captures of
gases, volcanic eruptions, cometary
Earth - third planet out of 8 from the sun impacts
Sun - no surface, huge ball of very hot gas; - Some planets from solar nebula, rich
75 H, 25 He, hydrogen plus helium in H and He
releasing sunlight;gravity - Inner planets formed with combi of
Inner planets - mercury, venus, earth, small volc eruptions, vaporization of
and rocky comets, planetesimals
Outer planets - jupiter, saturn, uranus, Earth’s moon
neptune, huge, gassy - New hy: debris ejected from a large
impact of the earth with a mars sized
Asteroids - rocky, metallic, 1000km<, planetesimals
asteroid belt between mars and jupiter - Earth’s only satellite, no air water ¼
Comets - icy bodies, 1000km<, found of earths diameter
kuiper belt and oort cloud - Surf\ace features: Lunar Highlands
Milky way - our galaxy, 1000B stars (lighter colored areas covered with
Lightyear = 10T craters with anorthite rocks) Lunar
Universe - includes myriads of galaxy, Maria (Smooth dark areas
13.75 billion years from big bang composed of basaltic rocks)

- All planets orbit the sun in the same Mercury

direction, counter clockwise above - Smallest, innermost
earth’s north p - No atmosphere
- 7 degrees of the plane of earth’s orb - Large iron core, strong magnetic
- Solar system is disk-shaped field
- Spins very slowly, once every 58.6
Origin of the planets earth days
- Nebular hypothesis - originated
from solar nebula, rotating flattened Venus
disk of gas and dust - Similar with earth’s size
- 96% CO3, 3.5 N atmosphere
Formation of Planets - Extremely dense
- Planetesimals - formed from dust - Hottest planet, CO2 strong
clump into planets, gravity, greenhouse effect
differentiation - Dominated with volcanic forms
- Formation of moons - clumping of - No magnetic field
rings debris around planets by grav,
captures Mars
- Planetisimals collided with planets - Red planet
creating craters same with the - 95% CO2, very cold, no rainfall
moon, tilted axes caused by collided - Polar ice caps
large planetesimals
 - Crust, mantle core, no plate
movement Minor objects of the solar system
- Moon: Phobos and Deimos
- Meteors heat up once they enter the
Jupiter atmosphere
- Largest planet - Meteorites: fragments large enough
- H and He gases to heat the ground
- Atmospheric composed of methane, - Asteroid: small rocky bodies that
ammonia and water icea orbits the sun, from asteroid belt
- Moons: Ganymede(biggest), Io - Comets: small icy bodies, with tail,
(nearest to J, volcanically active) from oort cloud beyond the Kuiper
Europa (covered withI belt
- ce) Callisto (2nd largest)
Giant Impacts
Saturn - When earth sweeps up, energy of a
- Second largest planter thermonuclear bomb
- Composed of H and he, ice/rock - Ex: meteor crater arizona, comet
core blasted 30km in tunguska russia,
- Wide thin ring system cretaceous impact exterminated
- Several large moons, 50 smaller non avian dinosaurs
ones
- Largest moon: Titan

Uranus
- 4 times the diameter of earth
- Hydrogen and methane rich gives
blue appearance
- Axis and moons orbit tipped on one
side
- Narrow thin ring system

Neptune
- Outermost planet
- 3.9 times the dia of earth
- Blue appearance
- Great dark spot = surface storm
- Narrow thin ring system
- Largest moon: Triton

Pluto
- Dwarf planet
- Water, ice and rock
- Kuiper belt objects were found
CO2 Crystalline Structures

