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Learner’s Material
Name of Student: _________________________________________

Course & Year: ___________________________________________

ABRA STATE INSTITUTE OF SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

VISION
A university that produces graduates who are academically competitive, locally
responsive and globally sustained.

MISSION
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We are committed to be agents in the development of Abra through enhanced

instruction creative and innovative researches and projects for public and community
services towards globally competitive professionals who contribute to the realization of a
nation that enjoys strongly rooted comfortable and secure life.

GOALS
1. To produce quality graduates who are globally competitive.
2. To develop/generate new knowledge and verify client oriented technologies and other
solutions to development problems.
3. To disseminate and showcase client-responsive technologies and other solutions to
development problems towards an improved welfare of local communities.
4. To engage in viable income generating projects (IGP) to augment the finance of the
college.
5. To transform ASIST as a dynamic and responsive, learning and performing,
organization efficiently and effectively managing its resources.

CORE VALUES
N obility -learned and educated
E ntrepreneurship -productivity and self-reliance
W isdom -love of God
A ction -performance-focused
S incerity -high commitment to duty
I ntegrity -personal transformation
S ervice -client-orientation
T eamwork -coordinated group work

ASIST QUALITY POLICY

The Abra State Institute of Sciences and Technology, commits a continual
improvement of its system processes to ensure effective and efficient delivery of the
services towards sustained clientele satisfaction.
DEPARTMENT GOALS DEPARTMENT OBJECTIVES
1.To produce quality graduates who are 1. To train students become competent and
globally competitive integral teachers in both elementary and
2.To develop/ generate new knowledge secondary level, teaching Home Economics
and verify client-oriented technologies and Livelihood Education, Technology and
and other solutions to development Livelihood Education
problems. 2. To develop research, production and
3.To disseminate and showcase client- service oriented home technologies,
responsive technologies and other entrepreneurs and extension workers,
solution to development problems 3. To develop graduates who take care of the
towards an improved welfare of local environment and utilize resources wisely
communities. and economically.
4.To engage in viable income generating
projects (IGPs) to augment the finance of
the college.
5.To transform ASIST as a dynamic and
responsive, learning and performing
organization efficiently and effectively
managing its resources.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
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Page

Title Page ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 1

ASIST Vision, Mission, Goals, Core Values, & Quality Policy ---------- 2

Table of Contents------------------------------------------------------------- 3

Time Duration: 6 hours--------------------------------------------------------- 1

Module 1 Introduction--------------------------------------------- 4

Assessment Task--------------------------------------------------- 12

Summary------------------------------------------------------------- 13

References ---------------------------------------------------------- 14

Module 2: Crop Production ,agricultural and trade------------------- 15

Assessment Task--------------------------------------------------- 21

Summary-------------------------------------------------------------- 22

References ------------------------------------------------------------ 23
Module 3. Farm Tools, implements ,simple equipment used in
24
Crop Production
Assessment Task--------------------------------------------------- 26

Summary-------------------------------------------------------------- 27

References ------------------------------------------------------------ 27
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1
Module
INTRODUCTION
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LEARNING
OBJECTIVE
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
1. Trace the development of crop production
2. Trace the development stages of crop production in Philippines
3. Identify the importance issues and concerns in crop production in
Philippines

Development of Crop Production

Life before agriculture
 Early human called ‘‘The hunter-gatherer”, they roamed great distance to
gather plants and animals for food. Nutrition and health were so poor that
people seldom lived 25 years of age

Early Agricultural Development

 People began to raise crops and domestic animals.
 Farming changed the way people lived. They no longer had to roam great
distances in search of food.
 Simple sticks were evolved into wooden hoe and plows. Some clever person
invented the sickle to make the harvesting of grain and grasses easier

3,000 B.C
 development of the plow which greatly increased the output of food from a
given plot of land

1760’s
 introduction of mechanical implements and power-driven equipment

1800 -1900: fertilizer application

 guano and bird droppings
 1842- beginning of the commercial process in fertilizer making
 1913- commercial synthesis of ammonia

1600 -1900: application of agricultural chemicals

 1690- tobacco as a contact insecticide
 1860’s - availability of Paris green, lead arsenate, calcium arsenate,
sulfur compounds, and Bordeaux mixture as fungicides
 1940’s- large-scale production of hundreds of synthetic organic compounds
as insecticide and herbicide
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1900: plant breeding or crop improvement

 1920s - introduction of the first commercial hybrid corn in the U.S.
 rapid development in plant breeding, reinforced by the depth of knowledge
at the molecular or DNA level
 use of conventional and non- conventional techniques

1960- 1970
 Creation of a network of 13 international agricultural research centers
(IARCs) around the world which was funded by contributions from CGIAR
 birth of the Green Revolution
 development of the widely adapted high-yielding wheat varieties in
CYMMYT in Mexico by Norman E. Borlaug
 development of high- yielding rice varieties by Henry Beachell and Gurdev
Khush
 development of C4-63, a high-quality variety of rice by Pedro B. Escudero,
a Filipino

At present
The development and use of modern technology characterized by
mechanization and extensive use of inputs like fertilizers, pesticides,
Irrigation water and high-yielding varieties have elevated agriculture to a
highly efficient state.

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF
PHILIPIINES
AGRICULTURAL CROP
Pre-colonial period

Indo-Malayan migrants brought with them wet-rice agriculture, with

carabao as a source of animal power for cultivation. This type of agriculture
predominated near bodies of water like rivers and lakes. Slash-and-bum or
kaingin culture or non-plow farming predominated in other areas. This
indicated shifting agriculture rather than sedentary type of rice culture and
the tribes were mainly nomadic.

Main crops consisted of rice, gabi, yams, bananas, corn millet,

coconuts, citrus, ginger, clove, cinnamon and nutmeg. No agricultural
specialization existed. Pattern of agriculture was chiefly subsistence. Farms
were small, and chiefly backyard in coastal and riverbank settlements.
Most barangays were self-sufficient. Land was abundant and population
was estimated to about 500,000 by the mid-16 century. Private land
ownership did not exist.
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Absence of food surpluses was attributed to the absence of full-blown

ruling class who could exploit producers for surplus, limited foreign trade
and food scarcity in some settlements.

Colonial Period

This period introduced a non-producing class for which Filipinos

produced surpluses leading to an increase in agricultural production.

Mulberry, cocoa, wheat, cucumber, cantaloupe, watermelon, coffee

and new varieties of cereals, peas and other vegetables were introduced to
the country. The development of haciendas allowed for the introduction of
technological innovations in production and processing like steam or
hydraulic-powered sugar mills.

In March 6, 1909, the College of Agriculture was founded in Los

Baños as a unit of the University of the Philippines. Consequently, science-
based methods of crop and animal production were introduced.

Post-war period

This period is characterized by increasing productivity resulting from

the following research and development initiatives:

1. Introduction of technological improvements

2. 50's campaign for use of modem farm inputs and farm mechanization
3. 60's building up of market for tractors and power tillers
4. Establishment of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)
5. Introduction of high yielding rice varieties which was also termed the
green revolution.
6. Further development and expansion of international agricultural trading
especially coconut and its by-products, tobacco, sugar, pineapple, etc.

Issues in Crop Production and Development

1. Grains: The political crops

 An irregular pattern
 Price controls and trade protection
 Need for research
-Philippine research remains behind the times
 Toward self-sufficiency
-Achievement of self- sufficiency in rice in 1968
-Birth of the Masagana 99 Rice Production Program in 1973
-Introduction of the Rice Production Enhancement Program and
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-Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program in 1986-1990 during the Aquino

administration
-Implementation of the Grains Production Enhancement Program (GPEP,
1993-1995) and the Gintong Ani Program for rice and com (GAP, 1996 to
present)
 An important substitute
- The corn industry had been plagued by low productivity, inferior quality
of corn grain (due to immature harvesting and improper of drying), and
uncertain supply in the feed milling and livestock and poultry sectors.
2. Coconut
 The industry before: the making of a top export crop
 The industry today
- Problems on coconut industry include
 low-capacity utilization of oil mills
 low coconut production
 low oil yield
-However, the industry enjoys a future full of opportunity.
 expected increase of demand for lauric oil
 The gravest threat to coconut oil's supremacy in the lauric oil market
comes from:
 high-laurate canola
 activities of neighboring countries
 Policy agenda (long-term)
-increased support for coconut research and extension
-improved credit delivery to coconut farmers
-improved market infrastructure and information facilities
-extension of land reform into coconut lands

3. Sugar Industry
 Past and present crisis:
-overproduction and rise in beet sugar production by the end of the 19
centuries
-spiraling prices of oil and other production inputs in the 1970s
-decline in sugar prices in the world market in the 1980s
-Use of high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS)
-opportunities in sugar seen by many countries
 Export market
-supply of 13.5% American sugar by the Philippines
-inroads made by sugar imports due to the liberalization trade under the
World Trade Organization and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) Free Trade Area Agreement (AFTA)

4. Banana Export
 Obstacles to the industry's development:
-banana export business made more competitive
- high cost of production
 Steps taken for the industry's development:
-adequate infrastructure
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-sound production and marketing systems

5. Pineapple
 Crisis in the pineapple industry:
-reduction of the duties charged to two Thai pineapple companies recently
by the US
-current currency crisis
 Challenges in the industry:
-reduction of cost and increase of efficiency in all aspects of operation
-tapping of nontraditional markets

6. Vegetables
 Growth potential in export
 Importation of vegetables to augment domestic supply in the country
 Prospects and issues for the vegetable industry:
- intellectual property rights for crop varieties and the plant variety
protection (PVP) law
-inclusion at the DOST S&T Agenda for Development 2000 of vegetables as
priority commodities that satisfy basic development needs
-rise in the demand for organically grown crops
-export potential for processed vegetables
-importation of potato in the form of frozen fries, chips, and strings to
continue due to limited domestic supply of processing potatoes
-inadequate domestic production of tomato paste to meet local demand

7. Abaca
 The industry consists of four major sectors
-exporters
-pulpers
- rope makers
- fiber craft manufacturers
 Issues and basic policy framework (FIDA)
-increased production efficiency
-processing and diversification of fiber end-uses
-expansion and diversification of market
-rationalization of trade regulatory and control measures

-price stabilization and increase in farmers' income

-more industrial applications

8. Tobacco
 Quality leaves
 Tobacco pulp for paper making

9. Wheat flour
 Different agencies and institutions conducted researches on wheat
production but cost of production and yield per hectare were dismal.
Among the problems cited in the reports are:
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-variability of the rainy season

-endemic and ever present Helminthosporium blight, a leaf spot disease
-no longer fertile soil in Cagayan Valley caused by severe forest
denudation
10. Irrigation
 Challenges:
-generation of new irrigated areas
-improvement and modernization of the facilities of existing systems
-augmentation of natural irrigation by shallow ground water pump
-passing of the "Irrigation and Agricultural Productivity Enhancement Act”
-promotion of crop diversification and introduction of pressurized irrigation
systems in areas where these are more appropriate
-small reservoir irrigation projects in drought areas
-strengthening of farmers' participation in irrigation development and
management

11. Farm Mechanization

 Challenges:
-The country is still under-mechanized
-poor maintenance of irrigation infrastructure
-Postharvest machines have not been readily accepted by the majority
of grain farmers.
-lack of medium- and long-term financing for the acquisition and use of
farm machineries
-commodity price instability
- inability to compete in the world market

12. Fertilizers and Pesticides

 Issues and measures to reduce fertilizer importation:
-intensified policy advocacy on balanced use of fertilizers
-promotion of the development and use of organic fertilizers
-rationalization of appropriate incentives for the fertilizer industry to assure
reasonable prices for end users
-and utilization of alternative fertilizer grades
-implementation of fairtrade prices
 Issues on pesticide use
-review of specifications, biological efficacy, toxicology, residues, an fate in
the environment
-education of the public on safe and judicious use of pesticides
-monitoring of pesticide residues
-encouragement of integrated pest management

13. Agricultural Credit:

 Issues and Challenges
-The loan delinquency problem prevented the expansion of institutional
credit to farmers.
-Credit subsidies are captured by the formal lending institutions and not
by the farmer-borrowers.
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-Great demand for finance services among small farmers and rural-based
micro-entrepreneurs

Other Issues
1. Population growth and the uneven distribution of food
 The latest assessment by FAO (2000) indicates that 580 million
individuals would still be undernourished by 2015, with 23 countries
having more than 25% of the population undernourished.

