Coordinates: 11°04′36″N 9°18′46″W

Niger River

The Niger River (/ˈnaɪdʒər/; French: (le) fleuve

Niger, pronounced [(lə) flœv niʒɛʁ]) is the main Niger River
river of West Africa, extending about 4,180 km Fleuve Niger (French)
(2,600 mi). Its drainage basin is 2,117,700 km2 Joliba (Maninka)
(817,600 sq mi) in area.[8] Its source is in the
Guinea Highlands in southeastern Guinea near the Jeliba (Bambara)
Sierra Leone border.[9][10] It runs in a crescent Maayo Ɓaleewo 𞤮𞤫𞤤𞤢𞤄 𞤮𞤴𞤢𞥄𞤃 (Fula)
shape through Mali, Niger, on the border with
Egerew ⴻⴳⴻⵔⴻⵡ (Tamasheq)
Benin and then through Nigeria, discharging
through a massive delta, known as the Niger Issa Beri (Zarma)
Delta[11] (or the Oil Rivers), into the Gulf of Kwara (Hausa)
Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean. The Niger is the
Toru Beni (Ijo languages)
third-longest river in Africa, exceeded by the Nile
and the Congo River. Its main tributary is the Ọya (Yoruba)
Benue River. Óshimiri (Igbo)

Contents
Etymology
Geography
Course
History
The Pont Kennedy across the Niger at Niamey in
Management and development
February 2019
See also
Notes
References
External links
International law and the Niger River

Etymology
The Niger has different names in the different Etymology Unknown (possibly from Berber for
languages of the region: River Gher or local Tuareg word n-
igereouen meaning "big rivers"[1])
Fula: Maayo Jaaliba 𞤢𞤦𞤭𞤤𞤢𞥄𞤔 𞤮𞤴𞤢𞥄𞤃
Or it may be a direct translation by
Manding: Jeliba ߊߓߌߟߋߖ or Joliba ߊߓߌߟߏߖ
Leo Africanus from Arabic bilād as-
"great river"
sūdān (‫" )بالد السودان‬Land of the
Blacks", into Latin (Niger "black").
 Tuareg: Egerew n-Igerewen ⴻⴳⴻⵔⴻⵡ Location
ⵏⵉⴳⴻⵔⴻⵡⴻⵏ "river of rivers" Countries Benin · Guinea · Mali · Niger ·
Songhay: Isa "the river" Nigeria
Zarma: Isa Beeri "great river"[12] Cities Tembakounda · Bamako · Timbuktu
· Niamey · Lokoja · Onitsha
Hausa: Kwara ‫كَوَر‬
Physical characteristics
Nupe: Èdù
Yoruba: Ọya "named after the Yoruba Source
goddess Ọya, who is believed to embody • location Guinea Highlands, Guinea
the river" • coordinates 9°36′1.6848″N 10°51′52.3872″W
Igbo: Orimiri or Orimili "great water" Mouth Atlantic Ocean
Ijaw: Toru Beni "the river water"
• location Gulf of Guinea, Nigeria

The earliest use of the name "Niger" for the river is • coordinates 5°19′20.40″N 6°28′8.99″E
by Leo Africanus[13] in his Della descrittione Length 4,184 km (2,600 mi)
dell’Africa et delle cose notabili che ivi sono Basin size 2,117,700 km2 (817,600 sq mi)
published in Italian in 1550. The name may come Discharge
from a Berber phrase ger-n-ger meaning "river of • location Niger Delta[2][3]
rivers".[14] As Timbuktu was the southern end of
• average 6,925 m3/s (244,600 cu ft/s)[3]
the principal Trans-Saharan trade route to the
6,858.671 m3/s
western Mediterranean, it was the source of most
(242,211.7 cu ft/s)[4]
European knowledge of the region. Or it may be a
direct translation by Leo Africanus from Arabic • minimum 500 m3/s (18,000 cu ft/s)
bilād as-sūdān (‫" )بالد السودان‬Land of the Blacks", • maximum 27,600 m3/s (970,000 cu ft/s)[5]
into Latin (Niger "black"). Discharge
• location Lokoja
Medieval European maps applied the name Niger
• average 5,754.664 m3/s
to the middle reaches of the river, in modern Mali,
(203,224.0 cu ft/s)[4]
but Quorra (Kworra) to the lower reaches in
modern Nigeria, as these were not recognized at Discharge
the time as being the same river.[13] When • location Niamey
European colonial powers began to send ships • average 737.717 m3/s (26,052.2 cu ft/s)[6]
along the west coast of Africa in the 16th and 17th Discharge
centuries, the Senegal River was often postulated to • location Bamako
be the seaward end of the Niger. The Niger Delta, • average 1,091.692 m3/s (38,552.7 cu ft/s)[7]
pouring into the Atlantic through mangrove
swamps and thousands of distributaries along more Basin features
than 160 kilometres (100 miles), was thought to be Tributaries
coastal wetlands. It was only with the 18th-century • left Sokoto River, Kaduna River, Benue
visits of Mungo Park, who travelled down the River, Anambra River
Niger River and visited the great Sahelian empires • right Bani River, Mékrou River
of his day, that Europeans correctly identified the
course of the Niger and extended the name to its entire course.

