Unit Three: Politics, Economy and Society in

Ethiopia and the Horn to the end of the 13th Century

(6 Hrs)

Introduction:
 From ancient times to the end of the thirteenth century,
societies in Ethiopia and the Horn underwent political,
economic, social and cultural changes.
 One remarkable change in the period was the evolution of
states with diverse socio-cultural and economic settings.
 While agriculture and trade contributed to the evolution of
states, religions shaped the socio-cultural setup of the states in
different parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Cont’d
 The results of the period were socio-cultural achievements
such as architecture, writing, calendar, numerals etc.
 Furthermore, the unit explains the external relations of the
period that had significant role in shaping the history of region.
 3.1. Emergence of States

 One important factor for the emergence of states was the

beginning of sedentary agriculture.
 States were formed mainly through the expansion of
agriculture that gave rise to class differentiation.
 The growth of trade facilitated the development of states.
 State refers to an autonomous political unit having
population, defined territory, sovereignty and government
with the power to decree and enforce laws.
 Cont’d
 Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in Africa where
early state formation took place.

 Geographical proximity to and control of the international

water bodies like Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean
along with their ports as well as rich interior favored some of
them to become stronger than their neighbors and eventually
dominated them.
 3.2. Ancient States
3.2.1. North and Northeast
A. Punt
 Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the
Horn.
 The evidence on Punt comes from Egyptian hieroglyphic
writings.
 Scholars have not reached agreement as to the exact
location of Punt.
 Some scholars suggest that northeastern Somalia. Others
claims northern Ethiopia
B. Da’amat and Other Cultural Centers in Northern
Ethiopia and Eritrea

 The state known as Da’amat had a center a little to the south of

Aksum.
 Inscription of the king of Da’amat tentatively dated to the fifth
century BC shows that he used politico-religious title known
as Mukarib.
 Various gods and goddesses like Almouqah (principal god),
Astarr (Venus god), Na’uran (light god), Shamsi (sun god),
and Sin (moon god) were worshipped in the domain of the
Da’amat state and other northern Ethiopian pre-Aksumite
cultural centers.
 There were similar practices in South Arabia at the time.
 Other Pre-Axumite States

A. Yeha:
 Is located 30 kms to the northeast of Aksum and was the
oldest of these centers.
 It seems that the period of its prosperity (zenith) was from
about 750 to 500 B.C.
 Remains of walls of some of its buildings and stone masonry
as well as still standing temple and inscriptions indicate Yeha’s
glory.
 B. Hawulti Melazo

 Is situated to southeast of Aksum, where stone tablets that are

inscribed in rectangular temple surrounded by a wall decorated
with paintings representing herds of cattle have been
excavated.
C. Addi Seglemeni:
 Is located at 10kms southwest of Aksum, from where a stone
slab is found and the oldest Ethiopian monumental inscription
is discovered.
 There were also other cultural centers like Addi Gelemo, Addi
Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi Dera, Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra,
Senafe, Tekonda etc.
 C. The Axsumite State

 The nucleus of the Aksumite state was formed around 200-100

B.C.
 Initially, its power was limited to a relatively small area
comprising the town of Aksum and its environs.
 Gradually, however, it expanded to include large territories in
all directions.
 In its heyday, Aksumite territories extended from the Red
Sea coast in the East to the Western edge of Ethiopian
plateau.
 Sources on Axsumite State
1. Periplus of Erithrean Sea
 It was a trade manual written in the mid of the 1st century
A.D. by unknown Greek speaking sailor.
 It gives a detailed account of internal and external trade of
Axsum.
 Adulis on the western coast of the Red Sea was the major port
of Aksum.
 The document also mentioned ports of Aden (Eudaemon) Gulf
like Avalites (Zayla) and Malao (Berbera), and Indian Ocean
Benadir Coasts like Serapion (Moqadishu), Nicon (Brava) and
Merca.
 I. Major Export Items

 The major items of export of the Aksumite state consisted

mainly of the natural products such as
 ivory, myrrh, emerald, frankincense and some spices (like
ginger, cassia and cinnamon), gold, rhinoceros horns,
hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells and some curiosity animals
like apes.
II: Major Import Items were
 Garments, glassware, jewelery, metallic sheets, tools, oil, wine
and other manufactured goods.
 B. The Christian Topography

• Produced by Greek traveller, Cosmas Indicopleustes who

visited Axsum in the first half of the 6th century A.D.
• His book deals mainly with social, economic, and political
developments in Axsum during the six century.
• Describes commercial activities of the Red Sea areas.
• It also mentions the internal long distance trade between
Aksum and a distant region called Sasu, most probably in Beni
Shangul and the adjoining lands beyond the Blue Nile.
 External Relations

 Aksumite kings had extensive contacts with the outside world

notably with the South Arabian region, leading to exchange
of ideas, material and spiritual culture.
 Sometimes such contacts involved conflicts between the two
regions.
 Axsum had trade relation with Egypt, Roman Empire,
Persian Empire, India, Syria, Ceylon and Laodciea.
 The Heyday of Axsumite Empire

 From the third to the seventh centuries, Aksumite kings like

Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II, etc. minted and
issued different kinds of coins in gold, silver and bronze for
both overseas and local transactions.
 Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i. e.
Roman Empire, Persia, China and Aksum) at the time.
 It was a major naval and trading power from the first to the
seventh centuries.
 Aksumite ships were the main means of transporting goods.
 Cont’d

 Aksum was the only one with sufficient sources of timber for ship
building and in those days, the technology for it existed in Adulis.
 Aksum had a large fleet of ships, which was used not only for trade
but also for its wars across the Red Sea.
 Kaleb (r. 500-35) expanded overseas territories of Aksum beyond
Himyar and Saba, but the local prince Dhu-Nuwas was converted to
Judaism, marched to Zafar and Nagran, and killed many Christians.
 Byzantine Vasaliev Justinian (r. 527-65) with sanctification of
Patriarch Timit III (518-538) provided Kaleb with a number of ships
to transport armies led by Julianos and Nonossus against Dhu
Nuwas.
 Decline and Collapse of Axsumite State

 The Aksumite state begun to decline since the late seventh

century because of internal and external challenges.
I. Internal Factors
 Environmental degradation,
 Decline in agricultural productivity
 Plague infestation
 Beja and Agaw people rebellions
 The rebelión of Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit)
Activity1. Explicate briefly how did the birth and development of
Islam credited for the collapse of Axsumite Empire.
 II. External Factor

 Muslim Arabs’ blockade of the Red Sea international

trade.
 With the destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around
702, the international lifeline of the state was cut.
 The whole network of Aksumite international trade came
under the control of the rising and expanding Arab Muslims,
isolating the Aksum state from its old commercial and
diplomatic partners.
 Consequently, the Aksumite state declined economically.
 This naturally led to the decline of its political and military
power.
 Achievements of Axsumite Empire

 Aksum had a profound impact upon the peoples of the Horn

of Africa and beyond, and on its successors i.e. the Zagwe,
‘Solomonic Dynasty’, the Gondarine period etc.
 Indigenous script and calendar as well as EOC hymns and
chants, paintings etc; diversified ceramic and lithic tools,
ivory curving, and urbanization and sophisticated building
traditions (palaces, stele, rock-hewn churches…).
 It also developed complex administrative and governance
system, and agricultural system including irrigation etc.
 D. Zagwe Dynasty

 Founded by the Agaw people

 Mera Teklehaimanot credited for the foundation of Zagwe
Dynasty
 He had deposed the last Axsumite King, Dilnaod
 The Zagwe Dynasty made its center in Bugna District within
Wag and Lasta, more exactly at Adafa near Roha (Lalibela).
 Agaws served as soldiers and functionaries for at least four
centuries in the Axsumite state.
 Territorial Limits

 The Zagwe Dynasty made its center in Bugna District within

Wag and Lasta, more exactly at Adafa near Roha (Lalibela).
 The territory of the Zagwe kingdom extended from most of
the highland provinces of the ancient Aksumite kingdom in the
north down to northern Shewa in the south, the Lake Tana
region and the northern part of what is today Gojjam in the
west.
Economy
 Agriculture and trade were the dominant economic activity
 Dominant export items included slaves, ivory and rare spices
while cotton, linen, silver and copper vessels, various types of
drags and newly minted coins were imported.
 Cont’d

 The Agaw maintained the ancient Aksumite traditions

almost intact.
 Zagwe rulers renewed cultural and trade contact with Eastern
Mediterranean region.
 Achievements of Zagwe Dynasty
 Architecture- the most important achievement
 Literature
 Administration
 Agriculture
 Lalibela Churches

 Zagwe rulers are best known for the construction of cave,

semi-hewn and monolithic churches.
1. Cave: with some decoration inside, almost similar with
natural cave, eg. Bete-Mesqel.
2. Semi-hewn: this and the monolithic churches that have
become UNESCO world heritage are unique in constructions.
 Semi-hewan are with detailed interior decoration and partial
decoration outside.
 Cont’d

 They are not totally separated from the surrounding rock.