 Challenge: the unbalanced unavailability of food as mirrored by the

uneven application of improved production technologies

2. Soil and water degradation

 It is estimated that over 25 billion tons of top-soil are lost every year (FAO,
1996) mainly due to deforestation and overgrazing.
- Challenge: better matching of crop species and cultivation systems with
specific environments to alleviate soil degradation

 Throughout the world, the average per capita water availability has
dropped from 16,000 to 7,000cu m within 1950 to 2000 due to population
growth (FAO, 1994).
-Challenge: increasing water shortages being faced by many low- income
and food-deficit countries
 The following measures should be considered to ease the problem on water
shortage:
-expression of crop yield per unit of water rather than per unit of land
-need for researches not only on the physiological mechanisms to increase
water use efficiency but also on simple techniques such as water
harvesting, integrated land and water cropping systems
-development of new lines that are drought-resistant or drought- tolerant

3. Climate change
 Global warming is caused by the high concentration of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere increasing at 0.5% per year, other gases and suspended
particulates in the atmosphere due to the combustion of fossil fuels
including coal and deforestation.

 Challenges such as:

- crop yield changes and associated economic consequences
-changing water demands for irrigation and surface water quality
-pesticide use
-climate variability
-adaptation strategies such as:

 sowing dates and other seasonal changes

 new crop varieties
 water supply, irrigation, and drainage systems
 tillage practices
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 use of near-term climate predictions

 other management adjustments

4 Biotechnology
 Biotechnology is the means by which we use living things, their products
and by-products in food production, production of medicine, detection and
prevention of disease-causing organisms, and production of other of
materials used in industry.
 Two categories: traditional and modern biotechnology
 Purposes of genetically- modified organisms:
-resistance to diseases and insect pests
-tolerance to herbicides
-tolerance to drought as well as saline and metal- containing soils
-improvement of quality traits and suitability for industrial
processing

 Challenges:
- human health risks
-environmental risks
-economic concerns

5. Globalization
 Challenges:
-privatization of knowledge through intellectual property
-concentration of industries to huge conglomerates
-control over various phases of production to meet the sanitary and
phytosanitary regulations of importing countries
-food demand becoming more diversified and more quality-oriented

6. Sustainable Agriculture
 Sustainable agriculture may be defined as the management of resources for
agriculture to satisfy the changing human needs while maintaining or
enhancing the quality of the environment and conserving natural resource.
 Characteristics:
-ecological soundness
-social justice and acceptability
-promotion of appropriate technology
-economic viability
-cultural sensitivity
-holistic science as basis
-development of the full human potential

 Challenge: coordination of these methods and concepts into production

systems that will produce enough food and fiber to meet the needs of the
world and at the same time sustain the land and the environment for the
production in the future.
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ASSESSMENT TASK
Scoring Rubric for your answer

Level of Comprehension
achievement
Exemplary -Provides an accurate and complete answer to the
question.
(9-10 pts. quizzes)
Adequate - Provides accurate but only adequate answer to the
question
(7-8Pts. quizzes)
Needs Improvement - Does not demonstrate accurate answer to the question
(3-5 pts. quizzes)
No Answer (0 pts) -

Instruction:
Answer the question comprehensively. Write or encode your answer on a
clean sheet of bond paper size A4 or 8.5 x 11. Please take a picture of your
output and send to my messenger and to be submitted before the scheduled
deadline of submission. The deadline of submission will be posted on our group
page and group chat. The hard copy of your output shall be submitted before
Midterm Exam.

Let’s analyze
1. Why human was called hunter-gatherer before?
2. Compare agriculture crop production before to present.
3. Define following issues and give the reasons why do we need to consider or
give important on these areas in the development of crop production in
Philippines.
Issues in Crop Production Definition Reason of
and Development consideration
1. Population growth
2. Climate change
3. Biotechnology
4. Globalization
5. Sustainable
Agriculture
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What

Summary knowledge
and skills
transferred
.

Early human called ‘‘The hunter-gatherer”, they roamed great distance to

gather plants and animals for food. Nutrition and health were so poor that people
seldom lived 25 years of age. They hunted large game, but they were not
successful. They had more luck gathering vegetables and insects. Early humans
considered as tasty that some species were almost exterminated. Common wild
vegetables included turnips, onions, radishes, squash, cabbage and mushrooms.
In early development agricultural crop production, from simple sticks were
evolved into wooden hoe and plows used in farming. Sickle was invented which
used in harvesting of grains and grasses.
The development of agricultural crop production started in 300 BC.
Starting from 300 BC, many inventions were introduced. These inventions and
development are plow, mechanical implements, power-driven equipment,
fertilizers, plant breeding or crop improvement, agricultural research centers and
high quality variety crops.
At present, there is a development and use of modern technology which
characterized by mechanization and extensive use of inputs like fertilizers,
pesticides, Irrigation water and high-yielding varieties have elevated agriculture
to a highly efficient state.
The development of agricultural crop production started in the Pre-colonial
period. Indo-Malayan migrants brought with them wet-rice agriculture, with
carabao as a source of animal power for cultivation. Main crops were introduced
such as rice, gabi, yams, bananas, corn millet, coconuts, citrus, ginger, clove,
cinnamon and nutmeg. During the Colonial Period, Mulberry, cocoa, wheat,
cucumber, cantaloupe, watermelon, coffee and new varieties of cereals, peas and
other vegetables were introduced to the country ; and the development of
haciendas and technological innovations. In March 6, 1909, the College of
Agriculture was founded in Los Baños as a unit of the University of the
Philippines. During the Post war, there was and increased productivity that
resulted into many research and development initiatives.

References
H. Plecher(2010) Employment by economic sector in the Philippines 2020
Tito Rimando(2011) Crop Science 1 (Fundamentals of Crop Science)
Mario D. Cadatal et al. (2010) Crop Science 12(Practices of Crop Science)
 15

Philippines: Distribution of employment by economic sector from 2010 to 2020 retrieved at

https://www.statista.com/statistics/578788/employment-by-economic-sector-in-
philippines/#:~:text=Employment%20by%20economic%20sector%20in%20the
%20Philippines%202020&text=In%202020%2C%2022.52%20percent%20of,percent
%20in%20the%20services%20sector

Module CROP PRODUCTION,

2 AGRICULTURE AND TRADE

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LEARNING
OBJECTIVE

At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

1. Define crop production as a science, arts and business
2. Identify the contributions of other sciences to crop production
3. Identify the importance of crop
4. Identify the role of crops in the economy

Introductio
n
Agriculture helps to meet the basic needs of human and their civilization
by providing food, clothing, shelters, medicine and recreation. Hence, agriculture
is the most important enterprise in the world. It is a productive unit where the
free gifts of nature namely land, light, air, temperature and rain water etc. are
integrated into single primary unit indispensable for human beings. Secondary
productive units namely animals including livestock, birds and insects, feed on
these primary units and provide concentrated products such as meat, milk, wool,
eggs, honey, silk and lac. Agriculture provides food, feed, fiber, fuel, furniture,
raw materials and materials for and from factories; provides a free fare and fresh
environment, abundant food for driving out famine; favors friendship by
eliminating fight.

Agriculture has branches. One of its branches is crop production. This

module 2 discussed the definition of crop production, utilization and importance
of crop production, role of crop in nutrition, role of crops in the economy and
crops distribution and trades.

Crop Production
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As a science

Modern crop production is not based on guess-work trial and error

method. Its science is derived from the adoption or application of the basic
sciences of chemistry, mathematics, physics and from various applied sciences
like physiology, meteorology, anatomy, plant breeding, etc.

As an art

It is an art because it requires skills to produce crops even with little or no

scientific training. The art of crop science reaches its greatest expression in
horticulture, specifically in ornamental horticulture where plants are raised for
their aesthetic qualities, e.g, in floral arts as well as in landscaping.

As a business

Plants are not grown simply to satisfy the needs of man but to realize some
profit in the process of production. Thus, maximization of output relative to
production input is one of the guiding principles of production. Scientific
knowledge is utilized to produce plants at the time of high demand and best
price, e.g., production of off-season tomatoes and flowers and raising disease-
resistant field crops to reduce the cost of crop protectant chemicals.

Man's needs for raw materials required to meet his basic needs for food,
clothing and shelter and the increasing requirements of processing and food
industry have served as incentives to further improve crop production practices.

Early recognition of the importance of agricultural research was made by

the British Empire by the establishment of agricultural research stations.
Similarly, in the U.S. experiment stations were also established in the land-grant
state colleges. It may therefore be presumed that the formal start of scientific
agriculture dates back to the time when these agricultural experiment research
stations were established.

Agricultural research in the Philippines has been established through

schools and research centers/experiment stations, in both private and public
sector. These are:
1. State colleges and universities offering degrees in agriculture.
2. Department of Agriculture Research Networks
3 National commodity research centers
 FIDA - Fiber Industry Development Authority
 NTA-National Tobacco Administration
 PhilRice-Philippine Rice Research Institute
 PCA-Philippine Coconut Authority
 SRA-Sugar Regulatory Administration
 PRCRTC- Philippine Root crops Research and Training Center
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 NPRCRTC- Northern Philippines Root crops Research and Training Center

 NARC-National Abaca Research Center
4. DOST-Department of Science and Technology
5. PCARRD-Philippine Council of Agricultural Resource and Research
Development

6. Specialized discipline-oriented research centers

 IPB Institute of Plant Breeding
 NCPC National Crop Protection Center
 NPGRL- National Plant Genetic Resources Laboratory
 PHTRC-Postharvest Horticulture Training and Research Center
 BIOTECH - National Institutes of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology
5. Private seed companies
 East West
 Monsanto
 Pioneer
 Syngenta
 Allied Botanicals

Major international research organization mandated to do

research and development in crop species important to food and
agriculture include the following:
 IRRI International Rice Research Institute (Philippines)
 CIMMYT-Centro International de Mejoramiente de Maize y Trigo (Mexico
 CIP-Centro International de Patatas (Peru)
 ICRISAT - International Center for Semi-Arid Tropics (India)
 CIAT-Centro de international de Agricultural Tropical (Colombia)
 CARDA-International Center for Agricultural Research for Dry Areas (Syria)
 ITA International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (Nigeria)
 ICRAF- International Center for Research on Agroforestry (Kenya)
 AVRDC-Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center (Taiwan)
 Biodiversity International - for International Plant Genetic Resources
Institute (Italy)

CONTRIBUTION OF RELATED SCIENCES TO CROP PRODUCTION

Some of the scientific fields and areas of knowledge related to crop production are
the following:
1. Crop breeding and genetics are concerned with the improvement of the
inherent or heritable properties of crops.
2. Botany (plant morpho-anatomy, plant physiology, plant systematics and plant
ecology) is concerned with plant structures, processes and relationships among
plants as well as plant relationship with their environment.
3.Soil Science is the study of the nature and properties of soils, fundamental
practices upon which proper soil management based.
4. Plant Pathology and entomology is concerned with pathogens, insect pests and
weeds; their nature, as well as their control.
 19

5. Agricultural engineering is concerned with farm structures, farm machinery,

fam power, water management as well as waste disposal.
6. Agricultural economics is concerned with the economics of production and
marketing of agricultural products.
7. Agricultural meteorology is concerned with the study of weather and climate.
The study of meteorology enables one to do weather forecasting and thus help
famers minimize tosses due to bad weather.