Igneous rocks, Intrusive Activity, Origin Aphanitic - Fine grained, crystals too small
of Igneous Rocks to see, cooled quickly
Phaneritic - Coarse grained, large enough,
Rock - consolidates, composed of grains of cooled slowly
one or more minerals Pegmatitic - extremely coarse grained,
cooled very slowly
Rock Cycle - how one type of rocky Porphyritic - includes 2 distinct crystal
material gets transformed into another sizes, larger phenocryst, smaller ground
mass
Rock cycle and Plate tectonics
Glassy - Contains no crystals at all, rapid
Convergent boundary - magma is created cooling
by melting of conv,subduction zone Vesicular - contains cavities(vesicles)
- Less dense magma rises and cools resulting to gas bubbles, scoria and pumice
to igneous rock
- Igneous gets exposed, weather into Pyroclastic - consolidated pyroclastic
sediments debris such as ash, pumice, tuff and
- Sediments are buried and hardened volcanic breccia
into sedimentary rock
- sedimentary rock heated and Chemistry of Igneous rocks
become metamorphic rock
- Metamorphic rock heat up into Felsic - >65% silica, rhyolite, granite
magma Intermediate - 55 and 65, diorite, andesite
Mafic - 45 and 55, dark colored, basaltic
Igneous rocks - magma cools and and gabbro
solidifies Ultramafic - <45% silica, black, green,
- Intrusive - forms underground, peridotite, komatite
cools slowly
- Extrusive - forms at Earth’s surface Heat for melting rock
(lava), cools quickly
Geothermal Gradient - as depth increases,
Classification of Igneous rocks temp increases
Based on Partial Melting - reduction in melting point,
- Texture - rock’s appearance(size, high temp melting the magma
shape, arrangement of grains) Decompression melting - lower melting
- Chemical Composition - mineral points as the pressure reduced
content, indicates origin and Flux melting - water reduce melting point
evolution - Increase in temp, water, decrease in
pressure
Bowen’s Reaction series - minerals
crystallize in sequence, over large temp
range Abundance and Distribution of Plutonic
Evolution of Magma rocks
- Granite - abundant rock in mountain
Differentiation - process of diff ingredients ranges and lowlands of conti
separate from an orig homogenous mixture - Gabbro and Basalt - to oceans
Crystal settling - changes the magma - Andesite - building material of
compo as the crystals are removed young mt ranges
Partial melting - magma compo varies as - Ultramafic rocks - upper mantle
diff minerals and rocks melts at diff temp
Igneous processes at divergent
Evolution of Magma: boundaries
- Mafic:gabbro and basalt, formed at
Assimilation - hot magma compo will divergent bou.
change as it assimilates adjacent rocks
Magma mixing - magma body changes as Igneous processes at convergent
it mixes with another magma body boundaries
- The origin of andesite -
Intrusive Bodies differentiation of mafic m, partial
- Names based on their size, shape, melting of ocea crust
rela to country rock - The origin of granite - partially
- Country rock - where intrusive melter lower conti crust, magmatic
bodies penetrate and cut through underplating

Shallow intrusive structures - Rising mantle plumes can produce

- Igneous bodies solidified in the hotspots and volcanoes, ex: hawaii
surface
- Small, cool rapidly Volcanism and Extrusive Rocks
- Volcanic neck - magma cooled in - Atmosphere - created from gases
throat of volc released fromo volc eup
- Dike - shallow, cuts across layering - Hydrosphere - condensation of volc
country rock water vapor
- Sill - parallels layering in country - Biosphere - volcanism posi and
rock nega affect

Deeper Intrusive Bodies Volcanism - magma make it to Earth’s

- Plutons - large, blob shape formed surface
of coarsed grained igneous rock Volcanoes - land formed by the extrusion of
commonly granitic lava
- Stocks - small plutons Lava - magma reaches earth’s surface
- Batholiths - large plutons Explosive eruptions - produces rapidly
cooled rock frags called Pyroclasts (from
dust to boulders size)
Why should we study volcs? Cinder cones
- Creation of new land - Small, steeply sloping
- Geothermal energy - Pile of loose cinders, basalt is
- Effect on climate common