 Their roofs or walls are still attached to the rock, eg. Bete
Denagil, Bete Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota, Bete
Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri’el-Rufa’el and Bete Abba Libanos.

3. Monolithic: with detailed decoration in the interior and

exterior parts.
 They are completely separated (carved out) from surrounding
rock, eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis, Bete Mariyam and
Bete Medhanialem.
 Cont’d

 Among the eleven churches of Lalibela, Bete Medhanelem is

the largest of all and Bete Giyorgis is said to be the most finely
built in the shape of the Cross.
1. What possible objective (motives) spurred King Lalibela
to constructing the eleven monolithic rock-hewn
Churches?
 Lalibela wanted to establish the second Jerusalem, and
mitigate or even avoid difficulties, which Ethiopian
Christians encountered in their journey to the Holy Lands.
 This was done by constructing churches based on the model of
Holy Lands in Israel.
 Decline and downfall of Zagwe Dynasty

 The Zagwe Dynasty came to end due to internal problems of

royal succession and oppositions from groups claiming
descent from the ancient rulers of Aksum.
 The latter considered Zagwe kings “illegitimate rulers” based
on the legend of the Queen of Sheba.
 The legend was in turn based on a book known as Kebra-
Negest (Glory of Kings) that was translated from Coptic to
Arabic and then into Ge’ez.
 Cont’d

 Based on the legend, the power claimants contend that

“Solomonic” Dynasty ruled the Aksumite state until its power
was “usurped” by the Zagwes.Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285),
who claimed decent from the last Aksumite king Dilna’od,
organized his forces with the assistance of the ecclesiastical
hierarchy and engaged the last king of Zagwe, Yetbarek in
battle.
 Yetbarek was killed in Gaynt and Yekuno-Amlak took the state
power proclaiming the “restoration” of “Solomonic” Dynasty.
 3.2.2. East, Central, Southern, and Western States
3.2.2.1. Bizamo, Damot, Enarya and Gafat

A. Bizamo:
 It was a kingdom located on the southern bend of Abay River
just opposite to the present districts of Gojjam and around the
current Wambara area.
 It was founded in the eighth century and had early connections
with Damot.
B. Damot: was a strong kingdom that expanded its territories into
most of the lands the south of Abay and north of Lake Turkana as
well as west of Awash and east of Didessa.
 Motalami was a prominent king of Damot in the thirteenth
century.
 C. Enarya

 It was a kingdom in the Gibe region in southwestern Ethiopia.

 The royal clan was Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso).
 Enarya's kingship was a divine one: the king (HinnareTato)
was secluded and considered as sacred.
 He communicated with visitors through an intermediary,
AfeBusho.
 The real power rested with Mikretcho (council) including
Awa-rasha (king's spokesperson) and Atche-rasha (royal
treasurer). The kings had residences in Yadare and Gowi.
 D. Gafat

 Historically, the territory of Gafat lies south of Abay (Blue

Nile) River adjoining Damot on the south western periphery of
the Christian Kingdom.
 It was inhabited by Semitic speaking population related to
Harari and the Gurage.
 early medieval period, Gafat was paying tribute to the
Christian Kingdom.
 The state was governed by rulers bearing the title of Awalamo.
 3.2.2.2. Muslim Sultanates

 Viable Muslim communities and states had been established at

many locations especially along the main trade routes from
Zeila and its many branches penetrating the interior. These
states include:
A. Shewa: Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who claimed decent
from Meca, set up the Makhzumite Sultanate in 896 A. D
(283 A.H.) on northeastern foothill of Shewa.
B. Fatagar: was founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a
in the eleventh century.
 C. Dawaro

 Located south of Fatagar between upper waters of Awash and

WabiShebelle extending to Charchar in Northeast and Gindhir
in Southeast.
 We have valuable information on Dawaro by an Egyptian
courtier Ibn Fad Allah el-umari.
 It was much smaller than Ifat, but resembled it in many
aspects.
 Dawaro had a currency called hakuna for transaction .
 D. Bali

 It was an extensive kingdom occupying high plateau,

separating basins of Shebelle and Rift valley Lakes.
 It was separated from Dawaro by the Wabi-Shebelle River and
extended southwards to the Gannale Dirre River.
 Bali was one of the largest of Ethiopia’s Muslim provinces.
 Its economic activity resembles those of other nearby Muslim
lands.
 Trade was mainly based on barter exchanging cattle, sheep,
cloth etc. It had strong army composed of cavalry and infantry.
 E. Ifat

 It was a state located adjacent to Shewan Sultanate.

 Its territory ran from northeast-southwesterly in the Afar plain
eastward to the Awash.

 It was established by Umar Walasma, who claimed descent

from Hashamite clan and said to have come from Arabia
between 1271 and 1285.
 Trade was its dominant economic acyivity
 F. Others

 Autonomous states mutually independent states like

 Arababani (between Hadiya and Dawwaro),
 Biqulzar, Dera (between Dawaro and Bali), Fadise, Gidaya,
Hargaya, Harla, Kwilgora, Qadise,
 Sharkah (West of Dawaro and North of Bali in Arsi) and Sim
were established and flourished.
Activity: Explain the common characterizing features of the
various Muslim Sultanates.
 3.3. External Contacts

 Ethiopia and the Horn had contacts with Egypt since at least
3,000 B. C.
 These relations may be the region’s earliest contacts with the
Mediterranean world or the Greco-Roman World.
 It had very close relations with all commercially active South
Arabian Kingdoms starting sometimes before 1,000 B.C.
 The introduction of Christianity to Aksum established a new
pattern of relation between the region and Egypt.
 Cont’d
 Following the introduction of Christianity, Aksum established
close relationship with the East Roman or Byzantine Empire
with which it shared common commercial interest in the Red
Sea area against their rival Persians.
 Yet, in the seven century, this relation became complicated and
began to deteriorate.
 The rapid expansion of the Muslim Arabs through the Near
and Middle East, North Africa and the Nile valley led to the
decline of Aksumite land routes and shipping lines.
 Cont’d
 Successive Egyptian Muslim rulers began to use the consecration
and sending of a bishop as an instrument to further their own foreign
policy objectives and to squeeze concessions from Ethiopian
Christian rulers, who reacted by threatening to divert the Nile.

 The coming to power of the Mamluk was followed by the

reciprocal persecution of religious minorities.

 Moreover, the Mamluk presented a barrier to the contacts between

Christian Ethiopia and European states.
 3.4. Economic Formations
A. Agriculture and Land tenure systems

 The main stay of ancient states' economy in highland areas

was plough agriculture.
 The people used diverse soil fertility enhancement strategies
like manuring, compost and spreading residues’ ashes as
well as fallowing, crop rotation, intercropping and contour
plowing.
 Land has always been one of the most precious possessions of
human society throughout history.
 The rules according to which members of the society hold,
share and use land constitute what is known as the land tenure
system.
 A. Communal Land Tenure System

 The most ancient system of land holding which survived in

many parts of Ethiopia and the Horn is the communal land
tenure system.
 Communal right to land is a group right.
 Here group refers to the family, the clan and the other lineage
groups to which the individual belonged.
 Each of these groups had communal right to the land they
lived in and freely exploited the resources of the land.
 B. Rist (ርስት) Land Tenure System

 Peasants in the north had rist rights in their respective areas.