The basic knowledge and understanding of the various related disciplines are
essential to implement appropriate crop management packages for increasing
crop productivity.

Utilization and Importance of Crops

1. Source of food
The staples utilized in the Philippines are rice, corn, root and tuber crops,
and banana. Other food crops like pulses, vegetables, and fruits supply not only
calorific energy but protein, vitamins, and minerals.

2. Source of feed
Annual imports of about 200,000 to 300,000mt of corn have been customary.
Wheat has been imported annually as substitute to corn grain.

3. Source of fiber for textile and fabrics

The important fiber sources in the Philippines are cotton, abaca, jute, kenaf, and
ramie.

4. Source of raw materials for industrial manufacturing

Crops can be converted into industrial products of diverse uses from paints
hydraulic fluid, plastics that are biodegradable, fine chemicals to
pharmaceuticals.

5. Source of fuel and energy

 Rice hull, bagasse from sugar cane and other by-products used directly as
sources of heat
 Anhydrous alcohol (ethanol) used as an additive to gasoline (10%)
 Methyl ester from coconut oil, palm oil, rape seed oil
 Jatropha as a potential source of biodiesel
 Sugarcane, com, cassava, and sweet sorghum as source of bio-fuel

6. Source of revenues from export

7. Source of employment in the rural areas

Role of Crops in Nutrition

 20

1. Source of nutrients
Table 1. Amount of nutrients produced per hectare

CROP ASSUMED PROTEIN B- ASCORBIC

YIELD CAROTENE ACID
(t/ha) EQUIVALENT (kg/ha)
(g/ha)
Rice 5.6 414 -- --
Soybean 2.5 167 1.9 0.28
Sweet Potato 24.6 216 116.9 6.7
Potato 23.9 345 Tr 4.8
Mustard 39.7 707 537 20.6
Cauliflower 23.9 229 6.9 2.8
Onion 59.5 941 Tr. 2.8
Garlic 9.5 565 0 0.6
Tomato 60.1 535 299 20.2

a. source of calories
The higher the water content of a vegetable, the lower is the calorie
content.
b. source of protein

c. source of vitamins and minerals

d. source of fiber

2. Provides variety and appeal to diet

Role of crops in the Economy

Crop production may improve the economy in the following ways:
1 Improvement of the lives of people
2. Creation of a number of job opportunities in the rural and urban areas

Table 2. Distribution of employment in Philippines by economic sector from 2010 to

2020
Year Agriculture (%) Industry (%) Services (%)
2020 22.52 19.85 57.64
2019 23.41 19.44 57.16
2018 24.29 19.06 56.64
2017 25.44 18.27 56.29
2016 27.03 17.45 55.52
2015 29.19 16.19 54.62
2014 30.42 15.94 53.65
2013 31.05 15.58 53.38
2012 32.16 15.27 52.56
 21

2011 32.69 15.31 52.01

H. Plecher,2020

3. Good source of foreign exchange

4. Conversion of farm resources in terms of yield and profit

Contribution of the Agricultural Sector to Philippine Economy

1. Function as main driver of economic growth
2. Involvement of about 50% of total labor force in agricultural activities
3. About 1/3 income from agriculture

Philippine Performance Due to Globalization

Liberalization of Agricultural Trade
 Local markets became flooded with cheap agricultural imports while the
country's exports were not able to penetrate rich countries' markets.
 As of 2004, accumulated trade deficits have already reached a very high
value of 9B USD.
 Agricultural liberalization caused a significant decline in the agricultural
sector's productivity (GDP).
 One of the worst hit by the liberalization of agricultural trade is the
vegetable industry.
 The overall number of jobs created in agriculture has fallen from 128,000 in
1996 to 44,000 in 2004.

Research Priorities in Crop Production

1. Improvement of the production systems
2. Reduction of postharvest losses
3 Improvement of production and marketing efficiencies
4. Acceleration of technology adoption
5. Improvement of processing efficiencies
6. Adaptation to Climate Change

ASSESSMENT TASK
Scoring Rubric for your answer
 22

Level of Comprehension
achievement
Exemplary -Provides an accurate and complete answer to the
question.
(5 pts. quizzes)
Adequate - Provides accurate but only adequate answer to the
question
(3-4 Pts. quizzes)
Needs Improvement - Does not demonstrate accurate answer to the question
(1-2 pts. quizzes)
No Answer (0 pts) -

Instruction:
Answer the question comprehensively. Write or encode your answer on a
clean sheet of bond paper size A4 or 8.5 x 11. Please take a picture of your
output and send to my messenger and to be submitted before the scheduled
deadline of submission. The deadline of submission will be posted on our group
page and group chat. The hard copy of your output shall be submitted before
Midterm Exam.

Let’s analyze

1. What is the importance of crops in human?

2. What is the importance of crops in the economy?
3. How does the following related sciences contribute in the development of
crop production? Give examples.

Related Sciences Contributions in Examples

the development of
crop production
1.Crop breeding and genetics 1.
2.

2. Botany 1.
2.

3. soil science 1.
2.

4. Plant Pathology 1.
2.
 23

5. agricultural engineering 1.
2.

6. agricultural economics 1.
2.

7. agricultural meteorology

Let’s discover

1. Research the volume and value of production at current prices of the major
crops in the Philippines. Show your refences below your answer.
2. Research the major agricultural crops in the Philippines by percentage
distribution of Production by Region.
3. Research the latest share of Philippine agricultural commodities in World
export trade in term of percentage. Show it in a table , pie or graph form.

What

Summary knowledge
and skills
transferred
.

Agriculture crop production helps to meet the basic needs of human and
their civilization by providing food, clothing, shelters, medicine and recreation.
Hence, agriculture is the most important enterprise in the world.
As science, Crop production is derived from the adoption or application of
the basic sciences of chemistry, mathematics, physics and from various applied
sciences like physiology, meteorology, anatomy, plant breeding, etc. As an art,
crop production requires skills to produce crops even with little or no scientific
training, crop science reaches its greatest expression in horticulture, specifically
in ornamental horticulture where plants are raised for their aesthetic qualities.
As a business, plants or crops are not grown simply to satisfy the needs of man
but to realize some profit in the process of production. Thus, maximization of
output relative to production input is one of the guiding principles of production.
There are some of the scientific fields and areas of knowledge that
contributes to crop production, these are: Crop breeding, Botany, Soil Science,
Plant Pathology, Agricultural engineering, Agricultural economics is concerned
with the economics of production and marketing of agricultural products and
Agricultural meteorology. The basic knowledge and understanding of the various
related disciplines are essential to implement appropriate crop management
packages for increasing crop productivity.
 24

Crops gives a great contribution to human. It adds nourishment to human

and progress in the economy of the country.

References
Where did
you get
the
concepts.

Tito Rimando(2011) Crop Science 1 (Fundamentals of Crop Science)

Mario D. Cadatal et al. (2010) Crop Science 12(Practices of Crop Science)

Philippines: Distribution of employment by economic sector from 2010 to 2020 retrieved at

https://www.statista.com/statistics/578788/employment-by-economic-sector-in-philippines/
#:~:text=Employment%20by%20economic%20sector%20in%20the%20Philippines%202020&text=In
%202020%2C%2022.52%20percent%20of,percent%20in%20the%20services%20sector

Module
FARM TOOLS, IMPLEMENTS

3 AND SIMPLE EQUIPMENTS

USED IN CROP PRODUCTION
 25

LEARNING
OBJECTIVE

At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

1. Identify the farm tools, implements, simple equipment used in crop
production
2. Examine the uses of the different farm tools, implements and simple
equipment
3. Familiarize the different farm tools, implements and simple equipment
used in farm

Hand Tools
These are usually light and are used without the help of animals or
machines. They are used in performing farm activities which involve small areas
like school garden and home garden.
1. Bolo -used for cutting of grasses and weeds, and loosening and
pulverizing the soil, digging small holes for planting and post, and
breaking the topsoil in preparing garden plots.

2. Crowbar is used for digging holes and digging out big stones and
stumps.
 26

3. Pick Mattock is used for digging canals, breaking hard topsoil and for
digging up stones and tree stumps.

4. Grab Hoe is used for breaking hard topsoil and pulverizing soil.

5. Spade is used for removing trash or soil, digging canals and ditches and
mixing soil media.

6. Shovel is used in removing trash, digging loose soil, moving soil from
one
place to another and for mixing soil media.

7. Rake is used for cleaning the ground and leveling the topsoil.
 27

8. Spading fork is used for loosening the soil, digging out root crops and
turning over the materials in a compost heap.

9. Light hoe is used for loosening and leveling soil and digging out furrows
for planting

10. Hand trowel is used for loosening the soil around the growing plants
and putting small amount of manure fertilizer in the soil.

11. Hand cultivator is used for cultivating the garden plot by loosening the
soil and removing weeds around the plant.

12. Hand Fork is used for inter row cultivation.

 28

13. Pruning shears is used for cutting branches of planting materials and
unnecessary branches of plants.

14. Axe is for cutting size post.

15. Knife is for cutting materials and for performing other operations in
horticulture.

Farm Implements
These are accessories which are being pulled by animals or mounted
to machineries which are usually in preparation of land. These are usually made
of a special metal.
 29

1. Plows- farm implements either pulled by working animal or a tractor. It

is specifically used for tilling large areas, making furrows and inter-row
cultivation. It is pulled by working animals and made of either a
combination of wood and metal or pure metal.

2. Harrow -used for tilling and pulverizing the soil. The native wooden
harrow is made of wood with metal teeth and pulled by carabao while
the disc harrow is made up of metal mounted to a tractor.

3. Rotavator - an implement mounted to a tractor used for tilling and

pulverizing the soil.
 30

Farm Equipment
These are machineries used in crop production. They are used in
land preparation and in transporting farm inputs and products. This equipment
needs a highly skilled operator to use.
1. Hand tractor is used to pull a plow in preparing a large area of land.