Violence of eruptions controlled by: Composite volcano

- Dissolved gases - easy or difficulty - Moderate to steeply sloping
of gases to escape - Alternate pyro and solid lava flows
- Viscosity - fluid’s resistance to flow - Intermediate rocks, andeiste
- Higher silica, higher viscosity - Most common at convergent, pacific
- Cooler lavas, higher viscosity ring of fire
- The more dissolve gases, the more
fluid lava Lava domes
- Extremely high viscosity, felsic lavas
Products of explosive
- Pyroclastic materials - ash, Caldera
cinders, blocks - Volc depression at least 1 dia
- Pyroclastic flows - gas and debris - Resulted from violent eruptions
flows down slope
Volcanic status -
Effusive eruptions - not explosive, passive Active - currently, eruptive
- Mafic lava flows - low visco, flow Dormant - hasnt erupted in many years but
easily; pahoehoe, a’a, lava tube expected to erupt
- Flood basalts - very low visco, Extinct - havent erupted in many years
flows easily
Weathering and soil
Products of effusive - Rocks are constantly changed by
- Columnar jointing - parallel vertical water, air, diff temp
columns - Weathering - destructive process
- Submarine lava flows - pillow that change rocks
structures lava flow into water - Erosion - physically picking up of
- Intermediate and felsic lava flows rock by water ice wind
- thicker lava flow short distance - Transportation - movement of
eroded materials by water ice wind
Types of Volcanoes
Mechanical weathering - breaks rocks
Shield volcanoes into smaller piece without changing its chem
- Broad, gently sloping compo
- Composed basaltic lava flows Chemical weathering - decomposition of
- Often contain lava tubes rocks from exposure to water, co2, o, water
vapor
Effects of weathering Soil
- Destruction of building materials - layer of weathered,
- Discoloration of outcrops unconsolidated material in
- Production of soil top of bedrock
- Impacts the atmosphere: removal of - Common: clay, quartz,
co2 organic, water
- Creates shapes(spheroidal)
Soil Horizons: On An English Bump Car
Differential weathering O - uppermost, organic material
- Rocks weather at diff rates, shale A - dark-colored, rich in org matter, high bio
activity
Mechanical weathering E - zone of leaching
B - zone of accumulation
Pressure release - removal of overlying C - partially weathered bed rock
rocks to expansion and fracturing,
exfoliation domes Factors affecting soil formation
Frost action - mech effect of freezing water - Parent material - Residual
on rocks, frost wedging and heaving soil(weathered underlying rock),
Plant growth - roots widen fractures Transported soil (Loess), Soil
Burrowing animals - buried animals composition(parent rock compo,
expands fractures elves with time)
Thermal variation - large temp changes - Slope
fracture rock by expansion and contraction - Living organism
Salt pressure - Climate
- Time
Chemical weathering
Sedimentary rocks
oxygen/oxidation - chemically active - Produced from weathering products
Acids - can weather rocks of pre existing rocks or biological
matter
Chemical weathering: Feldspar Types of sedimentary rocks
- Most common mineral in crust,
acidic rainwater attacks feldspar into Detrital
clay - most common, produced from rock
frags, coarse grained breccia,
Factors affecting weathering medium - arkose, quartz
- Water sandstone, graywacke
- CLimate - Shale - fine grained sed rock, fissile
- Rock compo when split into thin layer
- Slope - Silstone - slightly coarser, non
fissile
- Claystone - clay, non fissile
 - Mudstone - silt and clay, blocky Sediment deposition
- Transported materials settle
- Environment of deposition - where
deposition occurs: deep sea floor,
beach, desert dunes, river channel,
lake bottom

Preservation - sediments must be

Chemical preserved, burial with more sediments to
- produced by precipitation of become sedimentary rocks
dissolved ions in water, crystalline Lithification - process of which converting
structure loose sediment into sedimentary rock,
- Most are biochemical, can be combination of compaction and
inorganic cementation
- Limestone composed of calcite
- Dolomite Sedimentary structures
- Chert - hard, compact silica compo
- Evaporites - gypsum and rocksalt Bedding - series of visible layers within a
rock, most common

Organic Cross bedding - series of thin inclined

- produced by accumulation of horizontal layrs, in sandstones
biological debris, remains of orgs
- Coal - compaction of decayed plant Ripple marks- small ridges on surface by
material moving wind or water
- Oil and natural gas - algae settle to
sea floor, high temp coverts organics Graded bedding - change in grain size
to oil and gas from button to top

Sediment Mud cracks - polygonal cracks in drying

- Loose solid particles from weathered mud
rock
- Clay, silt, sand, pebble, cobble, Fossils - traces of plants or animals
boulder preserved in rock

Sediment transportation Formations

- By wind water ice - Rock body large enough to be
- Rounding - abrasion during mapped, based on a rock type
transport - Contact - boundary between 2 diff
- Sorting - separated according to rock type or age
size
- Sediment decrease in size, when Sea level changes
increased in transport - Transgression - sea level rises
- Regression - sea level falls
Metamorphism Non foliated met rocks
- Refers to solid state changes to - Marble - interlocking calcite crystals
rocks into earths interior - Quartzite - grains of quartz welded
- Rocks produced from parent rocks together
are metamorphic rocks - Hornfels - composed of small micas
- Met rocks common in old stable formed from clay
cores of conti are cratons
Foliated metamorphic rocks
Meta rocks texture and mineral content - Slate
depend on: - Phyllite
- Parent rock compo - Schist
- Temp and pressure during - Gneiss
metamosphism
- Tectonic forces Contact metamorphism
- Fluids - Magma comes in contact with cool
country rock
Temperature - High temp is a factor
- Heat comes from earths depp - Non foliated rocks
interior - Occurs in narrow zone: aurole
- All minerals stable over finite temp
range, if exceeded new minerals Hydrothermal metamorphism
result - Rocks precipitated from or altered by
- Temp high enough result to melting water
- Common at divergent boundaries,
Pressure mid oceanic ridges
- Confining pressure - applied - Metasomatism - change in
equally in all directions chemical compo
- Differential stress - created by - Metallic ore deposits (veins) -
stress in not equal direction forms
- Compressive stress - flattening
perpendicular to stress Regional metamorphism
- Shearing - flattening by sliding - Occurs in wide area and deep in
parallel curst
- Result are foliated rocks
Foliation - Convergent plate
- Formed by differential stress
Shock Metamosphism
Time - Rapid application of extreme
- Meta, from high pres, may take pressures
million years - Impact craters
Prograde metamorphism - as greater - Ph energy mix: mostly coal, natural
depth, recrystallizationo into higher grade gas, geothermal, hydro, oil based,
rocks, = slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss solar, wind