 Rist is a kind of communal birthright to land by members
of the families and clans whose ancestors had settled and
lived in the area over long periods.
 It is inherited from generation to generation in accordance to
customary law.
 Most of the subjects of the state had rist rights.
 The rist owners were known as bale-rist.
 Yet, they paid tributes to the state and all land belonged to the
state theoretically.
 Gult, Bale-Gult and Tribute collection

 Tribute was collected through a complex hierarchy of state

functionaries or officials who were given gult right over the
areas and populations they administered on behalf of the
central government.
 Gult is a right to levy tribute on rist owners’ produce.
 The tribute collected by bale-gults, partly allotted for their
own up keep and the rest were sent to the imperial center.
 Gult right that became hereditary was called Riste-Gult as
prominent wellplaced officials used to transfer their position to
their offspring.
 B. Handcraft

 Indigenous handcraft technology had existed since the ancient

period.
 The social, economic and political conditions of ancient states
had allowed the emergence of artisans in various fields with
diverse forms and applications including metal work, pottery,
tannery, carpentry, masonry, weaving, jewelry, basketry and
others.
 Metal workers produced spears’ points, swords , javelins,
bows, arrows, traps, slings, slashers, shields, knives, axes,
sickles, hoes, ploughshares, spades, machetes, hatchets, iron
tripods, ornaments etc.
 Cont’d
 Carpenters engaged in carving wood implements like doors,
windows, stools, chairs, tables, beds, headrests, mortars,
bowls, beams, yoke, stilt, coffins etc
 Potters produced ceramic utensils like saucepan, ovens, jar,
pot, kettle, cooking tripod, plates, granary etc.
 Tanners produced leather tools used for bed, bed cover,
saddles, harness, ropes, footwear, prayer mats, sacks, honey
and butter container, drinking cup and clothes until replaced by
weavers’ cotton dresses.
 Occupational Marginalization

1. What do you think are the causes and consequences of the

marginalization of those occupational groups?
 Except the carpenters and masons in some cases, the
artisans were mostly despised and marginalized.
 The ruling classes mostly spent their accumulated wealth on
imported luxurious items rather than the domestic technology.
 The general public attitude towards artisans was not at all
encouraging.
 Consequently, the locally produced agricultural implements
and house furniture did not show any significant improvement
and sophistication.
 C. Trade

 Trade was another important economic activity of ancient

states that obtained considerable income from both internal
and international trade.
 The major socio-economic and political centers of earliest
states seem to have also been major trade centers with wide
ranging contacts in various directions within the region itself
and with merchants coming to the area across the international
water bodies.
 The regular flow of trade was so vital to the states in that one
of their major concerns was to protect the trade routes and
make them safe from robbers.
 3.5.Socio-Cultural Achievements
A. Architecture

 As the states expanded, architecture also began to flourish and

one of the unique architectural technologies was the
engraving of stele around the third century AD.
 There were totally fifty eight steles in and around Aksum that
can be grouped into well made and decorated, half completed
and megaliths (not hewn).
 As local tradition says, the steles were engraved specifically at
Gobodara from which they were transported and planted in
Aksum.
 Cont’d
 The longest one of these stele measures 33meters heights (the
first in the world).
 It also bears pre-Christian symbols, which are a disc and a
crescent (half moon) at the top.
 Some scholars suggest that this giant stele was broken while
the people were trying to erect it.
 The second longest obelisk measures 24 meters height that
was successfully erected and represents a ten-storied building
with many windows and a false door at the bottom.
 The third longest stele measures 21 meters and represents a
nine-storied building with many windows and a false door at
the bottom.
 Zagwe Churches

 The Zagwe churches are regarded as some of the finest

architecture of artistic achievements of the Christian world
and that is why they were registered by UNESCO as part of
world cultural heritage in 1978, two years before that of the
Aksumite stele.
 Further refinement can be observed in the construction and
decoration of the rockhewn churches in the Zagwe period.
 Zagwe architecture used a softer material like sandstone,
which was cut and shaped all round, except the floor, into a
variety of delicately decorated churches.
 B. Writing System

 The Sabean language had an alphabet with boustrophedon

writing type that is paleographical writing from left to right
and right to left alternatively.
 The earliest Sabean inscriptions in Eritrea and Ethiopia date to
the ninth century BC.
 Though the first completely vocalized texts known are
inscriptions by Ezana (who left trilingual inscriptions in
Greek, Sabean and Ge'ez) c. 330 AD, vocalized letters
predate him by some years, as vocalized letter exists in
Wazeba’s coin some 30 or so years before.
 C. Calendar

 People needed to know and remember the times when the rains
would begin and end as well as the rise and fall of the water
level.
 The responsibility of understanding these vital climatic cycles
fell on expertise.
 In due course, calendars were invented. In most cases, the
length of the month was based on the movement of the moon
or the apparent movement of the sun.
 Calendars were developed and adopted among various peoples
of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Cont’d
 Oromo calendar has been based on astronomical observations
of moon in conjunction with seven or eight particular stars or
group of stars called Urjii Dhahaa (guiding stars) and
Bakkalcha (morning star).
 The Sidama calendar rotates following movements of stars
with 13 months a year, 12 of which are divided equally into 28
days while the thirteenth month has 29 days.
 The Sidama week has only 4 days (Dikko, Dela, Qawado and
Qawalanka) and hence each month has 7 weeks.
 Nominated Mote (King) is presented to Fiche Chambalala,
New Year ritual, for Qetela or popular demonstration.
 Ethiopic Calendar

 Ethiopic solar calendar has 12 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6

(is added every 4 years) Epagomenal days, which comprise a
thirteenth month.
 A gap of 7–8 years between Ethiopic and Gregorian
calendars results from alternative calculation in determining
date of Annunciation.
 Thus, the first day of the year, 1 Meskerem/Enkutatash is
usually September 11 (Gregorian).
 However, it falls on September 12 in years before the
Gregorian leap year. The Ethiopic solar calendar has evolved
to become the official calendar of the country.
 Islamic Calendar

 The Muslim (Islamic) calendar is a lunar calendar consisting

of 12 months in a year of 354 or 355 days.
 It employs the Hijra year of 622 AD, in which Mohammed
and his followers made flight from Mecca to Medina and
established the first Muslim community (ummah).
 Dates in this era are usually denoted AH (After Hijra, "in the
year of the Hijra").
 Years prior to the Hijra are reckoned as BH ("Before the
Hijra").
 Other peoples like the Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya, Wolayta, Gedeo,
the Nilotes, etc have their own dating system.
 D. Numerals

 Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the beginning

of fourth century AD. Geʽez uses numeral system comparable
to the Hebrew, Arabic and Greek numerals, but it lacks
individual characters for multiples of 100.
 Numbers are over- and underlined in proper typesetting,
combined to make a single bar, but some less sophisticated
fonts cannot render this and show separate bars above and
below each character.
End!
 Unit Four:
Politics, Economy and Society from the Late 13th to
the Beginning of the 16th Centuries (6 Hours)
Main points of this unit
 Restoration of Solomonic Dynasty,
 Succession problems, territorial expansion
 Evangelization and religious movements
 flourishing and development of trade as well as expansion of
extensive socio−cultural interactions among different peoples
 4.1The “Restoration” of the “Solomonic’’ Dynasty
(1270-1974)