2. Four-wheel tractor is used to pull disc plow and disc harrow in preparing
much bigger area of land.
 31

3. Water pump are used to draw irrigation water from a source.

Other materials, tools and equipment:

 Water pail is for hauling, manure and fertilizers.

 Sprinkler is for watering seedlings and young plants.

 Wheel barrow is for hauling trash, manures, fertilizers, planting

materials and other equipment.
 32

 Sprayer is for spraying insecticides, foliar fertilizers, fungicides and

herbicides.

 Sickle is a handheld agricultural tool with a variously curve blade

typically used for cutting weeds.
 33

ASSESSMENT TASK
Scoring Rubric for your answer

Level of Comprehension
achievement
Exemplary -Provides an accurate and complete answer to the
question.
(5 pts. quizzes)
Adequate - Provides accurate but only adequate answer to the
question
(3-4 Pts. quizzes)
Needs Improvement - Does not demonstrate accurate answer to the question
(1-2 pts. quizzes)
No Answer (0 pts) -

Instruction:
Answer the question comprehensively. Write or encode your answer on a
clean sheet of bond paper size A4 or 8.5 x 11. Please take a picture of your
output and send to my messenger and to be submitted before the scheduled
deadline of submission. The deadline of submission will be posted on our group
page and group chat. The hard copy of your output shall be submitted before
Midterm Exam.

Let’s analyze

1. What is the importance of farm tools, implement and equipment in crop

production?
2. What are disadvantages of these tools, implements and equipment?

What

Summary knowledge
and skills
transferred
.
Inventions of farm tool, implements and equipment give a great
contributes in the development crop production.
 34

Some of the farm hand tools are: bolo, pick mattock , grab hoe,
spade, shovel, rake, spading fork, light hoe, hand trowel, hand cultivator,
hand fork, pruning shears, axe and knife, farm Implements are: plows,
harrow and rotavator, farm equipment are: hand tractor, hand tractor,
water pump and other materials, tools and equipment are :water pail,
sprinkler, wheel barrow, sprayer and sickle.

References
Where did
you get
the
concepts.

Tito Rimando(2011) Crop Science 1 (Fundamentals of Crop Science)

Mario D. Cadatal et al. (2010) Crop Science 12(Practices of Crop Science)
 35

Module
CLASSIFICATION OF
4 VEGETABLES CROPS

LEARNING
OBJECTIVE

At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

1. Identify the classification of vegetable crops
2. Classify crops according to their relationship among different plants,
part used in planting, life cycle, cultural requirements and climatic
requirements.

Botanical classification of vegetables based on relationship among different

plants.
a. Monocotyledonous

Family English Name Scientific Name

Corn Zea mays
Grass family- Garlic Allium sativum
Gramineae Onion Allium cepa
Lily Family –Liliaceae Asparagus Asparagus officinalis
Green onions Allium fistulosum

a. Corn seed b. bean seed

 36

b. Dicotyledonous

Family English Name Scientific Name

Cabbage Brassica oleracea L.
Variety capitata L.
Cauliflower Brassica oleraceae L.
Mustard family – Variety Botrytis L.
Cruciferae Leaf mustard Brassica juncea
Pechay Brassica pekinensis
Raddish Raphanus sativus
Egyptian bean Dolichos lablab
Batao Phaseolusvulganis
Snap bean Vigna sinensis
Pea family- Habichuelas Sesbania grandiflora
leguminoseae Cow pea Phaseolus lunatus
Lima bean “patani”
Sesban “katuray” Pachyrrhizus erosus
Yam bean “sincamas”
Eggplant Solanum melongena
Nightshade family – Tomato Lycopersicon
Solanaceae esculentum
Sweet pepper Capsicum frutescene
Pepper Capsicum annum
Potato Solanum tuberosum
Common muskmelon Cucumis melo
Cucumber Cucumis sativus
Gourd Family Squash Cucurbita maxima
Cucurbitceae Bitter gourd Momordica charantia
“ampalaya”
Spaghetti squash Leganaria siceraria
“upo”
Vegetable gourd Luffa acutangula
“patolang tagalog”
Sponge gourd “patola” Luffa cylindrica
Wax gourd “condol” Benincasa hispida
Morning glory Family – Sweet potato “camote” Ipomea batatas
Convolvulaceae Swamp cabbage Ipomea aquatic
“kangkong”
Parsley family- Carrot Daucus carota
 37

Umbelliferae Celery Apium graveolens

Parsnip Pastinaca saiva

Classification of Vegetable Crops

1. Cucurbit crops- these crops belong to Cucurbitaceae commonly known as the
gourd family. The plants have tendrils and produce fleshy fruits. These are
direct seeded summer season crops and include melons, gourds, cucumber,
pumpkin and summer squash.
2. Solanaceous crops-these belong to Solanaceae commonly known as the
nightshade family and are summer season transplanted crops. These include
tomato, chilli, bell pepper and eggplant.
3. Pea and beans (pod vegetables)- these are legume vegetables and belong to
Fabaceae or the pea family. These are directly seeded vegetables and include
pea, French bean, Dolichos bean, broad bean, cluster bean, Lima bean,
winged bean and cowpea.
4. Bulb vegetables- these are species of Allium and belong to the family
Alliaceae. These are winter season crops and include onion, leek, garlic, etc.
5. Perennial vegetables- these crops remain in the field for more than two years
and include asparagus, artichoke, Jerusalem artichoke, chayote, ivy gourd and
pointed gourd.
6. Tuber vegetables- these include potato, sweet potato, taro, cassava/ tapioca,
yams.
7. Okra is represented by an independent group.

Classification based on Plant Part Used

1. Leaves- cabbage, lettuce, spinach, leaf beet, amaranth, fenugreek etc
2. Stem- knol-khol, asparagus, celery, cauliflower (hypocotyl branches) etc.
3. Fruits- cucurbits, tomato, eggplant, chilli, bell pepper etc.. Pods; snap pea,
snow pea, beans, okra etc.
4. Flowers-sprouting broccoli, globe artichoke.
5. Roots-radish, turnip, carrot, beetroot, yam, rutabaga, parsnip etc.
6. Bulbs-onion, garlic, leek etc.
7. Tubers- potato, sweet potato, cassava, taro.
8. Seeds- pea

Classification Based on Life Cycle

1. Annual vegetables- complete their life cycle in a single growing season. ex: pea,
beans, tomato, okra, eggplant, chilli, bellpepper, cucurbits etc.
 38

2. Biennial vegetables-it require two growing seasons. ex:cole crops, bulb crops,
root crops etc.
3. Perennial vegetables- grow for more than two years and can be retained for
economic yields even up to 15 years asparagus, artichoke, Jerusalem artichoke and
pointed gourd

Classification based on Culture

In this classification, all vegetable crops requiring similar cultural requirements are
grouped together. This method of classification is of much practical value for
farmers and students. Based on their cultural and climatic requirements, vegetables
are divided into the following groups
1. Cole crops- these crops belong to the family Cruciferae and are also called
crucifers or Brassicas. These are winter season and transplanted crops. The
crops include cauliflower, cabbage, knol-khol, Chinese cabbage, sprouting
broccoli and Brussels sproutsetc.
2. Leafy vegetables- all vegetables belonging to this group are direct seeded crops
and include spinach, leaf beet, coriander, fenugreek, amaranth, Swiss chard etc.
3. Salad vegetables-these crops are mainly eaten raw and include lettuce, celery,
chicory and parsley
4. Root vegetables- these crops have prominent and fleshy underground structure
sand are direct sown winter season crops. These include radish, carrot, turnip,
beetroot, parsnip, rutabaga etc.

ASSESSMENT TASK
Scoring Rubric for your answer

Level of Comprehension
achievement
Exemplary -memorized and classified accurately and completely the
given task
(30 pts. quizzes)
Adequate - memorized and classified inaccurately the given task
(20-25) Pts. quizzes)
Needs Improvement - can’t memorize and inaccurately classified the given
task
( 15-20pts. quizzes)

No Answer (0 pts) -
 39

Instruction:
Answer the question accurately. Video clip shall be submitted before the
scheduled deadline. The video clip shall be sent to through messenger

Let’s memorize

1. Select 10 vegetable crops and memorize its scientific name

2. Then make video clip while reciting it.

Let’s classify
1. Students will go around to identify different vegetable crops. Identify as
many as you can and classify it according to its family classification and
identify what parts of the crops are used for planting. Attach a picture
showing your identified crops and used the table below for your answer.

List of vegetable crops Family Parts used

Name picture classification for
Englis Local Scientific planting
h name name name
 40

What

Summary knowledge
and skills
transferred
.
Vegetables are classified based on relationship among different
plants, this can be Monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous. It can be also
classified as according vegetable crops, part used, life cycle and culture.

References
Where did
you get
the
concepts.

Tito Rimando(2011) Crop Science 1 (Fundamentals of Crop Science)

Mario D. Cadatal et al. (2010) Crop Science 12(Practices of Crop Science)
Comadug, Crop production lecture guide

Classification of vegetable crops retrieved at

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312583829_Classification_of_Vegetab
le_Crops
 41

Module
PRODUCTION
5 PRACTICES

Lesson

PREPARING LAND FOR 1

PLANTING VEGETABLE CROPS

LEARNING
OBJECTIVE

At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

1. Identify the factors in selecting site for planting vegetable crops
2. Identify the importance of land preparation
3. Select site for planting vegetables considering the factors in selecting
site.
4. Prepare land for planting vegetable following the steps in land
preparation

Selecting the site for planting vegetable crops

Factors to consider in selecting the site for planting vegetable crops
1. Sunlight
It is the most important factor for growing healthy vegetables. The more
sunlight the site receives the better for a vegetable garden. Most vegetables need
full sun (at least 6 hours of direct sunlight per day) to grow their maximum
potential, so avoid spots that are shaded by trees or buildings during the heat of
the day. Use the traditional planting arrangement of rows running north to south
to provide a maximum and even quantity of sunlight throughout the day.
To determine if your site has the right light conditions, stand facing the South
with your left hand pointing east (in the direction the sun rises) and your right
 42

hand pointing west (in the direction the sun sets). Now take your east facing
finger and follow it to the southern sky and then down behind the western
horizon. This is the course the sun will take throughout the day. If there are no
major obstructions then you have a sunny spot.
2. Water and drainage
Water is the life blood of vegetable production. Generally, vegetable crops
require more total water and more frequent irrigation than the other horticultural
crops. Vegetable crops develop water requirements which are specific to their
variety, maturity and the surrounding atmospheric and soil characteristic.
There should be careful assessment on the elevation, slope and soil structure
of the site before establishing a vegetable garden. The most suitable types of
location must have gentle surface slopes and contain deep and well drained soils.
3. Topography of the land
Topography refers to the physical characteristics of the overall field sites and
includes the conditions such as the contour, soil depth, water, air drainage and the
presence of rock. Poorly drained fields or those low areas can become water
logged during periods of excessive rain. Such conditions can enhance the
incidence of diseases, reduce plant vigor and yield and under excessive can cause
plant death .
An ideal topography for vegetable production is one that is nearly flat to
slightly sloping, well drained and free of trees, rocks and low areas.
4. Type of soil
Soil type refers to the physical composition or properties of the soil. Optimum
vegetable production is achieved on well drained sandy loam soils. Although
vegetable can be grown in wide range of soil types, most vegetables are not
adopted to heavy clay soil types. Soils of this type tend to have poor aeration and
drainage and can restrict root growth.
5. Accessibility to road and transportation
Vegetables are highly perishable. They are best liked when they are fresh and
a good quality. If the site is accessible to transportation, vegetable products are
easily transported without much damage.
6. Climatic requirements
Climatic is mainly governed by temperature, water and light
7. Socio-economic conditions

Importance of land preparation

1. Helps control weeds through uprooting or burying.
2. Softens the surface soil and prepare a good seedbed to allow easier seeding
of crops.
3. Expose soil organic matter to oxygen and help release soil nutrients for
crop growth.
4. Reduces compaction of the soil’s bulk density to allow for rooting and
improve soil structure.
5. Helps improve the infiltration of water.
 43

6. Incorporates any soil amendments including organic materials, lime or

basal fertilizers.
7. Helps control various pests and diseases associated with soils.
8. Assess operations that are needed to shape or level the land in order to
allow more uniform water application.