The modern nations of Nigeria and Niger take their names from the river, marking contesting national
claims by colonial powers of the "upper", "lower" and "middle" Niger river basin during the Scramble for
Africa at the end of the 19th century.

Geography
The Niger River is a relatively clear river,
carrying only a tenth as much sediment as the
Nile because the Niger's headwaters lie in ancient
rocks that provide little silt.[15] Like the Nile, the
Niger floods yearly; this begins in September,
peaks in November, and finishes by May.[15] An
unusual feature of the river is the Inner Niger
Delta, which forms where its gradient suddenly
decreases.[15] The result is a region of braided Commercial activity along the river front at Boubon, in
streams, marshes, and large lakes; the seasonal Niger
floods make the Delta extremely productive for
both fishing and agriculture.[16]

The river loses nearly two-thirds of its potential flow in the Inner
Delta between Ségou and Timbuktu to seepage and evaporation.
The water from the Bani River, which flows into the Delta at
Mopti, does not compensate for the losses. The average loss is
estimated at 31 km3 /year but varies considerably between years.[17]
The river is then joined by various tributaries but also loses more
water to evaporation. The quantity of water entering Nigeria was
estimated at 25 km3 /year before the 1980s and at 13.5 km3 /year
during the 1980s. The great bend of the Niger River,
seen from space, creates a green
The most important tributary is the Benue River which merges with arc through the brown of the Sahel
the Niger at Lokoja in Nigeria. The total volume of tributaries in and Savanna. The green mass on
Nigeria is six times higher than the inflow into Nigeria, with a flow the left is the Inner Niger Delta, and
near the mouth of the river standing at 177.0 km3 /year before the on the far left are tributaries of the
1980s and 147.3 km3 /year during the 1980s.[17] Senegal River.

Course

The Niger takes one of the most unusual routes of any major river,
a boomerang shape that baffled geographers for two centuries. Its
source (Tembakounda) is 240 km (150 mi) inland from the Atlantic
Ocean, but the river runs directly away from the sea into the Sahara
Desert, then takes a sharp right turn near the ancient city of
Timbuktu and heads southeast to the Gulf of Guinea. This strange
geography apparently came about because the Niger River is two Mud houses on the center island at
ancient rivers joined together. The upper Niger, from the source Lake Debo, a wide section of the
west of Timbuktu to the bend in the current river near Timbuktu, Niger River
once emptied into a now dry lake to the east northeast of Timbuktu,
while the lower Niger started to the south of Timbuktu and flowed
south into the Gulf of Guinea. Over time upstream erosion by the lower Niger resulted in stream capture of
the upper Niger by the lower Niger.[18]

The northern part of the river, known as the Niger bend, is an important area because it is the major river
and source of water in that part of the Sahara. This made it the focal point of trade across the western
Sahara and the centre of the Sahelian kingdoms of Mali and Gao. The surrounding Niger River Basin is
one of the distinct physiographic sections of the Sudan province, which in turn is part of the larger African
massive physiographic division.
History
At the end of the African humid period around 5,500 years before
present, the modern Sahara Desert, once a savanna, underwent
desertification. As plant species sharply declined,[19] humans
migrated to the fertile Niger River bend region, with abundant
resources including plants for grazing and fish.[20] Like in the
Fertile Crescent, many food crops were domesticated in the Niger Map of the Niger, showing its
River region, including yams, African rice (Oryza glaberrima), and watershed and "inland delta"
pearl millet.[21] The Sahara aridification may have triggered, or at
least accelerated, these domestications.[19] Agriculture, as well as
fishing and animal husbandry, led to the rise of settlements like
Djenné-Djenno in the Inner Delta, now a World Heritage Site.[22]