 The rulers of the “Solomonic” Dynasty claimed that they were

descendants of the last king of Aksum and hence, they were
legitimate to take over state power from the “illegitimate”
rulers of the Zagwe dynasty.
 As the claim has no historical evidence, the name
“Restoration” is put in quotation mark.
 Similarly, the name “Solomonic” is placed in quotation marks
because the claim of descent from King Solomon of Israel is
legendary.
 Cont’d
 The claim has been elaborated in the Kibre Negest (“Glory of
Kings”) that associated Ethiopia with the Judeo-Christian
tradition.
 The Kibre Negest claims that Ethiopian ruling class
descended from the line of Menilek I, son of the Queen of
Sheba and King Solomon of Israel.
 As a result, Ethiopian monarchs from Yikuno Amlak to
Emperor Haile-Silassie I claimed descent from Menilek I.
 4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial
Expansion and Religious Processes
4.2.1. Succession Problem and the Establishment of a ‘Royal
Prison’ of Amba Gishen
 Following the end of the reign of Yikuno-Amlak in 1285, a
political instability caused by constant power struggles among
his sons and grandsons for succession occurred.
 The power struggle intensified during the reigns of Yegba-
Tsion’s five sons who reigned from 1294 to 1299.
 The succession problem seems to have been partly resolved in
1300 during the reign of Widim-Ra’ad (r. 1299-1314)
following the establishment of a 'royal prison' at Amba-
Gishen located in present day southern Wollo where all male
members of the royal family were confined until one
among them was installed in power.
 Cont’d
 Loyal soldiers to the reigning monarch guarded the royal
prison.
 When the monarch died, court dignitaries would send an
army to the royal prison to escort the designated successor and
put him on the throne.
 This practice continued until Amba-Gishen was destroyed by
Imam Ahmad Ibrahim Al-Ghazi's force in 1540.
4.2.2. Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of the
Christian Kingdom
 From 1270 until the establishment of Gondar in 1636, the
medieval monarchs had no permanent capital.
 Initially, the center of the “restored” dynasty was in medieval
Amhara (today’s South Wollo) around Lake Haiq.
 However, it gradually shifted southward to the districts of
Menz, Tegulet, Bulga, and finally to the regions dominated by
the great height of the Yerer, Entoto, Menagesha,
Wachacha, Furi and Zequalla mountains.
 Territorial Expansion Under Amde Tsion (1314-
1344)
 Until the coming of Amde-Tsion (r.1314-44), the center and
the territorial limit of the Christian Kingdom was mainly in
present day Tigray, Lasta, medieval Amhara and Shewa.
Amde-Tsion was the first "Solomonic" King, in the medieval
history who embarked on a policy of a wider and rapid
territorial expansion.
 His main motives of expansion were economic and political
i.e. to control the trade routes and seize territories.
 The Christian Kingdom controlled extensive territories during
the reign of Emperor Amde-Tsion.
 The period also witnessed the expansion of trade leading to the
flow of commodities to the coast.
 Cont’d
 Amde-Tsion subdued rebellions in an attempt to end
centrifugal tendencies, which threatened the unity of the
Christian Kingdom.
 In the process, he expanded his territory into Agaw (Awi) of
Gojjam around 1323/4; Bizamo and Damot in 1316/7; Bete-
Israel (located between Dambiya and Tekeze River) around
1332; and the Red Sea Coast.
 Amde-Tsion campaigned to today’s Eritrean region. After
controlling the whole region, he appointed a governor with a
title of Ma'ekale-Bahir, which later on changed to Bahire-
Negash.
 4.2.3. Evangelization, Religious Movements, and
Religious Reforms of Zara-Yaqob
I. Evangelization
 Christianity had a long history of expansion. Churches and
their believers had been in existence long before expansion of
the Christian Kingdom in various parts of the Horn of Africa.
 For instance, in Shewa there were early Christians who
maintained contacts with their distant relatives in Northern
part of Ethiopia.
 Those early Christians played an important role in the spread
of Christianity in several areas.
 Eyesus Mo’a
 In the thirteenth century, Eyesus-Mo'a opened new
opportunities of learning for Christians who lived in the central
part of Ethiopia and later evangelized the newly incorporated
areas where the influence of Christianity had either been
non−existent or minimal.

 The territorial expansion carried out by Amde−Tsion during

the medieval period set an addition momentum for the spread
of Christianity.
 Abune Tekle-Haymanot (13th century)
 He played a key role in reviving Christianity in Shewa, which
was followed by the evangelization of areas in southern
Ethiopia including medieval Damot.

 He baptized and converted Motalami to Christianity.

 The clergy, under the direction of the bishop in Ethiopia,

Yaqob, spread Christianity to different areas of Shewa such
as Kil'at, Tsilalish, Merhabite, Wereb, Moret and Wegda,
and Fatagar, Damot, Waj and Enarya.
 II. Religious Movements of mid 13th c
A. The Ewostatewos Movement
 Monasticism became a dominant practice in Ethiopian
Orthodox Church in the mid thirteenth century.
 The period witnessed development of monasticism and
religious movements of which the major one was the
Ewostatewos movement, named after the founder.
Ewostatewos established his own monastic community in
Sara'e (in present day Eritrea).
 Among his teachings was the strict observance of Sabbath.
 When he was opposed by an organized religious rival group of
the clergy in Sera'e, he fled the country to Egypt.
 He faced the same opposition in Cairo by Ethiopian pilgrims.
 Cont’d
 The movement spread to areas like Enfraz, northern Tigray,
and Hamessen. The King and the Abun opposed the
movement.
 Hence, the antiEwostatewos group led by the Abbot of the
Hayq Monastery called Aqabe-Se’at Sereqe Birhan was
supported by the Abun and the monarch.

 The monarch imprisoned some of the Ewostatians owing to

the fact that he feared that dispute in the church could divide
his kingdom.
 Cont’d
 The clergy expelled Ewostatians from their church services;
some of the Ewostatians were forced to withdraw and settle in
peripheral areas while some of them sustained their movement
in monasteries like Debre- Bizen, Debre-San, etc.

B. Deqiqe Estifanos/ the Estifanosites (15th C)

 The Estifanosites were a movement within Ethiopian

monasticism, called so after their founder and spiritual leader
Abba Estifanos.
 Cont’d
 The movement rose to prominence in the fifteenth century and
continued until the sixteenth century, when it was formally
reconciled with the main body of the Ethiopian Orthodox
Church.
 The head of the movement, Abba Estifanos, was born in
Agame at the end of the fourteenth century.
 He established a rigid monastic organization, which
emphasized poverty, absolute self-subsistence, equality and
autonomy from secular authorities.
 Zara-Yacob took very harsh measures against the Estifanosites
allegedly for their opposition of the veneration of St. Mary.
III. The Religious Reforms of Emperor Zara-Yaqob
 Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) took several measures to
stabilize and consolidate the Orthodox Church.
 First, he settled the conflict among the Ethiopian clergy in
order to create an amicable church-state relationship.
 In this regard, he made peace with the House of
Ewostatewos by reviving Sabbath in the Ethiopian church
and the Ewostatian agreed to receive Holy orders from the
Ethiopian prelates.
 Further, he urged the clergy to preach Christianity in
remote areas.
 Besides, he ordered the people to observe fasting on
Wednesdays and Fridays and get Father Confessors.
 Cont’d
 Lack of sufficient religious books was another problem.
 Thus, the king encouraged the establishment of a library in
every church.
 This was followed by revival of religious literature.

 He himself wrote some books like Metsafe-Birhan, Metsafe-

Me’lad, MetsafeSillasie, Metsafe-te'aqebo Mister, etc.

 In addition, during his reign, some parts of Te’amre Maryam

were translated from Arabic to Geez
 4.3. Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics in Muslim
Sultanates
 A number of strong sultanates had emerged since the
fourteenth century.
 Trade was one of the major factors that resulted in the rise and
development of those sates.
 Trade served not only as a major source of livelihood but also
acted as a major agent that resulted in the formation of Muslm
Sultanes and remained a major source of conflict between the
Christian Kingdom and Muslim sultanates.
 Muslim Sultanates includes: Adal, Shoa, Fatagar, Ifat,
Dahlak, Arbabani, Dawaro, Hadiya, etc.
 4.3.1. The Rise of Adal
 After Maksumite (Shewa) sultanet, Ifat (Wolasma) emerged
conducted a series of campaigns against its neighbouring
sultanates thereby extending its hegemony over these areas.
 It also resisted the expansion of the Christian Kingdom.
Sultanate of Adal established in the highland districts around
Harar in 1367.
 The first center of this extended Walasma Dynasty was at a
place called Dakar, a place located to the southeast of Harar.
 The Walasma family consolidated its power in the new
center, and began another phase of military campaigns against
the frontiers of the Christian Kingdom.
 Cont’d
 The center of Adal in 1520 changed to the city of Harar and
after the defeat of Imam Ahmed; a growing threat from a new
force-the Oromo forced the sultanate to change its capital to
Awsa in 1576/7, to the present Afar region.

4.3.2. Trade and the Expansion of Islam

 Islam spread into the central and southwestern parts of the
Ethiopian region through Muslim merchants and preachers.
 Cont’d
 Trade served as channel for the expansion of Islam in the
Muslim Sultanates while at the same time it formed the base of
the economy of those states.
 The most known Muslim Sultanates during this period were
Ifat (1285-1415) and Adal (1415-1577).
 The main trade outlet shifted to Zeila and the old city-states of
Mogadishu, Brava, and Merca were used as ports for their
hinterland.
 Muslim states had significant control over trade routes that
passed through Zeila due to their geographical proximity,
although contested by “Solomonic” Kingdom especially after
its revival and consolidation.
 4.4. Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and the
Muslim Sultanates
 Zeila was the main outlet to the sea during the medieval
period. (1270-1855)
 The ambition to control this trade route and commodities that
passed through Zeila led to rivalry between the “Solomonic”
rulers and the Sultanate of Ifat.