How to determine when the soil is in a workable condition?

Get a handful of soil and press it to form a ball of soil when the fingers are
relaxed and the mass is formed into a compressed mud ball, the soil is too wet and
sticky to work on. Working or plowing in this condition makes it cloddy and hard to
work on.
On the other hand, if the soil crumbles easily in your hand, the oil is said to be
friable or very dry. This kind of soil is not ideal to work on.
Therefore, the soil is in workable condition when there are no droplets of
water and does not crumble as you take it in one and press it into ball.

How to prepare the land thoroughly?

1. Choose the best location- your crops should obtain sunlight for at least 6
hours.
2. Cleaning/clearing –removes litter, rocks, weeds, shrubs, trees and other
structures from the surface to make the next activities easier and to
prevent the damage of tools, implements and equipment.
3. Plowing/hoeing- the initial breaking of soil surface.
4. Harrowing –further breakdown the plowed or hoed slice of soil to smaller
sizes and to loosen the soil particles.
5. Adjust Soil Nutrients

6. Make furrows or plot- the recommended distance of planting of crops.

ASSESSMENT TASK
Scoring Rubric for your answer

Level of Comprehension
achievement
Exemplary -memorized and classified accurately and completely the
given task
(30 pts. quizzes)
Adequate - memorized and classified inaccurately the given task
(20-25) Pts. quizzes)
Needs Improvement - can’t memorize and inaccurately classified the given
 44

( 15-20pts. quizzes) task

No Answer (0 pts) -

Instruction:
Answer the question accurately. Video clip shall be submitted before the
scheduled deadline. The video clip shall be sent to through messenger

Process

1. Find a site where you want to plant, based on what you have learned in selecting
site for producing vegetable. Put a check mark o the space provided if then
factors to be considered in site selection are met. Attach pictures or video in
assessing the site.
Factors to be Excellent Good Poor
considered in site
selection
1. Sunlight
2. Water and
drainage
3. Type of soil
4. Topography
of the land
5. Accessibility
to roads and
transportation
6. Climatic
requirements
7. Socio-
economic
conditions

Discuss
 45

1. In not more than 50 words, discuss how proper site selection affects
the production of vegetable crops.
2. What are the consequences if you make a mistake in choosing
location and site? Cite a concrete examples

Apply

1. After identifying a site for vegetable production, based on what you have
learned, prepare the site following the steps in land preparation. Make a
video clip while doing the steps.

What

Summary knowledge
and skills
transferred
.

There are factors that need to be considered in selecting site for planting
vegetable crops to have a high yield vegetable production. These factors are
sunlight, water and drainage, type of soil, topography of the land, accessibility to
roads and transportation, climatic requirements and socio-economic conditions.
Land preparations should be done before planting. The steps in land
preparations are choose the best location, clearing/cleaning of weeds, rocks,
shrubs and etc., plowing, harrowing, adjusting soil nutrients and make plots.

References
Where did
you get
the
concepts.
 46

Lesson

SEED SELECTION AND PLANT 2

PROPAGATION

LEARNING
OBJECTIVE
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
1. Determine a quality seeds
2. Classify seeds according to classes
3. Test seed according to moisture content, purity and viability.
4. Classify vegetable crops if it is sexually and asexually propagated

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN SEED SELECTION

1. High yielding - select seeds in which yield surpasses the expenses.

2. High quality (nutrient composition and eating quality) - it affects the family
when consumed; eating quality relates to marketability of the products
3. Resistant to insect pest and diseases - it helps the farmer save on labor
and chemicals.
4. Adapted to local conditions
5. Germinable and viable - (high percentage germination)
6. Genetically pure

CLASSES OF AGRICULTURAL SEEDS

a. Breeder seeds
The purest seeds obtained through selection and Hybridization.
Seeds or vegetatively propagated materials produced under the direct
 47

control of the sponsoring plant breeder. it is the basis the first and
recurring increases of foundation seeds

b. Foundation seeds (basic seed)

This is harvested from an area sown with breeder's seed and its
genetic purity and identity are maintained according to the required
standards. Foundation seed is usually the highest class of certified seed
handled in the commercial seed market. Production must be carefully
supervised or approved by an agricultural experiment station. White-tagged
seed.

c. Registered seeds (1* generation seed)

It is the progeny of the foundation seed. its production and handling

must be approved and certified by a certifying agency, and its quality must
be suitable for production of certified seed. Registered seed is used as the
source of certified seeds in some crops by some agencies. In other cases,
registered seed is omitted. Violet-tagged seed.

d. Certified seeds (2 generation seed)

This is the seed harvested from an area sown with first generation
seed or registered seed and is the lowest class recognized in the certification
scheme. This class is used for growing of commercial consumption crops
and is not eligible for the production of more certified seeds. Any seed
harvested from an area sown with the certified seed must be sold as
ordinary uncertified or good seed.

SEED TESTING
Seed samples are collected and submitted for laboratory analysis after
drying and processing. Tests conducted include those that determine:
1. Moisture test- seeds must contain 8-10 or 12-14% mc to be safe for
storage. Equipment used are universal moisture tester, dole moisture
tester, stein light moisture tester, etc.
2. Purity test - component of seeds to be determined:
a. pure seeds must be 99% or better
b. other crop seeds
c. weed seeds -must not contain noxious weeds
d. foreign matters - stones, trashes, etc.
3. Germination test methods used are the following:
a. ragdoll method
With the use of a piece of cloth as big as a handkerchief where
seeds are placed in a row of 10 x 10 constituting at least 100 seeds
replicated four times. After placing the seeds on the piece of cloth,
the piece of cloth is rolled with the use of a stick placed at one end.
The ragdoll is soaked in water and placed in a container and allow
the seeds to germinate. The number of seeds germinated is
determined and converted into percentage by the following formula:
 48

Number of seeds germinated

% Germination = ____________________________ X 100

Number of seeds sown

80
% Germination = ____________________________ X 100% =80%

100

b. Seed box method

a seed box with a dimension of 30 cm x 60 cm x 15 cm thick is
constructed. Wash sand and sterilize with formaldehyde or by baking
or pouring with boiling Water is used to fill the box, leaving at least 5
cm unfilled to the top. Seeds are sown in rows 10 x 10 or by 20 x 5
rows and cover with soil. This is watered every am and pm.
Percentage germination is computed as above.

c. Petri dish or filter paper method

Place wet filter paper in a petri dish where 100 seeds are
placed (replicated 4x). Put in refrigerator/germinator which has a
moisture and alternating temperature automatically controlled
favorable for germination. Percentage germination is computed as
above.
 49

d. Tetrazolium test (TZ test)

Seed is soaked in triphenyl tetrazolium turn red in color due to
formation of the insoluble compound called chloride for few minutes.
Viable living tissue (presence of enzymes) will formazan). This is the
reaction to the enzyme system of the living tissues of the alive seed.
Dead seeds with no living tissues will not turn red in color, therefore,
will not germinate.

e. Seed vigor test

Determining the speed of germination which is done by
measuring the height of shoots and roots and also the fresh weight
and dry weight of the germinating seedlings. Height of shoots and
foots and the higher the fresh and dry weights are indicator of seed
vigor. This means that the seed will grow fast and vigorous once
planted in the field. Poor vigor seeds are indication of poor
performance in the field and the seeds must not be used for planting,

SEED DORMANCY
 50

It refers to the length of time the seed is in its resting stage until such time
that favorable conditions for germination are present. Some seeds are dormant
because of impervious seed coat to water and gas presence of growth inhibitors,
or due to immature embryo.

Breaking seed dormancy - drying seeds to a MC of 14% for a month.

1. Soaking seeds in hot water until the water cools down, chemicals
2 Alternate soaking and drying under the sun for 3 times.
3. Soaking in potassium nitrate at specific concentration.

PROPAGATION OF PLANTING MATERIALS

General methods of Plant Propagation:

1. Sexual method - this is done by using seeds. Plants derived from this
method may not breed true-to-type. Generally, big seeds are directly
planted because they can support themselves while small seeds are grown
in seed boxes, polyethylene bags. etc.

Soil medium should be a mixture of 1:1:1 of sand, compost and garden soil
Disinfectant should be applied in soils as medium by applying formalin
40%, methyl bromide or by simply heating at 100°C for one hour.

Seed treatment should be done using fungicides or insecticides to protect

seeds from diseases and insect pests.

If needed, soil or seed inoculation should be done to give the seeds (legume
crops, soybean) a head start in order to enhance fixation of N from the air
and- nodulation of the roots of legumes. Inoculation in seeds should be
done just before planting. Planting seeds could be direct or in seed boxes,
of other containers. Watering should be occasional. Pricking is done in too
dense seedling.

Hardening seedlings should be done for a week before transplanting, i.e.

gradual exposure of seedlings to sunlight and withdrawal of water.

Process in sexual method

a. Pollination-The transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma of a flower
of the same species
b. Fertilization -the union of the pollen and ovule cells
c. Seed and fruit development -ovary ripens into a fruit or ovule develops
into a seed
d. Seed dispersal by wind, animal dispersal, water dispersal
e. Seed germination -the onset growth of seed, often following a period of
dormancy, in response to suitable environmental conditions
 51

2. Asexual method- this is the duplication of the whole living plant from any
living Cell, tissue or organ of the plant. This is possible because vegetative
organs of many plants have the capacity of regeneration. A cell can
regenerate into a new plant because the entire contains the genetic
information necessary to reproduce the entire organism.

Clones- group of plants propagated from a single individual by vegetative

the means. Clones are identical to their parents so that the desirable
characteristics of the parents can be perpetuated.

Methods:
1. vegetative propagation
It is called apomixis (formation of genetically identical
individuals). It is also called vegetative propagation (NO seed is
involved in the formation of the new plant)

Types of vegetative propagation

a. natural vegetative propagation
1. division tuber-(potato), rhizome(ginger)
2. separation-slip, sucker(banana), crown(pineapple),
cloves/bulbis(garlic)
 52

b. artificial vegetative propagation –propagating technique developed by

people for production of plants toward food or decoration purposes.