CO3

Types of Geologic resources

Energy resources
Energy resources - petroleum (oil and - Carbon based - obtained from
natural gas), coal, uranium, geothermal burning of carbon
resources - Non-carbon based - do not
generate carbon
Metals - Iron, copper, aluminum, lead zinc, - Renewable - naturally replenished,
gold, silver, platinum replaced constantly
- Non renewable - finite and
Non-metallic resources - sand and gravel, becomes depleted over time
limestone, building stone, etc.
Non renewable energy resources:
Renewable Resources - replenished by
natural processes fast enough for continue Coal
using - Sedimentary rock from compaction
of not completely decayed plant
Non-renewable resources - form very material
slowly, and are extracted and used faster - Peat - 1st, unconsolidated
than renewed - Lignite - brown, soft and crumbly
- Sub and Bituminous - black and
Resource - total amount of any given dusty, smokey flame, strip mined
geologic material of potential, economic, - Anthracite - hard, shiney dust free,
interest, discovered and undiscovered smokeless, low level met rock

Reserves - discovered deposits of geo Petroleum and Natural gas

resource than can be extracted - Source rock rich in org matter
economically and legally - Reservoir rock like sandstone which
it can be stored
Energy mix - Structural/Oil trap- prevents
- Combination of primary energy migration
resources, carbon and non carbon - Deep burial and sufficient time to
based cook the oil and gas
- Used for; power generation, fuel - Oil fields - one or more oil pools
transport, heating and cooling - Removed through wells drilled into
oil trap within reservoir rock
 - Nega efx: oil spills, brine - Heat energy from beneath earths
contamination, ground subsidence surface
- Oil reserves: can last 50 years at
rates of use Solar energy
- Use of photovoltaic cells to generate
Fracking - horizontal drilling of low elec
permealbility shale zones WInd power
- Use of wind turbines
Coal bed methane: methane trapped within Hydroelectric power
a coal - Falling water to turn turbine

Heavy crude and oil sands: dense, Tidal power

viscous petro - Use of tidal changes to turn turbines

Oil shale - black/brown shale within high Wave power

solid org matter, distilled to be oil - Captures wave energy; experimental
techno
Coal mining Biofuels
- Underground mining - host rocks - Fuels from biologic, such as ethanol
are left and coal is removed by and vege oil
trucks
- Surface Mining - coal seams are at Efx of renewable non carbon based on
shallow level, removed overburden environment
then coal, strip mining(removing
overburden with bucket machines) Geothermal
mountaintop removal - Minor, seismicity due to drilling
mining(explosives removes - Disposal of effluent water, leakage
overburden)
Hydroelectric dams
Effects of coal mining and use - Erosion and sedimentation
- Danger to miners - Sediments suffocates fish hatcheries
- Contrib to climate change; carbon - Low and high water downstream
dio - Ecosystem damage due to flooding
- Atmospheric pollu due to acid - Displaced population
rain(caused by atmospheric - Methane emissions, upstream
emissions of sulfur dioxide from results to methane emissions
burning foss fuels), sulfuric acid - Earthquakes - weight of water
- Emission of toxic elem such as creates stress
mercury
- Improper ash disposal Wind energy
- Use large amounts of steel
Renewable Energy sources - Noise
- Spoiling of scenic views
Geothermal energy - Hazards to bird migrations
 - Beta - intermediate
Solar energy - Gamma - type of electro mag rad
- Solar arrays not compatible with agri with short wavelengths and v
land energetic, most penetrating