 The first recorded conflict between the Christian Kingdom

and Ifat took place in 1328 when the Muslim Sultanates
organized their armies to take military action against the
Christian Kingdom.
 Cont’d
 The Sultan of Ifat, Haqaddin I stopped merchants belonging
to the Christian King, Amde-Tsion, confiscating the goods,
capturing, and imprisoning the king's agent, Ti’iyintay
returning from Cairo.
 These actions forced Amde-Tsion to wage a campaign against
Haqaddin I; defeated and took him prisoner and eventually
replaced him by his brother Sabradin. And then both Ifat and
Fatagar came under Sabradin.
 Cont’d
 Ifat was defeated and Sabradin was captured during his retreat
after he refused to pay tribute

 As a result, Ifat, Fatagar and Dawaro were incorporated.

Amde-Tsion required from them annual tributes and
freedom of movement for all caravans through Zeila.

 Following the decline of Ifat, other Muslim Sultanates like

Sharkha, Bali, Dara, and Arbabani were also seriously
weakened.
 Cont’d
 To check their attacks on the highlands, the successors of
Emperor Amde-Tsion conducted repeated campaigns into the
lowlands.
 In 1376, Haqadin II came to power and refused to pay tribute
and rebelled against Neway-Maryam (r. 1371-80), the son of
Amde-Tsion.
 However, he died fighting in 1386. Similarly, the successor of
Haqadin II, Sa’d ad-Din II (c. 1386-1402) gained initial
success until king Dawit I (r. 1380-1412) in 1402/3 extended
his expansion and defeated him.
 Cont’d
 Adal continued to challenge the Christian state and were
successful in killing Tewodros (1412-13) and Yeshaq. This
led to intense struggle for predominance.
 During the mid-fifteenth century, Emperor Zara Yaqob
gained some access to the Red Sea.
 In 1445, Zara Yaqob defeated Sultan Ahmed Badlay at the
battle of Yeguba.
 As a result, the son and successor of Ahmed Badlay,
Mohammed Ahmed (r.1445-71) sent a message of
submission to Ba’ede Mariam (r. 1468-78) to remain vassal
of the Christian Kings.
 Cont’d
 On the death of Mohammed, however, Adal was still strong
and continued its struggle.
 Hence, the reigning monarch, Ba’ede-Mariam campaigned
against Adal.
 Despite initial successes, the army of Ba'ede-Mariam lost the
battle in 1474.
 Among the various Sultans of the Muslim sultanates, Emir
Mahfuz carried out some effective military campaigns into the
highlands.
 In 1517 Emir Mahfuz died fighting against Emperor Lebne-
Dengel's (r. 1508-40) force and his son-in-law, Ahmed Gragn
or the "left-handed" took over the leadership.
 Apart from the hostile relations, there were wider socio-
economic and cultural interactions between the Christian
Kingdom and Muslim principalities.
 As in earlier periods, trade continued to be the major channel
of social integration.
 Also, it had long been the source of friendship, interaction,
interdependence, and conflict among the states of the region.
 Cont’d
 The long distance trade and local markets served as core areas
of social ties.
 Relatively, the difference in ecology of the Muslim sultanates
and the Christian Kingdom created economic interdependence,
which in due course strengthened socio-economic bondage.
 Merchants of the two regions often moved from the highlands
to the coast and vice versa.
 It was through such caravan merchants that the social links
were strengthened and religions spread.
 These interactions and interdependence in economic, social,
cultural and political spheres lay the foundation for modern
Ethiopia.
 The development of Geez Literature

 The period witnessed the flourishing of Geez literature as is

evident from the works of Abba Giorgis Ze-Gasicha and
others and philosophies epitomzed by Zara-Ya'iqob (not to be
confused with the king).
 On the Muslim side, literature had developed including the
works of Arab writers such as Ibn Fadil al Umari, Ibn
Khaldun and others
 4.5. External Relations
4.5.1. Relations with Egypt
 From the late thirteenth century onwards, the Christian
Kingdom continued to maintain relations with Egypt, which
was mainly religious in character.
 In 1272, Yekuno-Amlak sent an emissary to Egypt’s Sultan,
Baybars, requesting an Abun from the Coptic Church.
 Furthermore, both Egypt and Ethiopia continued to act as
protectors of religious minorities in their respective domain.
 Egypt also wanted to ensure secure flow of the Nile (the Abay
River) that originated from Ethiopia.
 In the early 14th c Mohammed ibn Qala’un persecuted the
Copts and destroyed their churches in Cairo.
 In response, Amde-Tsion demanded the restoration of the
churches and warned that failure to do so would result in
the diversion of the Nile waters.
 Patriarch Marqos (1348- 63) sent a message to Sayfa-Arad
(r.1344-71), revealing his imprisonment by the then Egyptian
Sultan.
 Sayfa-Arad is said to have mobilized a huge army against
Egypt after which the Sultan released the patriarch and sent a
delegation to the King.
 Cont’d
 Besides, Patriarch Matewos (1328-1408) delegated by the
Sultan, established harmonious relations between King
Dawit and Egypt.

 The Sultan is said to have sent a piece of the "True Cross" and
in return, Dawit is said to have given a number of religious
paintings to the Sultan.
 Cont’d
 In 1437/8, Zara-Yaqob wrote a friendly letter to Sultan
Barsbay requesting the protection of Christians in Egypt.

 Three years later, however, Patriarch Yohannes XI wrote

Zara-Yaqob a letter stating the demolition of the famous
church of Mitmaq (Debre-Mitmaq).

 Then ZaraYaqob sent an envoy to Sultan Jaqmaq (1438-53)

with a strongly worded letter.

 In reply to this message, Jaqmaq sent an envoy to Ethiopia,

with complimentary gifts to the King but rejected the
reconstruction of the church.
 4.5.2. Relations with Christian Europe
 During the medieval period, contacts between Christian
highland kingdom and Christian Europe were strongly
influenced by the legend of “Prester John”.
 This was followed by sustained relations in subsequent
decades.
 For example, it is stated that Ethiopian delegation was in
attendance of Gian Galeazzo Visconti’s coronation in Milan in
1395.
 In 1418, three Ethiopians attended the Council of Constance.
In another report, message from an Ethiopian monarch, Amde-
Tsion was presented to King Phillip of France in 1332.
 Cont’d
 The earliest known message to Ethiopia from a European
monarch is the letter of King Henry IV of England dated
1400 A.D. and addressed to “Prester John”,the purported king
of the Christian Kingdom.
 The identification of the King with “Prester John” was firmly
established in the fourteenth century.
 They even thought that it was possible to liberate Jerusalem
with the help of this King.
 Hence, during the reign of King Dawit, the leaders of Rome,
Constantinople, Syria, Armenia and Egypt sent letters to the
king in which they asked for support.
 Cont’d
 King Dawit received some Italian craftsmen consisting mainly
of Florentines.
 In 1402, King Dawit sent his first delegation to Europe led by
a Florentine man called Antonio Bartoli.
 The beginning and continued rivalry between the Christian
Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates in the fifteenth century
strengthened the relation between the Christian Kingdom and
Christian Europe.
 Queen Elleni
 Queen Elleni (the daughter of Hadiya Garad and married to
King Zara Yaeqob) played an important role in the
strengthening of these relations.

 She had foreseen the threat that came from the Ottoman
Turkish who showed a clear interest to support the Muslim
Sultanates.
 She also had foreseen the possibility of consolidating relations
with and getting support from Portugal that was against the
Turks.
 Cont’d
 In 1508, Portugal sent an envoy to act as an ambassador to
Christian Ethiopia.
 Around 1512, Queen Elleni, the mother and regent of Lebne-
Dengel sent an Armenian called Mathew to Portugal. The
Portuguese court doubted his authenticity and was received
coldly.
 The Portuguese Embassy led by Rodrigo di Lima, Duwarto
Galliba and Francisco Alvarez reached Ethiopia in 1520 and
remained for six years.
 The objective was to establish a naval port against the
expanding Turkish power in Red Sea Area. However, this
mission was not successful.
 Unit Five: Politics, economy and social processes
from the early sixteenth to the end of the eighteenth
centuries
 Major developments of the period include
 Expansion of trade, conflicts between the Christian Kingdom
and Muslim Sultanates and foreign interventions;
 The population movements of the Afar, the Somali, the
Argoba and the Oromo;
 Religious expansions, interaction of peoples and the resultant
integration across ethnic and religious diversities.
5.1. Conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the
Sultanate of Adal

 The revival of long-distance trade caused competition and

struggle for control over the trade routes between the
Christian Kingdom and the Muslim principalities
 Religion provided ideological justification for the wars.