1. Cuttage
2. Layerage
3. Graftage
4. Budding
5. Micropropagation (tissue culture, embryo culture)
 53

ASSESSMENT TASK
Scoring Rubric for your answer

Level of Comprehension
achievement
Exemplary -memorized and classified accurately and completely the
given task
(30 pts. quizzes)
Adequate - memorized and classified inaccurately the given task
(20-25) Pts. quizzes)
Needs Improvement - can’t memorize and inaccurately classified the given
task
( 15-20pts. quizzes)
No Answer (0 pts) -

Instruction:
Answer the question accurately. Video clip shall be submitted before the
scheduled deadline. The video clip shall be sent to through messenger.

Let’s identify

1. Write a name of vegetables as many as you can. Identify each vegetable if it

asexually or sexually propagated. Then identity what parts of the plants are used
as planting materials.

Name of vegetables Ways of propagating Plant Parts used for

(Sexually/asexually) planting
(seed, stem or leaves)
1.
2.
3.

2. Fill up the table. List three advantages and disadvantages of seed propagation
 54

Advantages Disadvantages
1.

2.

3.

Let’s apply
1. Get a 1 cup bean seeds (old or new) and germinate it using one of the
germination methods. Compute the germination percentage. Make a
documentation through picture or video of your actions and output.

What

Summary knowledge
and skills
transferred
.

In selecting good seed, there are factors that should be considered. These
factors are high yielding, high quality resistant to insect pest and diseases,
adapted to local conditions, germinable and viable and genetically pure. Seed
are classified according to breeder seed, foundation seed, registered seed and
certified seed.
Seed testing can be done through laboratory analysis, moisture test,
purity test and germination test.
Plants can be propagated through asexual method and asexual method.
Asexual method is a propagation through the use of seeds while sexual method
can be done through natural vegetative and artificial vegetative propagation.

References
Where did
you get
the
concepts.

Tito Rimando(2011) Crop Science 1 (Fundamentals of Crop Science)

Mario D. Cadatal et al. (2010) Crop Science 12(Practices of Crop Science)
 55

Comadug, Crop production lecture guide

Seed certification retrieved at http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/training/fact-

sheets/postharvest-management/rice-quality-fact-sheet-category/item/seed-
certification-fact-sheet

Lesson

PLANTING AND 3
TRANSPALNTING

LEARNING
OBJECTIVE

At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

1. Describe the methods of planting
2. Identify the different method of direct seeding
3. Identify the reasons of transplanting
4. Identify the steps in transplanting
5. Apply the steps in growing seedlings, rules and steps in
transplanting

Planting can be done through direct seeding and transplanting.

Method of planting
 56

a. Direct seeding –method of planting in which the seeds are directly planted in the
soil.
Methods of direct seeding
1. Ridge planting- seeds are placed on the top of the ridge. This is usually
practiced during wet season to prevent the stem and roots from rooting.

2. Hill planting- this is placing the seeds in one spot at definite intervals in
the row.

3. Drill planting- the seeds are shown in individual holes with a drill at the
required spacing for growth. Sow two or three seeds in each hole and
thinned down to one seedling emerge.
4. Furrow planting- the seeds are planted at specified depth at the bottom of
the furrow and are converted with fine soil.

5. Broadcasting- broadcasting the seeds evenly in the field using the hand.
 57

6. Raised bed- make your bed at least one meter wide to a desired length and
raises to at least 15 cm high.

b. Transplanting –transferring of seedlings from seedbed to the field

Reasons of transplanting
1. To allow sufficient space for stocky development of plants
2. To select good, healthy and sturdy seedlings
3. To eliminate disease and weak seedlings

Preparing media for vegetable seedlings

Field soils are generally unsatisfactory for the productions of plants in
containers because soil do not provide soil aeration, drain age, and water
holding capacity required. They also need to be sterilized to prevent the
development of diseases and germination of weed seeds.

How to grow seedlings?

To grow seedlings requires patience and extra care. Vegetable seeds
vary in sizes. Generally speaking, small size of seeds are the seeds to be
sown because they are the delicate one.
Agricultural venture series 1(2011), claims that because some
vegetable seeds are so small the seeds can be easily carried away by water
and even insect like ants. Thus, it is advisable to raise seedlings in bed
before transplanting them to the field. Raising seedlings in trays require
less seeds, promote uniform growth of superior seedlings, minimizes
transplanting shock, and lower seedlings mortality. It also saves on labor
for thinning, watering and managing pests.

Seeds can be sown using the following materials:

a. Seed trays
b. Seed boxes
c. Seed beds
 58

d. Individual plastic bags

e. Used plastic cups/tin cans

Steps in sowing seeds in seed boxes and seed bed

INGO (2005) enumerate the different steps of seeds as follows:
1. Moisten the soil media
2. Sow the seeds in rows or broadcast evenly and thinly. Broadcasting is
spreading seeds evenly to the ground and covering the seeds in rows a
few centimeters’ apparat unless pricking is to be done. Broadcasting of
seeds, however, is not advisable because of the following reasons:
 The air circulation between the plants is not sufficient
 Seedling dry less quickly, and such as condition is favorable for
growth of fungi
 Weeds are harder to control
 It is hard to produce stocky seedlings because the seeds are not
properly covered with soil.
3. Cover the seeds with thin layer of the fine soil sufficient enough to cover
the seeds.
4. Press down firmly the whole surface of the seed box or seed bed with a
flat board to ensure a compact surface.
5. Water the seed beds/seed boxes using a sprinkler with the fine holes or
water hose with fine spray.
6. Protect the seeds sown in seed beds from ants by spraying insecticides
which drive away ants. In the case of seed boxes, let the legs of the seed
box stand in cans filled with water and a little petroleum to prevent the
ants from the reaching the seed boxes.
7. Seed boxes should be placed under the shade and should be provided with
temporary shelter
8. Regulate watering. Too much or too little may prevent germination.

Care and management of seedlings

When seedlings are already growing, water them in the morning and not
very late in the afternoon. If two watering are necessary each day, they should be
done in the early morning and mid-afternoon. Watering late in the afternoon
causes the soil surface to remain moist overnight, a condition favoring
development of fungi causing root diseases particularly damping-off. If the soil is
not fertilized, a soluble fertilizer (ammonium sulfate) at the rate of one tablespoon
per gallon of water is gently drenched on the seedlings as a starter solution. lt is
important that after applying the starter solution, fresh water must be applied
immediately to wash-off. Fertilizer residues adhered to the foliage which may
cause burning of the foliage (Bautista and Mabesa (1977).
 59

Expose the seedlings to the morning sun not later than eight o'clock every
day. The length of exposure depends upon the resistance of the seedlings to heat.
First exposure of seedlings to morning sun is one hour then extended every day
until whole day exposure. Exposure or hardening of seedlings is done a week
before transplanting to acclimatize them and to reduce stress during
transplanting. Protect the seedlings from excessive heat or strong rain by placing
them under a temporary shed, in the nursery, or in the greenhouse. If dumping-
off develops, remove immediately the infected seedlings with the soil surrounding
them. Burn the disease infected seedings and soil to avoid further spread of the
disease. To control dumping-off, apply fungicide on the affected areas

Pricking of seedlings
In cases where seedlings in seed boxes or seed beds are thickly populated,
pricking must be done when the seedlings have at least two developed true
leaves. This is done by transferring individual seedling to another seed box, seed
bed, seed tray, or individual plastic bag. In pricking, use a dibbler or dibble in
taking out the healthiest looking seedlings underneath their roots while taking
care not to damage the delicate roots. Hold the seedling on their true leaves and
place the root system in the hole previously prepared in the new planting
medium without curling their roots. Then press the soil firmly around the roots.
Water the new transplants gently and thoroughly.

Hardening of Seedlings

INGO (2005), explains that it is important to harden the seedings before

transplanting them to the field. This is done by gradually exposing the
seedlings one week before transplanting. Seedlings raised under shaded
areas should be exposed to full morning sunlight for the first day Then
Then gradually increase the time of exposure in full sunlight each day for week
until the seedlings could withstand full sunlight the whole day without wilting
or burning the leaves. Likewise, seedlings should also be protected from stray
animals and strong winds to prevent damage of the leaves and stems.

Bautista and Mabesa (1977) explained that hardening can be done in

several ways and should be started 7-10 days before transplanting. One way is to
expose gradually the seedlings to full sunlight and to withhold water to make the
plant temporarily but not allowing it to lapse into a state of permanent wilting.
Withholding of water slows plant growth and cause physiological and
morphological changes resulting to thicker, less succulent and harder plant
tissues, hence less water is transpired. Another method of hardening recently
employed is pre-sowing hardening. In this method, seeds are soaked in water and
removed 6 hours before the radicle emerged. Then they are air-dried for 48 hours
before sowing.

Thinning and Rogueing

one crops possess small seeds that are difficult to broadcast in the field.
They can be sown along a shallow drill and later on excess seedlings can be
 60

pulled out leaving the healthy seedlings about 5 cm apart. This is called thinning.
Meanwhile, the process of pulling out disease infected or
damaged seedlings is called rogueing.

Thinning is the process of reducing the number of seedlings in the

seed bed or seed box. This should be done as follows

 Moisten the seed box or seed bed a few hours before thinning.

 Remove the weak, unhealthy and poor-looking seedlings.

Immediately press back firmly the disturbed soil with hands

 Throw the seedlings being pulled out or bury them into the soil.
Thinning accelerates the free circulation of air which makes them
seedlings sturdier and healthier. If the right amount quality of seeds
is sown evenly, there is no need for thinning.

When to transplant seedlings?

The best time to transplant seedlings is just before or after the rain,
provided the soil can be worked and during cloudy days. During the sunny
days, transplanting should be done late in the afternoon to lessen
transplanting shock and to hasten seedling recovery.

Rules in transplanting
1. Keep the newly uprooted seedlings from direct sunlight
2. Keep the root moist and the tops dry while transferring the seedlings
3. Keep as much soil on the roots as possible
4. Settle the soil around the roots when watering
5. Handle seedlings carefully to avoid damage
6. Transplant late in the afternoon or a cloudy day and shade the seedlings

Steps in transplanting vegetable seedlings

1. Water the seedlings a day before transplanting
2. Uproot the desire number of seedlings to be planted
3. Dig a hole big enough to receive the root system without bending it
into the space
4. Plant one seedling per hill
5. Cover the roots properly and the shoot apex should be higher than the
ground level of the bed or the soil should not cover the first leaves
after planting
6. Press the soil after planting to have better contracts of the roots with
the soil
 61

7. Irrigate the transplanted seedlings

8. If necessary, provide the seedlings a temporary shade for at least 3-4
days for faster recovery.
Planting distance

Proper spacing between rows and hills is important to allow growth of plants,
ease of cultivation and efficient use of space. Generally, the depth of planting depends on the
kinds of crop and size of the seedling. Recommend distancing of planting, depth of planting
and rate of seedling of selected vegetable crops is shown table below.