Non renewable energy- non carbon

based Nuclear waste disposal
- Low level waste - from industrial,
Nuclear energy medical academic, stored near the
- Energy released by heavy nucleus surface of sites, be disposed as
when its broken down into 2 smaller ordinary trash
nuclei - High level waste - spent nuclear
- Non ren, uranium, plutonium, fuel from nuclear reactors,
thorium as fuel source - Spent fuels - waste products
- No combustion reactions removed from nuclear reactors and
- Nucleons - subatomic particle in the replaced with fresh fuel
nucleus: neutrons and protons - Nuclear waste - stored temporarily
- Protons - atomic number until cool down and permanent
- Protons + neutrons = atomic mass disposal, on site, tanks, dry casks,
- Neutrons = A - z best stored in metal containers deep
- Nuclide - nucleus with a and z form until 10k to im years
- Isotope - nucleus, same number of - Geologic repositories - perma
protons, diff numm of neutrons storage of nuclear waste, shield
areas of the earth
Nuclear fission
- Henri Becquerel discovered Mineral resources
radioactivity of uranium
- Artificial radioactivity of uranium by Metal ores - naturally occurring metallic
bombarding nucleus with neutrons materials that can be profitably mines
- Fission - uncharged neutrons can - Ored formed by igneous process
enter the nucleus and split into two such as:
smaller atoms - Crystal settling - settling bottom of
- Republic act No. 2067, 5207 the magma ex: chromium
- Science act of 1958 - Hydrothermal fluids- most
- Exec order no 784, 128 important source of met ore other
than iron and aluminum
Impacts of nuclear energy - Contact met deposits
- Radiation - cancer, genetic defects, - Hydrothermal veins - ore along
shortage of food supply faults and joints
- Alpha - heavy, positive charge highly - Disseminated deposits
energetic least penetrating - Hot spring deposits
 - Principal source of copper
Non metallic resources - Silica rich magma and fractures host
- not mined to extract metal or energy rock
- Construction materials - sand, gravel, - Magma emplacement and
limestone and gypsum hydrothermal circu precipitates
- fertilizers and evaporites - phosphate, metals in veins
nitrate, potassium compounds: rock salt
gypsum
Other nonmetallics - gemstones,asbestos
glass and fluorite Sedimentary Ore-forming enviro

Ores Banded iron deposit

- Ores formed by surface processes - Largest most important iron deposits
- Chemical precipitation in layers: - Formed through chem precipitation
iron, manganese, copper ores - Alternating iron and silica rich
- Placer deposits - concentration of
minerals by stream: gold, platinum, MVT ORE / Mississippi Valley type
dias, gemstone - Rain would fall where there's high
- Concentration by weathering: temp to dissolve metals
aluminum ore, bauxite - Water would rise to cooler where it
precipitates
Igneous ore-forming environments
Secondary enrichment deposit
Magmatic concentration deposit - Due to weathering, surface water
- Forms when magma cools could oxidize and yield acidic
- Sulfide undergo gravity settling and solvents that dissolve other minerals
accumulate
Residual mineral deposit
Hydrothermal deposit - Rainwater leaches elements,
- Circulation of hot water solutions residue can include conc.. Of iron
through a magma nickel and AL
- Fluid dissolves metals - Laterite profile: iron - laterite
- Nickel - saprolite
Volcanic massive sulfide deposit
- Deposits of copper zinc lead Placer deposit
concentrated in ocean floor at diver - Develop when rocks containing
boundaries native metals erode
- Formed due to ocean ridge vents - Nuggets such as gold would
(white and black smoker) release accumulate along course of rivers
hydrothermal fluids
- Accumulate and collapse of black Metamorphic ore- forming environments
smoker vents and depposits
Skarn
Porphyry deposit - Contact metasomatic deposits
 - Forms due to the hydrothermal fluids LIberation & Comminution
from magma
a. Exoskarn - in sedimentary Liberation
b. Endoskarn - in igneous - Crushing and grinding of rocks to
c. Ore - deposit of 1 or more liberate the minerals so they are
mineral/metal partially/fully exposed.
d. Gangue - worthless ;
nonmetallic
Mining & Metallurgy Stages of Liberation & Comminution