 It was one of the Imam’s remarkable achievements in

leadership that he mobilized the pastoral communities of the
Afar, the Somali, the Harla, Harari and others to a common
cause.
 Cont’d
 He convinced them not to fight amongst themselves but to
unite and expand to the Christian Kingdom and resolve their
pressing material needs while at the same time guarding
Islamic doctrines and practices from the infiltration of any
alien religious doctrine.
 He was able to gain acceptance as Imam and consolidated his
army to fight the Christian Kingdom.
 Cont’d
 Meanwhile, Lebne-Dengel was enthroned when he was only
eleven.
 Assisted by the elderly Elleni and due to internal conflicts in
Adal, the Christian state initially retained its interest and even
advanced into Muslim territory scoring significant victories in
the early sixteenth century.
 As a result, most of the Muslim Sultanates including Adal
were made tributaries to the Christian Kingdom.
 Adal fell to Imam Ahmed’s army. By the time Imam Ahmed
was strong enough for military confrontation in 1520, he
refused to pay tribute and this was followed by a campaign
against the Christian Kingdom in 1527.
 The Imam’s army fought fiercely and controlled the territories
including Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya and Kambata
and putting the Christian Kingdom at risk.
 In 1528, realizing the rising threat, Lebne-Dengel mobilized a
vast force from his domain and encamped about fifty
kilometers east of what is now Addis Ababa.
 In addition to logistical problems, the leadership of the army of
Christian Kingdom failed to adopt a common strategy to defeat
Adal’s force.
 Cont’d
 On the other hands, Imam Ahmed's highly motivated but
small-sized army faced no such logistical challenges.
 The Imam’s army had also an excellent leadership
characterized by better mobility and flexible tactics with a
unified command.
 As a result, the larger and well-equipped Christian army was
defeated in one of the most decisive engagement at the battle
of Shimbra Kure in 1529, near present day Mojo.
 After the victory, the Imam’s army made a large-scale control
of the territories of the Christian Kingdom including Shewa,
Amhara, Lasta, and moved as far north as Mereb Melash.
 By 1535, Imam Ahmed’s empire stretched from Zeila to
Massawa on the coast including the Ethiopian interior.
 As he penetrated deep into the Christian Kingdom, Imam
Ahmed established a civil administrative bureaucracy
constituted from his own men and newly recruited personnel
from the Christian territories.
 One of the most illuminating figures during the war was the
wife of the Imam, Bati Del Wanbara.
 She was the daughter of a Muslim military commander of Adal
known as Mahfuz.
 Tradition claimed that Del Wanbara had encouraged her
husband to avenge the death of her father.
 She accompanied her husband throughout his expeditions and
she is said to have marched even in a state of pregnancy during
which she was unable to use mules.
 Indeed, she delivered her two sons during the campaigns of
1531 and 1533 in Ifat and present day Tigray respectively.
 On the part of the Christian Kingdom, the military set back
forced the reigning king, LebneDengel, to retreat finally dying
in 1540 as a fugitive.
 His son and successor, Gelawdewos (r. 1540-1559), continued
to face the wars this time with more intensity as Imam Ahmed
had received Turkish musketeers.
 The Arrival of Portuguese soldiers

 In the meantime, based on earlier request made by Lebne

Dengel in 1535, about four hundred Portuguese soldiers,
armed with matchlocks arrived in the Christian court in 1541.
 The force was led by Christopher da Gama, the youngest son
of Vasco da Gama.
 However, in August 1542 the Christian army was defeated in
Ofla, in today's southern Tigray.
 In the battle, about two hundred Portuguese were killed and
their leader Christopher da Gama was beheaded.
 The Role of Seblewongel (Wife of Libne-Dingil)

 She is said to have participated in the war against Imam

Ahmed in 1542 when the army of the Christian Kingdom lost
almost half of the Portuguese soldiers.
 After the success, Imam Ahmed was confident about his
army’s ability to repulse any future attack by the force of the
Christian Kingdom that he sent his allies back home and let his
army camp.
 On the part of the Christians, preparations were made for final
confrontation under the leadership of Emperor Gelawdewos
(r.1540-59).
 Battle of Woina Daga,1543

 The Queen mother, Seble-Wongel, advised the reigning

emperor how to prepare and march for the battle of Woyna-
Dega.
 Due to limited resources, the monarch employed hit and run
strategy, which severely affected Imam’s army.
 Imam Ahmed’s army could not use its previous advantage of
easy mobility because they did not know where the attacks
came from.
 On February 25, 1543 while Imam Ahmed was encamped
near Lake Tana, he was attacked and killed after a fierce
fighting at the battle of Woyna-Dega 1543.
 Efforts made by Gelawdewos

 Soon after the battle, Gelawdewos was confident that the

nobility and his army were loyal to him.
 As a result, the king restored possession of almost all the
northern and central plateau.
 Muslim communities in the highlands submitted to
Gelawdewos and he was tolerant toward them to promote
national conciliation and to develop revival of smooth
relations with the Muslim world.
 Besides, Gelawdewos was able to restore many of the pre-
1520s territories and tributary regions.
 Gelawdewos faced multiple challenges

 In the period, the growing challenge to the Christian state

came from the
1. Retreating soldiers of the Sultanate of Adal,
2. The Ottoman Turks,
3. Jesuit interlude, and
4. Oromo advance into the center.
 Adal under the leadership of Nur Ibn alWaazir Mujahid was
ready to wage war against the Christian state for revenge.
 In 1559, the forces of Emir Nur confronted Gelawdewos and
killed the king himself.
 Emperor Minas (r.1559-1563)

 Succeeded Gelawdewos defeated the Turks' force and

reclaimed territories in the coast including Dabarwa.
 However, in the early 1560s, Yishaq revolted and allied with
the Turks against him.
 Similarly, Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-1598) had to defend his
terittory from the Turks while fighting with the Agaw, Gumuz,
Bete-Israel, Sidama, Enarya and the Oromo.
 The emperor then marched to the north, defeated Turkish
forces, and restored the territories.
 Consequences of the Muslim-Christian Conflict

I. Negative consequences
 Human and material cost.
 Destruction of valuable documents and heritages
 Population dislocation, migration
 Mutual exhaustion of both Muslim Sultanates and the
Christian Kingdom
 Paved the way for the success of the Oromo population
movement
 II: Positive Consequences

 The war had resulted in cultural interaction among the peoples

of Ethiopia.
 Linguistic and religious interactions accompanied by
intermarriages among peoples of the various cultural groups
were one of these manifestations in the long history of
Ethiopia and the Horn.
Activity
1. Explain the various possible factors accounted for the success
of Adalite Sultanate at the battle of Shimbra Kure, 1529 A.D
2. What factors contributed for the victory of CHK over Adalite
Sultanate at the battle of Woinadaga, 1543 A.D?
 External intervention
(Ottoman Turkey Versus Portugal)
 Competition for supremacy over the Red Sea and the Indian
Ocean between Portugal and the Ottoman Turks gave the
prolonged conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the
Muslim principalities a global dimension.

 Middle Eastern powers including the dominant Ottoman

Empire who were the intermediaries of the international trade
were adversely affected by the discovery of a new sea route to
India by Vasco da Gama in 1498.
 They tried to counter the Portuguese encroachment into the
East, while Portugal for its part began to look toward the
Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia as an ally, reviving the old
"semi-spiritual quest" for Prester John.

 On its part, the Christian Kingdom asked Portugal’s military

assistance against its Muslim rival.
 Having noticed the movement of diplomatic missions between
the Christian Kingdom and Portugal, the Turks gave moral and
military support to Imam Ahmed

 In 1540, the Imam turned to his Muslim ally, Turkey, for

assistance and regional Ottoman authorities provided two
hundred Muslim musketeers and ten cannons.
 Religious Controversies

 The rulers of the Christian Kingdom may have regarded an

alliance with Roman Catholicism as a tactic to secure
sufficient modern weaponry and training to restore its lost
territories.
 In 1557, several Jesuit missionaries along with their bishop,
Andreas de Oviedo, came to Ethiopia to expand Catholicism.
 The Jesuits promoted Catholic doctrine of two different and
therefore separate, natures of Christ-divine and human, which
was contrary to Monophysite theology of Ethiopian Orthodox
Church.
 EOC taught that Christ, through union or Tewahedo had a
perfect human nature inseparable from the divine.
 Leading Missionaries

 The leading members of the mission who played key role in

efforts to evangelize the country include Joao Bermudez,
Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez and Alfonso Mendez.
 The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with Emperor
Gelawdewos (r.1540-59), hoping that the rest of the society
would follow suit.
 Gelawdewos listened and engaged in doctrinal debates with
the missionaries, but he was not prepared to give in.
 Instead, he defended the teachings of Orthodox Christianity in
a document entitled the Confession of Faith.
 Cont’d
 Minas and Sertse-Dengel, who succeeded Gelawdewos one
after the other, were too busy fighting against the Oromo and
the Turkish forces to engage the Jesuits in their courts.
 The Jesuits got relative success with Emperor Za-Dengel (r.
1603-4), who was said to have been sympathetic to
Catholicism.
 Yet Za-Dengel’s reign was too short for the Jesuits to effect the
desired result.
 Za-Dengel was overthrown by Yaqob (r. 1598-1603; 1604-7),
who met a similar fate in the hands of Susenyos (r. 1607-32).
 Jesuits during the reign of Susenyos(r. 1607-32).