Crop Distance of Depth of Rate of

planting planting seedlings
Row Hill (cm) (per hill)
(cm) (cm)
Tomato 100 75 2-3 1
Eggplant 100 75 2-3 1
Pepper 100 75 2-3 1
Cabbage 75 40 2-3 1
Cauli flower 35 30 2-3 1
Lettuce 20 20 2-3 1
Radish 20 15 2-3 1
Carrot 15 15 2-3 1
Onion 15 15 2-3 1
Mustard 15 15 2-3 1
Pechay 15 15 2-3 1
Source: Canare et.al (2012)

ASSESSMENT TASK
Scoring Rubric for your answer

Level of Comprehension
achievement
Exemplary Satisfy all the following :
(50 pts. quizzes)  Proper planting of seeds in the seed box
 Proper preparation of soil media
 Proper transplanting
 Proper planting of seedlings
 Proper distancing of seedlings
Adequate Satisfy only 4 of the following :
 62

(35-40) Pts. quizzes)  Proper planting of seeds in the seed box

 Proper preparation of soil media
 Proper transplanting
 Proper planting of seedlings
 Proper distancing of seedlings
Needs Improvement Satisfy only 3 of the following :
( 20-30pts. quizzes)  Proper planting of seeds in the seed box
 Proper preparation of soil media
 Proper transplanting
 Proper planting of seedlings
 Proper distancing of seedlings

No Answer (1-10 Need improvement

pts)
Satisfy only 2 of the following :
 Proper preparation of soil media
 Proper transplanting
 Proper planting of seedlings
 Proper distancing of seedlings

Instruction:
Perform the task by following the steps that you have learned.

Let’s Perform

Prepare a pechay seeds and secure seed box. Filled the seed box with a
sterilized media. Based on what you have learned, perform the steps in sowing
seeds in seed box or seed tray and care management of the seedlings. Then
prepare also a 2 seed bed measuring 5m x 1m.
If the pechay seedlings are ready to transplant, transplant it to the plot
following the rules and steps in transplanting and proper distancing of the
seedlings.

What

Summary knowledge
and skills
transferred
.
 63

Planting of seed can be done through direct seeding or transplanting.

Direct seeding is a method of planting in which the seeds are directly planted in
the soil. Direct seeding can be done through several methods. These methods are
ridge planting, hill planting, drill pal ting, furrow planting, broadcasting and
raised bed. While transplanting is a method of transferring seedlings from the
seed box or bed to the field.
In growing seeds in a seed box, there are steps that should be done to
ensure the healthy growing seedlings. While growing the seedling, proper care
and management should be done. Also, there are step that should be done in
transplanting seedlings.
Proper spacing between rows and hills is important to allow growth of
plants, ease of cultivation and efficient use of space. There are recommend
distancing of planting, depth of planting and rate of seedling of selected vegetable
crops

References
Where did
you get
the
concepts.

Tito Rimando(2011) Crop Science 1 (Fundamentals of Crop Science)

Mario D. Cadatal et al. (2010) Crop Science 12(Practices of Crop Science)
Comadug, Crop production lecture guide
 64

Lesson

FERTLIZER AND FERTLIZER 4

MANAGEMENT

LEARNING
OBJECTIVE

At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

1. Differentiate organic to inorganic fertilizer
2. Describe the role of fertilizer in plants
3. Describes the different method in applying fertilizer
4. Identify the different elements and its functions to plants
 65

Fertilizer is any substance added to the soil to supply those elements required for the
nutrition of plants.
Types of fertilizer
1. Organic fertilizers are farm manures, compost, crop residues and other farm
wastes. Which supply nutrients and improve soil physical conditions. They
undergo decompositions before the nutrients become available to the plants.

Sources of organic fertilizer

 Animal waste : carabao, pig, goat, poultry and horse manure
 Crop waste: straw, corn stalk, weeds, stubbles, plant leaves, husk and etc.
 Green manure: ipil-pil leaves, legumes, and Madre de cacao leaves
 Water crops or plants: water lily, water alligator and water lettuce
 Biological organic sources: Azolla and blue green algae
 Silt, river mud and pond mud
 Other sources: animal bones, ash, seaweeds and guano (bat manure)

Characteristic of organic fertilizer

1. Low element content-the content of fertilizer nutrients varies with minerals.
2. Slow availability of nutrients
3. Limited supply
4. Promotes good physical condition

Appropriate composition of natural or organic fertilizer (DAC, 1970)

Material N P2O5 K2O Lime Mg SO4
Animal Products
Blood, dried 1.3 2 1 0.5 - -
Tankage, animal 7.1 10 0.5 15.5 0.5 1
Excreta
Guano 8.5 5 1.5 7.5 0.5 2
Cattle manure 2 1.5 2 2.5 1 0.5
Chicken dung 5 3 1.5 4 2 1.5
Plant residue
Ash, wood commercial - 2 5 32.5 3.5 3.5
Ash, tobacco - 3 23 22 6 5.5

2. Inorganic fertilizer –from synthetically produced chemicals or natural inorganic

sources nitrogen, however, may be supplied by other means, such as rain and
irrigation water.
 66

Inorganic fertilizers and their properties

Fertilizer Composition Stability Color Texture Reaction
(%) in water in soil
N- P2O5- K2O
Ammonium 20-0-0 Highly White Crystalline Acidic
sulfate 21-0-0 soluble
Superphosphate 0-20-0 Slightly Grayish Granule -
soluble powder
Muriate of 0-0-60 Slightly Rose or Crystalline -
potash soluble pinkish
Complete 12-12-12 Slightly Grayish Crystalline -
fertilizer 14-14-14 soluble
12-24-12
10-25-25
5-10-16
Urea 45-0-0 Highly White Granular -
soluble

Types of inorganic fertilizer based on element

1. Single element –fertilizer containing only one fertilizer element such as
ammonium sulfate (21-0-0), urea(45-0-0), SP (0-20-0)
2. Incomplete or double element-contain only 2 fertilizer element such as nitrogen
and phosphate.
3. Complete fertilizer-contains all the elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium

Determining the kind and amount of fertilizer to apply

1. Soil and plant tissue analysis
2. Fertilizer field trial
3. Use of radio isotopes
4. Visual symptoms

Characteristics of inorganic fertilizers

1. Relatively high nutrient content
2. Readily available and application to the soil therefore followed by rapid reaction
in soils and immediate effect on plant growth.
3. Generally, display undesirable physical condition
4. Supply is almost unlimited

Methods of application
 67

1. Broadcast –applying uniformly over the entire area before planting or while the
crop is growing.
2. Localized application-the application close to the seed or plant, either in band
adjacent or to the plant’s rows (side dressing) or by plow-sole application.
3. Foliar application-application on the aerial parts of the plant.
4. Basal application -just before or during planting
5. Side dressing-applied to a crop while it is still growing
6. Starter solution -liquid mixture of fertilizer and water sprayed on seedlings,
poured on the seedbed, poured at the transplant hole at transplanting time to
assure good seedling vigor and rapid growth of the new transplants

When to apply fertilizer?

Factors to consider
1. Kind of crop –crops are differ in time of maximum growth and in time of
maximum nutrient absorption.
2. Season- timely application will promote growth and development of the crop.
Usually, during wet season, split application is done. During dry season, all the
fertilizer materials are applied.
3. Soil –differ in texture and therefore in the rate of water movement through the
soil.

Rate of soil nutrients may be lost due to the following:

1. Leaching – Plant nutrients are lost beyond the reach of plant roots.
Usually caused by excessive rainfall washing nutrients deep down into
sub-soil beyond new roots reach.
2. Soil erosion – Top soil is lost by the agent of erosion e.g. wind, water.
3. Monocropping – This utilizes only specific nutrients from a particular
zone making it exhausted. -It also causes accumulation of certain pests
and diseases.
4. Continuous cropping –This continuously exhaust the fertility of land
unless the land if fallowed.
5. Change of soil PH -Use of either acidic or basic fertilizers affect soil
pH and consequently the presence of micro-organisms hence soil
fertility affected.
6. Burning of vegetations –Destroys organic matter and soil structure.
Nutrients are lost and soil exposed to erosion.
 68

7. Accumulation of salts – Common in waterlogged areas and semi-arid

areas in which poor drainage causes evaporation during the dry
periods, making the soil saline.
Functions of essential nutrient elements utilized by plants
1. Nitrogen
 Nitrogen is an essential constituent of proteins and is present in many
other compounds of great physiological importance in plant
metabolism e.g. nucleotides, phosphatides, alkaloids, enzymes,
hormones, vitamins, etc.
 Nitrogen is also an integral part of chlorophyll, which is the primary
absorber of light energy needed for photosynthesis.
 Nitrogen is also imparts vigorous vegetative growth dark green color to
plants. It produces early growth and also results delay in maturity of
plants.
2. Phosphorus
 Phosphorus is a constituent of nucleic acid, phytin and phospho-lipids.
An adequate supply of phosphorus early in plant life is important for
the reproductive parts of the plants.
 It is also an essential constituent of majority of enzymes which are of
great importance in the transformation of energy, in carbohydrate
metabolism, in fat metabolism and also in respiration of plants.
 It stimulates early root development and growth and there by helps to
establish seedlings quickly.
 The supply of phosphorus improves the quality of certain fruit, forage,
vegetable, and grain crops and increases the disease resistance of crops.
3. Potassium
 Potassium exists in mobile ionic (K+) form and its function appears to
be primarily catalytic in nature.
 The deficiency of potassium imparts the malfunctioning of stomata
which are related to lower rates of photosynthesis and less efficient use
of water. So potassium can affect the rate of transpiration and water
uptake through regulation of stomatal opening.
 The potassium has some roles in energy relations.
 Plants require potassium for the production of high-energy phosphate
molecules (ATP), which are produced due to photosynthesis and
respiration. The deficient of potassium leads to the decreased
assimilation of sugars from carbon-dioxide during photosynthesis. It
imparts winter hardiness to legumes and other crops.
 Potassium helps in formation of proteins and chlorophyll.
 69

 Potassium imparts increased vigour and disease resistance to plants.