Mining 1. Crushing - coarse

- Done at earth’s surface or comminution
underground 2. Grinding - liner size for
- Examples liberation or high surface
a. Strip Mining area
b. Open-pit Mining
c. Placer Mining - Panning, Concentration
Sluice boxes, Hydraulic - Separation of gangue and target
d. Underground/Bedrock rocks/minerals
Mining
Methods of Concentration
Negative Effects of Mining a. Hand Picking -
a. Tailing Piles b. Gravity Methods - effectiveness
b. Surface Scars dependent on the diff of gravity,
c. Land Subsidence particle size
d. Acid Mine Drainage can be c. Floatation - use of reagents to have
minimized different materials adhere to
“bubbles” so that it would rise
Mining Process i. Frothers - bubbles & froth
a. Prospecting & Exploration - ii. Collectors - air-bubbles to the
finding ore deposit and calculating mineral grain
its tonnage and grade iii. Conditioners - to modify the
b. Development & Exploitation - mine surface of the mineral
sites development and extraction of particle making it more
ores susceptible (ACTIVATORS)
c. Decommissioning & or less susceptible
Rehabilitation - closing the mine (DEPRESSANTS)
and rehabilitation of it d. Amalgamation - use of mercury as
it holds/absorbs the particles or
Metallurgy metals ; mercury and gold are later
- Science and technology of extracting separated by distillation.
metals e. Magnetic Concentration - used to
- Preparation for their practical use concentrate magnetite iron ores,
other iron oxides
 Waste Classification Based On
Other Metallurgical Techniques Generator
a. Pyrometallurgy - use of high temp a. Municipal - “domestic waste”; result
e.g. Smelting and Volatilization from day-to-day consumption of
b. Hydrometallurgy - use of wet goods
methods e.g. disposed food scraps, bottles,
e.g. Crushing and grinding, DIssolution or cans
agitating, Filtering, and Precipitation b. Commercial - wastes from
Metallurgical Balance business/trade, sports, recreation,
education, entertainment ect.
When processing, one should note the ff… e.g. rubbish from food
establishments
Input = output c. Industrial - resulted from
manufacturing of goods
As such, ideally it should be the… e.g. effluents/wastewater from
industries
Mill Head = Tailings + Concentrate d. Agricultural - resulted from
agricultural processes
Resources, The Environment, and e.g. excess fertilizer and pesticide
Sustainability solutions
e. Medical - resulted from treatments
Demand for resources increases, as world of illness and trauma
population increases e.g. disposed medical gloves,
medicine containers, syringes
Environmental Impacts of Extraction & f. Mining - from mining and ore
Transportation of Resources processing
a. Enormous holes in the ground e.g. mine tailings, slag, wastewater
b. Removed mountain tops with dissolve heavy metals
c. Massive oil spills g. Oil & Gas - resulted from discovery,
d. Release of greenhouse gasses extraction, and processing of oil and
natural gas; also from drilling
Environment & Waste Management E.g. gasses such as CO2, Hydrogen
Sulfide
Waste h. Nuclear - by-products of nuclear
- Movable object with no direct use power plants and/or other
that is discarded permanently radioactive activities
E.g. spent nuclear fuels, radioactive
Waste Classification Based On Their materials
Components
a. Solid Health and Environmental Impacts of
b. Liquid Wastes
c. Gaseous - Improper waste disposal may pose
serious health hazards and lead to
spread of infectious diseases
 c. Attenuation - diluting or spreading
of trash so thinly so as to have little
impact

Special Situation on Waste Management

a. Sewage Sludge - product of
sewage treatments; may be used as
ORGANIC DOMESTIC WASTE fertilizers
- pathogen/microbial growth when b. Landfill Gas Generation - methane
wastes ferment gas generates when anaerobic
- can result in various types of microorganisms digest wastes in a
infectious and chronic diseases landfill; leakage may cause
unexpected explosions
HAZARDOUS WASTE EXPOSURE c. Leachate Pollution - may
- Can lead to diseases through contaminate water
chemical exposure
Recycling
HOSPITAL AND MEDICAL WASTE - Resource Recovery - removal or
- requires special attention since this certain materials from waste stream
can create major health hazards for the purpose of recycling
- Composting - use of
WASTE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL microorganisms to decompose
SITES organic wastes such as kitchen
- Improperly operated incineration wastes
plants →air pollution
- Improperly managed and designed Nuclear Waste Disposal
landfills → attract all types of insects - Must be isolated because they emit
and rodents high energy radiation that kills cells,
- Ideally these sites should be located cause genetic mutations, and death
at a safe distance from all human
settlement. Landfill sites should be
well lined and walled to ensure that
there is no leakage into the nearby
ground water sources.

WASTE MANAGEMENT
a. Isolation - encapsulating, burying or
in some other way removing waste
from environment
b. Incineration - burning or trash
leaving behind a smaller volume
residue to be isolated/attenuated