The region of the Niger bend, in the Sahel, was a key origin and
destination for trans-Saharan trade, fueling the wealth of great
empires such as the Ghana, Mali, and Songhai Empires. Major
trading ports along the river, including Timbuktu and Gao, became
centers of learning and culture. Trade to the Niger bend region also
brought Islam to the region in approximately the 14th century CE.
Much of the northern Niger basin remains Muslim today, although Growing African rice, Oryza
the southern reaches of the river tend to be Christian. glaberrima along the Niger River in
Niger. The crop was first
Classical writings on the interior of the Sahara begin with Ptolemy, domesticated along the river.
who mentions two rivers in the desert: the "Gir" (Γειρ)[23][24] and
farther south, the "Nigir" (Νιγειρ).[25][26] The first has
been since identified as the Wadi Ghir on the north-
western edge of the Tuat, along the borders of modern
Morocco and Algeria.[25][27] This would likely have
been as far as Ptolemy would have had consistent
records. The Ni-Ger was likely speculation, although
the name stuck as that of a river south of the
Mediterranean's "known world". Suetonius reports
Romans traveling to the "Ger", although in reporting
any river's name derived from a Berber language, in A reconstruction of the Ravenna Cosmography
which "gher" means "watercourse", confusion could placed on a Ptolemaic map. The River Ger is
easily arise.[28] Pliny connected these two rivers as visible at bottom. Note it is placed, following
one long watercourse which flowed (via lakes and Ptolemy, as just south of the land of the
underground sections) into the Nile,[29] a notion which Garamantes, in modern Libya, constricting the
persisted in the Arab and European worlds – and continent to the land from the central Sahara north.
further added the Senegal River as the "Ger" – until
the 19th century.

While the true course of the Niger was presumably known to locals, it was a mystery to the outside world
until the late 18th century. The connection to the Nile River was made not simply because this was then
known as the great river of "Aethiopia" (by which all lands south of the desert were called by Classical
writers), but because the Nile like the Niger flooded every summer. [30] Through the descriptions of Leo
Africanus and even Ibn Battuta – despite his visit to the river – the myth connecting the Niger to the Nile
persisted.
Many European expeditions to plot the river were
unsuccessful.[31] In 1788 the African Association was
formed in England to promote the exploration of
Africa in the hopes of locating the Niger, and in June
1796 the Scottish explorer Mungo Park was the first
European to lay eyes on the middle portion of the river
since antiquity (and perhaps ever). He wrote an
account in 1799, Travels in the Interior of Africa.[32]
Park proposed a theory that the Niger and Congo were
the same river. Although the Niger Delta would seem
like an obvious candidate, it was a maze of streams
and swamps that did not look like the head of a great
river. He died in 1806 on a second expedition
1561 map of West Africa by Girolamo Ruscelli,
attempting to prove the Niger-Congo connection.[33]
from Italian translation of Ptolemy's Atlas "La
The theory became the leading one in Europe.[33] Geograpfia Di Claudio Tolomeo Alessandrino,
Several failed expeditions followed; however the Nouvamente Tradatta Di Greco in Italiano". The
mystery of the Niger would not be solved for another writer was attempting to square information
25 years, in 1830, when Richard Lander and his gleaned from Portuguese trade along the coast
brother became the first Europeans to follow the with Ptolemy's world map. The mouths of the
course of the Niger to the ocean.[33] Senegal River and Gambia River are postulated to
flow into a lake, which also feeds the "Ger"/"Niger
In 1946, three Frenchmen, Jean Sauvy, Pierre Ponty River", which in turn feeds the "Nile Lake" and Nile
and movie maker Jean Rouch, former civil servants in River.
the African French colonies, set out to travel the entire
length of the river, as no one else seemed to have done
previously. They travelled from the beginning of the river near Kissidougou in Guinea, walking at first till a
raft could be used, then changing to various local crafts as the river broadened and changed. Two of them
reached the ocean on March 25, 1947, with Ponty having left the expedition at Niamey, somewhat past the
halfway mark. They carried a 16mm movie camera, the resulting footage giving Rouch his first two
ethnographic documentaries: "Au pays des mages noirs", and "La chasse à l’hippopotame". A camera was
used to illustrate Rouch's subsequent book "Le Niger En Pirogue" (Fernand Nathan, 1954), as well as
Sauvy's “Descente du Niger” (L'Harmattan, 2001). A typewriter was brought as well, on which Ponty
produced newspaper articles he mailed out whenever possible.[34]