4. Calcium
 Calcium is another secondary nutrient element required by all higher
plants absorbed as Ca2+ ions.
 Calcium is a constituent of the cell wall and it increases stiffness of
plants.
 Calcium has an essential role in cell elongation and division.
 Calcium accumulates during respiration by mitochondria and it
increases their protein content.
 It promotes early root development and growth of plants.
5. Magnesium
 Magnesium is a constituent of chlorophyll, because chlorophyll
formation usually accounts for about 15 to 20 per cent of the total
magnesium content of plants.
 It imparts dark green color in leaves.
 Magnesium also plays an important role for the formation of
carbohydrates, fats and vitamins etc.
 Magnesium brings about significant increases in the oil content of
several crops.
 Magnesium regulates the uptake of other nutrients and the base
economy of plants.
6. Sulphur
 Sulphur is required for the synthesis of the sulphur-containing amino
acids cystine, cysteine and methionine. One of the main functions of
sulphur in proteins or polypeptides is the formation of disulphide bonds
between polypeptide chains. Disulphide linkages are important in
stabilizing and determining the configuration of proteins.
 Sulphur is needed for the synthesis of other metabolites, including
coenzyme A, biotin, thiamin or vitamin B1 and glutathione.
 It occurs in volatile compounds responsible for the characteristic taste
and smell of plants in the mustard and onion families.
 It increases root growth.
 Sulphur stimulates seed formation.
 Sulphur promotes nodule formation on roots of leguminous plants.
7. Iron
 Iron helps in the formation of chlorophyll. A deficiency of iron causes
chlorosis between the veins of leaves and the deficiency symptom
shows first in the young leaves of plants. It does not appear to be trans-
 70

located from older tissues to the tip meristem and as a result growth
ceases.
 Iron helps in absorption of other nutrient elements.
8. Manganese
 The role of manganese is regarded as being closely associated with that
of iron. Manganese also supports the movement of iron in the plant.
 Manganese helps in chlorophyll formation.
 Manganese deficiency also shows interveinal chlorosis of plants.
9. Copper
 Copper forms various compounds with amino acids and proteins in the
plant.
 Copper helps in the utilization of iron during chlorophyll synthesis.
Lack of copper causes iron to accumulate in the nodes of plants.
 Copper has an unique involvement in enzyme systems of plants like,
oxidase enzymes, terminal oxidation by cytochrome oxidase,
photosynthetic electron transport mediated by plastocyanin etc.
10. Zinc
 Zinc influences the formation of some growth hormones in the plant.
 Zinc is helpful in reproduction of certain plants.
 It is associated with water uptake and water relations in the plant.
 It is involved in auxin metabolism like, tryptophan synthetase,
tryptamine metabolism.
11. Boron
 The primary role of boron is associated with the calcium metabolism.
 Boron increases the solubility of calcium as well as mobility of
calcium in the plant.
 It acts as a regulator of K/Ca ratio in the plant.
 It helps in the absorption of nitrogen.
 Boron is required for the development of new cells in meristematic
tissue.
 Boron is necessary for proper pollination and fruit or seed setting.
 It is necessary for the translocation of sugars, starches, phosphorus etc.
 Boron is required for the synthesis of amino acids and proteins.
 It helps for the formation of nodules in leguminous plants.
 Boron regulates carbohydrate metabolism.
12. Molybdenum
 Molybdenum is an essential component of the major enzyme nitrate
reductase in plants.
 71

 The molybdenum requirement of plants is influenced by the form of

inorganic nitrogen supplied to plants, with either nitrate (NO3–) or
ammonium (NH4+) effectively lowering its need.
 Molybdenum is also reported to have an essential role in iron
absorption and translocation in plants.
13. Silicon
 Silicon is one of the most abundant elements in the lithosphere and is
present in many plant species. Silicon seems to be essential for plants
such as rice, sugarcane etc.
 Soluble silica exists mainly as monosilicic acid [Si(OH)4], and plants
are believed to absorb it in this form from the soil solution. Silicon
apparently contributes to the structure of cell walls. This silica
primarily impregnates the walls of epidermal and vascular tissues,
where it appears to strengthen the tissues, reduce water loss, and inhibit
fungal infection.
 The beneficial effects of silicon have been attributed to correction of
soil toxicities arising from high levels of available Mn, Fe2+ and active
aluminium. Silicon also provides greater stalk strength and resistance
to lodging, increased availability of phosphorus, reduced transpiration
etc. Silicon tends to maintain erectness of rice leaves, increases
photosynthesis because of better light interception.
14. Sodium
 This element is essential for halophytic plant species which accumulate
sufficient of its salts in vacuoles to maintain turgor and growth. Many
plants that possess the C4 dicarboxylic photosynthetic pathway require
sodium as an essential nutrient. Sodium helps in oxalic acid
accumulation in plants and also influences potassium sparing action. It
has some roles in stomatal opening and it can regulate the activity of
nitrate reductase.
15. Vanadium
 Low concentrations of vanadium are beneficial for the growth of
microorganisms, animals and higher plants. Vanadium may partially
substitute for Mo in fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by micro-
organisms such as the rhizobia. It plays a role in biological oxidation-
reduction reactions.
16. Cobalt
 Cobalt is essential for micro-organisms fixing atmospheric nitrogen.
Cobalt forms vitamin B12 during growth and development of
symbiotic micro-organisms like ihizobia, cyanobacteria etc.
 72

 Cobalt forms a complex with nitrogen atoms in a porphyrin ring

structure which provides a prosthetic group for association with a
nucleotide in the B12 coenzyme. ‘This cobalt- complex is termed the
cobamide coenzyme.
 Cobalt also takes part in leghemoglobin metabolism and ribonucleotide
reductase in rhizobium. It also influences the growth of the plant,
transpiration, photosynthesis etc.

ASSESSMENT TASK
Scoring Rubric for your answer

Level of Comprehension
achievement
Exemplary - Provides an accurate and complete answer to the
question.
(5 pts. quizzes)
Adequate - Provides accurate but only adequate answer to the
question
(3-4 Pts. quizzes)
Needs Improvement - Does not demonstrate accurate answer to the question
(1-2 pts. quizzes)
No Answer (0 pts) -

Instruction: Answer the question comprehensively. Write or encode your answer

on a clean sheet of bond paper size A4 or 8.5 x 11. Please take a picture of your
output and send to my messenger and to be submitted before the scheduled
deadline of submission. The deadline of submission will be posted on our group
page and group chat.

Let’s identify

1. Identify the major and Minor nutrients elements needed by vegetables and
give their functions. Fill in the table below.

Nutrients Elements Functions

a. Major
 73

b. Minor

2. Conduct a survey and list down the commercial organic and inorganic
fertilizers available in the locality.
Kinds of fertilizer Fertilizer Grade (N P K)
a. Organic
 74

b. Inorganic

What

Summary knowledge
and skills
transferred
.

There are two types of fertilizer, the organic and inorganic fertilizer.
Organic fertilizer are farm manures, compost, crop residues and other farm
wastes while inorganic fertilizer is from synthetically produced chemicals or
natural inorganic sources nitrogen. Types of inorganic fertilizer is based on the
element content if it is single element, double or complete elements.
Applying fertilizer can be done broadcast, localized, foliar application, b asal
application, side dressing and starter solution. In applying fertilizer, the
kind of crops, season and soil must be considered.
Important elements that utilized by plants are nitrogen , phosphorus,
potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, iron, manganese, copper, zinc,
boron, molybdenum, silicon, sodium, vanadium and cobalt.

References
Where did
you get
the
concepts.
 75

Tito Rimando(2011) Crop Science 1 (Fundamentals of Crop Science)

Mario D. Cadatal et al. (2010) Crop Science 12(Practices of Crop Science)

Lesson

WATER REQUIREMENTS AND 5

MNAGEMENT PRACTICES

LEARNING
OBJECTIVE

At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

1. Define irrigation
2. Identify the benefits of irrigation
 76

Agricultural irrigation is the application of water to crops through the

artificial means. Irrigation is the primarily used in areas with sporadic
rainfall or potential drought conditions to ensure that the crop soil receives
adequate water for cultivation. The water that utilized in agricultural
irrigation can come from various sources, such as ground water, rivers,
springs, lakes, wells or surface water.

Benefits of irrigation
1. Irrigation is insurance against drought
2. It enables the growing quick maturing crops
3. It is a guarantee to the quick germination seeds
4. It means of ensuring early maturity in most crops
5. It increases the quality, attractive appearance and yield crops

How to measure soil moisture

According to Caoili and DeVera(1977), the technical methods used to
measure soil moisture content at periodic table intervals during the
growing seasons are:
1. Direct method by gravimetric with oven drying
This method is weighing of the wet sample, removing the water
by oven drying, and reweighing the sample to determine the amount
of water removed.
2. Use of tensiometer
Tensiometer measures soil water content. Water content in the
soil is then obtained from the calibration curve relating soil suction
to water content values to specific soils.
3. Electrical resistance method
A porous block connected by suitable electrodes to an
ohmmeter is embedded in the soil. Equilibrium is attained when
water cease to flow into or out of the block. The electrical resistance
corresponding to the water content at equilibrium is recorded in
ohmmeter an is regarded as the index of soil water content.
4. Temporary wilting
When water stress occurs in a plant, cells lose turgidity and
plants show symptoms of wilting. Temporary wilting may occur at
mid-day when water demand reaches its climax, especially the
hottest month of the year. Soil moisture may really be adequate but
transpiration may outpace water absorption. If this is the case, the
plant will recover by evening. However, if plants wilt in the morning
 77

continuously for 3-4days, water may be indeed be lacking and the

crop must be irrigated immediately.
5. Color foliage
Not all plant show temporary wilting when water is limited.
Instead, their leaves turn yellowish as in beans and in some cases
bluish green in eggplants, as the water is reduced in the soil.
Color is also the indicator of plant variety where there is nitrogen
supply so consider this when analyzing the situation.

6. Rate of growth of plants

If the rate of growth of the crop is sluggish, water may not be
enough.
7. Feel of the soil
Get the samples from a depth where most of the roots occur
and try to feel the soil. This depends n the type of soil.

Table 1. type of soil and when irrigated is needed

Type of soil Irrigation is needed
Sandy Appears to be dry, but does not form a ball
when squeezed
Loam Somewhat crumbly but holds together
Clayey Somewhat pliable forms in ball, and is too dry
to form ribbon easily

Irrigation practices :
Upland crops -dependent on rainfall
Lowland –irrigation for lowland rice

Methods of irrigation
1. Manual irrigation –the most basic type of agricultural irrigation using
watering cans.
2. Overhead irrigation –run by a pump with piping and overhead risers
in the farm of “perforin” droplets of water are applied to the plants in mist
or rain forms.
3. Underground irrigation-pipelines are installed underground and
when irrigation is needed they installed to perforain above .
4. Center pivot irrigation –uses an automatic system sprinkler that are
attached to fixed towers in the center of the crop area.
5. Windmill irrigation –done by machine that harnesses wind energy for
a purpose like grinding grain, pumping or generating electricity.
6. Drip irrigation is a system that delivers water directly to the root zone
of plant, where it seeps slowly into the soil one drop a time.
7. Irrigation by power machinery –done when water pumps are set in
the source of water. Water is then delivered to the field through a water
hose.
 78

ASSESSMENT TASK
Scoring Rubric for your answer

Level of Comprehension
achievement
Expert -very well organized and informative answer
(50 pts.)
Accomplished - somewhat informative and organized answer
(31-40 Pts.)
Capable - give some new information but poorly organized answer
(20-30pts. )
Beginner -give no new information and very poor organized answer
(10 pts. )

Process

You have planted your vegetable garden plots. You have found out that the
plants are wilting. Find out why your plants are wilting. Is it due to lack of water?
if it is so, what method of irrigation are you going to apply? and why?

Let’s explore

Visit three farms using different irrigation methods using different

irrigation methods or flip a chart of different irrigation methods. Describe each
method.

Method 1:

Method 2:
 79

Method 3:

What

Summary knowledge
and skills
transferred
.
Agricultural irrigation is the application of water to crops through the
artificial means. The water that utilized in agricultural irrigation can come from
various sources, such as ground water, rivers, springs, lakes, wells or surface
water. Irrigation can be done manually, overhead irrigation, underground
irrigation, center pivot irrigation, drip irrigation and by power machinery.

References
Where did
you get
the
concepts.

Tito Rimando(2011) Crop Science 1 (Fundamentals of Crop Science)

Mario D. Cadatal et al. (2010) Crop Science 12(Practices of Crop Science)
 80

Harvest Vegetable crops retrieved at file:///D:/Documents/Subject%202020-

2021/Second%20sem/Agrifishery%201/Module%206.%20Harvesting.pdf