 Susenyos who was challenged by provincial leaders who

refused to pay tribute, integrated the Oromo with the forces of
the central government to consolidate his power and stabilize
the country.
 Probably as a means to this, Susenyos sought for an alliance,
which he got through the diplomatic advisory of Pedro Paez.
 In 1612, Susenyos converted to Catholicism and
announced it to be state religion later in 1622.
1. What possible motives spurred (impelled) Emperor
Susenyos to accept Catholicism and to declare it as official
religion of the Christian Kingdom?
 Various measures taken by Susenyos and Catholic
Priests against the Orthodox doctrines

 With the monarch’s consent, another Spanish Jesuit, Afonso

Mendez ordered;-
 Reconsecration of Orthodox priests and deacons and
rebaptism of the mass.
 Besides, he called for the suspension of Old Testament
customs such as male circumcision and the observance of
the Sabbath.
 Prohibition of preaching in Ge’ez, fasting on Wednesdays and
Fridays, reverence for Ethiopian saints and the Ark of
Covenant (Tabot).
 Meanwhile, he ordered eating pork, Latin Mass and Gregorian
calendar to be adopted.
 Eruption of Bloody Conflict

 The reforms led to revolts led by the ecclesiastics and the

nobility.
 Even loyal followers of the emperor including his own son
Fasiledas (r. 1632-67) were opposed to the changes initiated by
the Jesuits.
 After 1625, controversies, rebellions, repressions mounted
and the state came to the verge of falling apart.
 In a battle in June 1632, large number of peasants lost their
lives in one day.
 Finally, the emperor abdicated the throne in favor of
Fasiledas, who reversed the Catholic transformation.
 Measures taken by Emperor Fasiledes

 He restored the position of Orthodox Church as the state

religion.
 Expelled the Jesuits and punished local converts including
Susenyos’ brother and the most fervent supporter of
Catholicism, Se'ela Kristos.
 Introduced a “Closed-Door” policy, which isolated the
country from all Europeans for about a century and a half.
 Conversely, he initiated and adopted a policy of close
diplomatic relations with the Islamic world and formed an
alliance with the neighboring Muslim states to ensure that no
European crossed into the Christian Kingdom.
 Cont’d
 In 1647, he concluded an agreement with the Ottoman Pasha
at Suakin and Massawa to the effect that the latter should
block any European from entering in to his territory.
 By doing so, Fasiledas was able to restore peace and order.

 Ethiopia’s diplomatic break from Europe remained effective

until the beginning of the nineteenth century with the
exception of secret visits by a French Doctor Charles Jacques
Poncet and the Scottish traveler James Bruce in 1700 and
1769, respectively.
 Negative Legacies of Catholic Jesuits to the
Ethiopians Orthodox Church

 The Jesuit intervention triggered doctrinal divisions and

controversy within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church that was
divided into disputant sects and reached its peak during the
Zemene Mesafint.
 Tewahedo teaches Hulet Lidet (two births) of Christ: first in
eternity as a Divine Being the eternal birth and second, born
again from St. Mary into the world as a perfect man and
perfect divinity united in one nature, thus Tewahedo (United).
 Cont’d
 It was dominant in Tigray and Lasta.
 Qibat (Unction) was also developed from Hulet Lidet doctrine
and accepted the eternal birth as the first birth of Christ, but
claimed that at the moment of his incarnation, when he was
born into the world, Holy Ghost anointed him.
 This sect was dominant in Gojjam.
 Sost Lidet/Three Births (Ya Tsega Lij/Son through Grace)
taught that Christ was first born in eternity as divine being,
was born again in the womb of St. Mary and anointed by
Holy Ghost. This sect was dominant in Gonder and Shawa.
 5.3. Population Movements

 The movements of people from one place to another have

played important roles in shaping the history of Ethiopia and
the Horn.
 Population movements occurred in the Horn due to various
reasons, in varied scales and followed different directions.
 People moved from place to place due to pull and push
factors, which can be summed up as natural and social.
 Specifically, people move out from their habitats in search of
resources and better living environment in general.
 In Ethiopia and the Horn, the causes of the movements could
be attributed to the region's long socio-political conditions
involving military conflicts, drought and demographic factors.
 Consequences/effects of population movements
during the Medieval period

 Population movements of the medieval period had extensive

effects including the integration of peoples across ethnic and
religious lines.
 Religious, ethnic and linguistic interactions and
intermingling of peoples.
 Specifically, this has resulted in intermarriage of peoples,
change of abode, original culture and evolution of new
identities.
 5.3.1. Population Movements of the Argoba, Afar,
and Somali

• Causes
 The military conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the
Sultanate of Adal in the late 15th and the early 16th centuries
was partly responsible for the population movement of the
Argoba, Afar and Somali.
 In addition, pressure on the environment was a major factor
for the population movement.
 Their territories lay in the region where trade routes passed
and hence were affected by the consequences of the military
conflict.
 These peoples moved back and forth in response to the
ongoing military conflict.
 Cont’d
A. The Argoba:
 The Argoba were major agents of Islamic expansion, trade and
Muslim state formation in the Horn.
 For instance, the sultanate of Shewa and Ifat were established
by the Makhzumite and Walasma Dynasties respectively.

 The Afar: before the sixteenth century, due to drought, the

Afar moved towards the east until they reached the middle
Awash.
 Trade routes linking the ports in the Horn passed through the
Afar's territory.
 The Somali

 Their territory lay in the region traversed by major trade routes

during medieval period.
 Prior to the sixteenth century wars between the Christian
Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates, there was environmental
pressure on Somali inhabited areas.
 The population movement of the Somali was a strong force
behind the military strength of the Imam.
 However, the population movement of the Somali did not last
for long as they returned to their home base following the
defeat of Imam Ahmed in 1543.
 5.3.2. Gadaa System and Oromo Population
Movement (1522-1618)

A. The Gadaa System

 The Oromo population movement of the sixteenth century
cannot be better understood without considering the Gadaa
system.
 The Gadaa system was an institution through which the
Oromo socially organized themselves, administered their
affairs, defended their territories, maintained law and order,
and managed their economies.
 Studies do not clearly indicate when and how the Gadaa
system emerged. However, it is clear that for long the society
organized their politics, economy, social, cultural, and
religious affairs through the Gadaa institution.
 Cont’d
 The Oromo had practiced the Gadaa system long before the
sixteenth century movement.
 The Gadaa system constituted elements of democracy such as
periodic succession and power sharing to prevent a one-man
rule.
 Other principles of the system included representation of all
lineages, clans and confederacies.
 It also served as a mechanism of socialization, education,
maintenance of peace and order, and social cohesion.
 In addition, Gadaa constituted rules of arara (conflict
resolution), guma (compensation), and rakoo (marriage).
 Gada Officials

 The gadaa/luba assumed power for eight years. The head of

the government was known as Abba-Gadaa literally “father of
the period” who was assisted by several elected
representatives from among the generation set.
 These included Abba Bokku (father of scepter), Abba Chaffe
(head of the assembly), Abba-Dula (war leader), Abba Sera
(father of law), Abba Alanga (judge), Abba Sa'a (father of
treasury) and other councilors.
 In the Gadaa system, the senior Qallu (Abba Muda) played
indispensable roles in power transfer and legitimizing the
ruling gadaa class.
 Cont’d
 Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe institution,
which helped them to form sisterhood and solidarity.
 Women from childhood to old age i.e. guduru (pre-pubescent),
qarre (adolescent, ready for marriage), kalale (wives of Luba
and Yuba) and cifire (wives of Gadamojji/above 80 years)
were believed to have sacred power.
 They involved in occasions like power transfer, conflict
resolution, thanks-giving and others. The kalale were also
privileged to support and advise the ruling class.
 The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)