Management and development

The water in the Niger River basin is partially regulated through dams. In Mali the Sélingué Dam on the
Sankarani River is mainly used for hydropower but also permits irrigation. Two diversion dams, one at
Sotuba just downstream of Bamako, and one at Markala, just downstream of Ségou, are used to irrigate
about 54,000 hectares.[17] In Nigeria the Kainji Dam, Shiroro Dam, Zungeru Dam, and Jebba Dam are
used to generate hydropower.

The water resources of the Niger River are under pressure because of increased water abstraction for
irrigation. The construction of dams for hydropower generation is underway or envisaged in order to
alleviate chronic power shortages in the countries of the Niger basin.[35] The FAO estimates the irrigation
potential of all countries in the Niger river basin at 2.8 million hectares. Only 0.93m hectares (ha) were
under irrigation in the late 1980s. The irrigation potential was estimated at 1.68m ha in Nigeria 0.56m ha in
Mali, and the actual irrigated area was 0.67m ha and 0.19m ha.[17]

See also
 Azawagh – Dry basin that once carried a northern tributary of the Niger River
Niger Basin Authority – Intergovernmental organization in West Africa

Notes
1. "niger | Origin and meaning of the name niger by Online Etymology Dictionary" (https://www.
etymonline.com/word/niger). www.etymonline.com.
2. "WWD Continents" (http://www.geol.lsu.edu/WDD/AFRICAN/Niger/niger.htm).
www.geol.lsu.edu. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20171008103921/http://www.geol.l
su.edu/WDD/AFRICAN/Niger/niger.htm) from the original on 8 October 2017. Retrieved
28 April 2018.
3. Prabhu TL (2021). "Agricultural Engineering: An Introduction To Agricultural Engineering" (ht
tps://books.google.com/books?id=t1o0EAAAQBAJ&dq=Niger+6925+m3/s&pg=PT1156).
NestFame Creations Pvt. Ltd.
4. "Rivers Network" (https://www.riversnetwork.org/rbo/index.php/river-blogs/north-africa/itemlis
t/category/886-delta). 2020.
5. Castano, Ing. Antonio. "A STUDY ON THE HYDROLOGICAL SERIES OF THE NIGER
RIVER AT KOULIKORO, NIAMEY AND LOKOJA STATIONS" (http://webcache.googleuserc
ontent.com/search?q=cache:gF9Pb96gxA0J:www.risorseidriche.dica.unict.it/Sito_STAHY20
10_web/pdf_papers/AbrateT_HubertP_SighomnouD.pdf+niger+river+peak+discharge&cd=
2&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us). webcache.googleusercontent.com. Retrieved 28 April 2018.
6. "Rivers Network" (https://www.riversnetwork.org/rbo/index.php/river-blogs/north-africa/itemlis
t/category/885-dallol-bosso-tilemsi-gorouol). 2020.
7. "Rivers Network" (https://www.riversnetwork.org/rbo/index.php/river-blogs/north-africa/itemlis
t/category/888-upper-niger). 2020.
8. Gleick, Peter H. (2000), The World's Water, 2000-2001: The Biennial Report on Freshwater
(https://archive.org/details/worldswater200020000glei/page/33), Island Press, p. 33 (https://a
rchive.org/details/worldswater200020000glei/page/33), ISBN 978-1-55963-792-3 – via
Internet Archive
9. "Niger River" (https://geography.name/niger-river/). geography.name. Retrieved 26 April
2021.
10. Thompson, Samuel (2005). "Niger River" (https://books.google.com/books?id=DJgnebGbA
B8C&pg=PA665). In McColl, R. W. (ed.). Encyclopedia of World Geography. Facts On File,
Inc. p. 665. ISBN 9780816072293.
11. "Rivers of the World: The Niger River" (https://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/the-niger-ri
ver/). Radio Netherlands Archives. 2002-12-04.
12. Idrissa, Abdourahmane; Decalo, Samuel (June 1, 2012), Historical Dictionary of Niger
(4th ed.), Plymouth, UK: Scarecrow Press, p. 274, ISBN 978-0810860940
13. Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). "Niger" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C
3%A6dia_Britannica/Niger). In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 19
(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 676.
14. Hunwick, John O. (2003) [1999]. Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sadi's Tarikh al-
Sudan down to 1613 and other contemporary documents. Leiden: Brill. p. 275 Fn 22.
ISBN 978-90-04-11207-0.
15. Reader 2001, p. 191.
16. Reader 2001, pp. 191–192.
17. "Irrigation potential in Africa: A basin approach, The Niger Basin" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20170721033139/http://www.fao.org/docrep/w4347e/w4347e0i.htm). www.fao.org. FAO.
1997. Archived from the original (http://www.fao.org/docrep/w4347e/w4347e0i.htm) on 2017-
07-21.
18. Tom L. McKnight; Darrel Hess (2005). "16, "The Fluvial Processes" ". Physical Geography:
A Landscape Appreciation (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson, Prentice
Hall. p. 462. ISBN 978-0-13-145139-1.
19. Cubry, Philippe (2018). "The Rise and Fall of African Rice Cultivation Revealed by Analysis
of 246 New Genomes" (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2018.05.066). Current Biology. 28
(14): 2274‐2282. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2018.05.066 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2018.05.0
66). ISSN 0960-9822 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0960-9822). PMID 29983312 (https://pu
bmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29983312).
20. Mayor, Anne (2010). "Ceramic Traditions and Ethnicity in the Niger Bend, West Africa" (http
s://www.researchgate.net/publication/261296160). Ethnoarchaeology. University of Geneva.
2: 5–48. doi:10.1179/eth.2010.2.1.5 (https://doi.org/10.1179%2Feth.2010.2.1.5). ISSN 1944-
2890 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1944-2890). S2CID 128409342 (https://api.semanticsch
olar.org/CorpusID:128409342).
21. Scarcelli, Nora (2019). "Yam genomics supports West Africa as a major cradle of crop
domestication" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6527260). Science
Advances. 5 (5): eaaw1947. Bibcode:2019SciA....5.1947S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/ab
s/2019SciA....5.1947S). doi:10.1126/sciadv.aaw1947 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fsciadv.aa
w1947). ISSN 2375-2548 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2375-2548). PMC 6527260 (https://
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6527260). PMID 31114806 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/31114806).
22. Mcintosh, Susan Keech; Mcintosh, Roderick J. (Oct 1979). "Initial Perspectives on
Prehistoric Subsistence in the Inland Niger Delta (Mail)". World Archaeology. 11 (2 Food
and Nutrition): 227–243. doi:10.1080/00438243.1979.9979762 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0
0438243.1979.9979762). ISSN 0043-8243 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0043-8243).
PMID 16470987 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16470987).
23. Geographia, Book IV, Chapter 6, Section 13 (https://books.google.com/books?id=4ksBAAA
AMAAJ&pg=PA222).
24. Claudii Ptolemaei (1843). Geographia (https://books.google.com/books?id=4ksBAAAAMAA
J&pg=PA222) (in Greek). Sumptibus et typis Caroli Tauchnitii. Book IV, Chapter 6, Section
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25. Meek, C. K. (1960). "The Niger and the Classics: The History of a Name". Journal of African
History. 1 (1): 1–17. doi:10.1017/S0021853700001456 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS002185
3700001456). ISSN 0021-8537 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8537). JSTOR 179702
(https://www.jstor.org/stable/179702). S2CID 163134704 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Cor
pusID:163134704).
26. Law, R. C. C. (1967). "The Garamantes and Trans-Saharan Enterprise in Classical Times".
Journal of African History. 8 (2): 181–200. doi:10.1017/S0021853700007015 (https://doi.org/
10.1017%2FS0021853700007015). ISSN 0021-8537 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8
537). S2CID 165234947 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165234947).. Law
carefully ties together the classical sources on this, and explains the mix of third hand
reports and mythology that was current in both the European and Arab worlds.
27. Bunbury, Edward Herbert; Stahl, William H. (1879). A History of Ancient Geography Among
the Greeks and Romans: From the Earliest Ages Till the Fall of the Roman Empire (https://ar
chive.org/details/bub_gb_MktN8xy48XcC). London: J. Murray. pp. 626–627.
28. Thomson 1948, pp. 258–259.
29. Thomson 1948, p. 258.
30. Law 1967, pp. 182–184.
31. Plumb 1952.
32. de Gramonte, Sanche (1991), The Strong Brown God: Story of the Niger River, Houghton
Mifflin, ISBN 978-0-395-56756-2
33. Maclachlan, T. Banks (1898). Mungo Park (https://archive.org/details/mungopark00maclrich).
Edinburgh: Oliphant, Anderson & Ferrier. pp. 130 (https://archive.org/details/mungopark00m
aclrich/page/130)–142.
34. Baugh, Brenda, About Jean Rouch (http://www.der.org/jean-rouch/content/index.php?id=abo
ut), Documentary Education Resources, archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2009082005
5522/http://www.der.org/jean-rouch/content/index.php?id=about) from the original on 2009-
08-20, retrieved 27 Jan 2010
35. "In the Niger Basin, Countries Collaborate on Hydropower, Irrigation and Improved Water
Resource Management" (http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2015/03/04/niger-basin-
countries-collaborate-on-hydropower-irrigation-and-improved-water-resource-management).
World Bank. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170920195403/http://www.worldbank.
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References
Gramont, Sanche de (1975), The Strong Brown God: The Story of the Niger River, Hart-
Davis, ISBN 0-246-10759-6
Plumb, J. H. (1952). "The Niger Quest". History Today. 2 (4): 243–251.
Reader, John (2001), Africa, Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, ISBN 978-0-
620-25506-6
Thomson, J. Oliver (1948), History of Ancient Geography, Biblo & Tannen Publishers,
ISBN 978-0-8196-0143-8
Welcomme, R.L. (1986), "The Niger River System" (https://archive.org/details/ecologyofriver
sy0000unse/page/9), in Davies, Bryan Robert; Walker, Keith F. (eds.), The Ecology of River
Systems, Springer, pp. 9–60 (https://archive.org/details/ecologyofriversy0000unse/page/9),
ISBN 978-90-6193-540-7

External links
Information and a map of the Niger's watershed (https://web.archive.org/web/200410272040
23/http://www.earthtrends.wri.org/maps_spatial/maps_detail_static.cfm?map_select=298&th
eme=2) on http://www.wri.org/resources
Map of the Niger River basin at Water Resources eAtlas (https://web.archive.org/web/20061
111145727/http://www.waterandnature.org/eatlas/html/af14.html) (link broken)
Niger Currents: Exploring life and technology along the Niger River (https://web.archive.org/
web/20130616141219/http://nigercurrents.ca/)
Maas, Pierre; Mommersteeg, Geert (1990). "Fishing in the Pondo" (http://www.saudiaramco
world.com/issue/199004/fishing.in.the.pondo.htm). Saudi Aramco World.

International law and the Niger River

Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law (http://www.ppl.nl/index.php?option
=com_wrapper&view=wrapper&Itemid=82) Peace Palace Library
 Spadi, Fabio (December 2005). "The International Court of Justice Judgment in the Benin–
Niger Border Dispute: The Interplay of Titles and 'Effectivités' under the Uti Possidetis Juris
Principle" (https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/leiden-journal-of-international-law/articl
e/international-court-of-justice-judgment-in-the-beninniger-border-dispute-the-interplay-of-titl
es-and-effectivites-under-the-uti-possidetis-juris-principle/8A2A7DDD601C070DFA7846C1
2576E5FF). Leiden Journal of International Law. 18 (4): 777–794.
doi:10.1017/S0922156505003006 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0922156505003006).
ISSN 1478-9698 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1478-9698). S2CID 145119157 (https://api.s
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