 A combination of natural and manmade factors caused the

Oromo population movement of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries.
 Natural factors include demographic pressure and
subsequent need for land to accommodate the growing
human and livestock population.
 Furthermore, the conflict between the Christian Kingdom
and Muslim Sultanates from the thirteenth to the sixteenth
centuries might have pressurized mainly pastoral Oromo
groups to leave the lands they inhabited for other areas.
 Confederacies

 Borana and Barentu Confederacies

 Borana moved in the North western direction
 Barentu moved in the Northeastern direction
 first Gadaa - Melba (1522-1530)

 Factors accounted for the success of the Oromo population

movement
1. The mutual exhaustion of the Christian Kingdom and the
Muslim Sultanates
2. The Gada System
 Consequences

• Ethnic and linguistic interaction

• Cultural intermixing
• Intermarriage
• A number of peoples in the neighborhood of the Oromo
adopted Gadaa system and Oromo language. Likewise, the
Oromo adopted and adapted cultures and traditions of the
people with whom they came into contact.
Mogassa and Gudiffacha
 Oromo integrated non-Oromo through two adoption
mechanisms: Guddifacha and Moggasa. Guddifacha refers
to the adoption of a child by a foster parent.
• In this system, the child enjoyed equal rights and privileges
with a biological child.
• Likewise, Moggasa was a system of adopting non-Oromos
commonly known as Oromsu.
• Moggasa was the practice of incorporation of individuals or
groups to a clan through oath of allegiance with all the rights
and obligations that such membership entailed.
• Moggasa was undertaken by the Abba Gadaa on behalf of the
clan. The adopted groups gained both protection and material
benefits.
• The process significantly contributed to the social cohesions,
national integration, and the revival of long-distance trade.
 5.6. Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint

5.6.1. The Gondarine Period

A. Political Developments
 The period of Gondar began from the reign of Emperor Sartsa-
Dengle when the political center of Ethiopian emperors shifted
to Gondar area.
 Emperor Sartsa-Dengle established royal camp at Enfranz in
1571.
 Emperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital near
Gondar in such places as Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz and Azazo.
 Gondar was founded in 1636 when Fasiledas established his
political seat there.
 The Heyday of Gondar

 Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of its first three
successive emperors: Fasiledas (r.1632–67), Yohannes I
(r.1667-82) and Iyasu I (r.1682- 1706).
 Among the major reforms during these periods were the
restoration of Orthodox Church as state religion, and the
establishment of a royal prison at Amba Wahni to solve
problems stemming from power rivalry.
 Emperor Yohannes I and his council established a separate
quarter for Muslims at Addis Alem.
 His successor, Iyasu I, reformed land tenure system,
introduced a system of land measurement in Begemder, taxes,
and customs, and revised the Fetha Negest (the civil code).
 The Decline of Gondar

 The assassination of Iyasu the Great by a faction under the

leadership of his own son, TekleHaymanot, ushered in political
instability in Gondar involving intrigues and poisoning of
reigning monarchs.
 Tekle-Haymanot was crowned in 1706 before the death of his
father and was in turn assassinated by Tewoflos in 1708.
 Tewoflos was again killed in 1711 by Yostos, who was also
poisoned in 1717 and replaced by Dawit III, who himself was
poisoned and replaced by Bakafa in 1721.
 Cont’d
 Bakafa tried to restore stability with the support of his
followers and his wife Etege Mentewab until he was
incapacitated in 1728.
 The Gondarine Period also witnessed increased involvement
of the Oromo in Imperial politics and the army as will be
discussed shortly.
 From 1728 to 1768, Etege Mentewab together with her brother
Ras-Bitwaded Walda Le’ul (1732-1767) dominated the
Gondarine court politics.
 Walda Le’ul was influential during the reigns of Iyasu II
(1730-55) and Iyoas (1755-69).
 Following his death in 1767, Etege Mentewab was challenged
by Wubit Amito, her daughter-in-law from Wollo.
 Cont’d
 To counter the growing power of the Wollo Oromo in the
royal court, Mentewab sought the alliance of Ras Mika'el
Sehul of Tigray who was politically astute and militarily
powerful.
 Mika'el Sehul succeeded in stabilizing the situation but
refused to return to Tigray although demanded by Iyoas.
 This was followed by the killing of Iyoas and his replacement
by an old man Yohannes II by Ras Mika'el.
 Soon Ras Mika'el killed Yohannes II and put his son
TaklaHaymanot II (1769-77) on power.
 This marked the onset of the period of Zemene-Mesafint
(1769-1855).
Remarkable Achievements of the Gondarine Period

 Gondar became the center of state administration, learning,

commerce, education, art, and crafts for more than two
centuries.
 The first three kings were successful not only in political
affairs but also in cultural developments.
 Gondar had great influence on the country’s cultural
developments.
 This enabled Gondar to repeat the splendors of Aksum and
Lalibela.
 The cultural achievements of the period led some writers to
describe Gondarine period in history as Ethiopian
Renaissance.
 Architecture

 Kings built significant secular buildings like castles, bridges,

residences, bath, library, towers, fortifications and churches
of various size and shapes.
 In the city’s compound, in addition to the most impressive
building known as Fasil Gemb, there are different palaces
corresponding to Emperor Fasiledas, Yohannes I, Iyasu I,
Dawit III, Bakafa and Regent Queen Mentewab.
 The Gondarine style of architecture may have started before
the reign of emperor Fasiledas during the reign of Emperor
Sartsa-Dengle at about 1586. as could be seen from his palace
at Guzara near Enfranz.
 Painting

 This period is known as for the production of a wealth of

religious paintings on manuscripts and on wood, ornaments,
weapons and other accessories.
 The churches built by Queen Mentwab were known for their
beautiful paintings, cross and art works.
Literature
 The Imperial and provincial scriptoria produced a great
number of manuscripts.
 Besides the Gospels, the Miracles of Mary, the Lives of
Ethiopian Saints and the Litanies, many other kinds of
illuminated manuscripts were also produced. Gondar is also
known for its traditional medicine, music and poetry.
 Commerce and Urbanization

 Gondar was a commercial center that connected long distance

trade routes of the southern region with Massawa and
Metemma in the Ethio-Sudan border.
 Gold and salt were used as medium of exchange.
 Daily markets were commonly held in the city.
 With spread of urbanization, the city became residences of
foreign communities like Indians, Greeks and Armenians.
 The city had an estimated 60,000-70,000 population.
 The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)

 Zemene-Mesafint refers to the period when actual political

power was in the hands of different regional lords.
 The period lasted from the time Ras Michael Sehul
"assassinated" king Iyoas in 1769 to 1855, when Kasa Hailu
was crowned as Tewodros II.
 Ras Mika’el who was a king-maker in the period attempted to
dominate the other regional lords.
 These measures made him highly unpopular because of which
coalitions of lords of Gojjam, Amhara, Lasta and Wollo
fought and defeated him at the battle of Sarba-Kussa in 1771.
 Cont’d
 The main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint lords ruled
were Tigray, Semen, Dembiya, Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju,
Wollo, Gojjam and Shewa.

 When compared to each other the “Yejju dynasty” was the

leading power during the Zemen-Mesafint with the center at
Debre-Tabor.
 Ali Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq) was considered as the
founder of “Yejju dynasty” in 1786.
 Cont’d

 Yejju rule reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso (r.1803-

1825) who made incessant struggle against Ras Walde-Silassie
of Enderta and Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu of Agame.
 In 1826, Gugsa's successor, Yimam (r.1825-8), defeated
Hayle-Mariam Gebre of Simen. Maru of Dambiya was also
killed at the battle of Koso-Ber in 1827.
 The period of Zemene Mesafint was brought to an end by
Kasa Hailu of Qwara through a series of battles that lasted
from 1840s to 1855.
 Characterizing features of Zemene-Mesafint
 Absence of effective central government;
 The growing power and influence of the regional warlords;
 The domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern
Ethiopia;
 Rivalry and competition among regional lords to assume the
position of king-maker;
 Establishment of fragile coalitions to advance political
interests;
 Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its traditional
role of unifying the state due to doctrinal disputes;
 Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “Closed-Door”
policy. The End!