Unit 1

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign

Languages

Bilingualism and
multilingualism
 Index
Scheme 3

Key Ideas 4
1.1. How to study this unit 4
1.2. Bilingualism and multilingualism 5
1.3. Types of bilingualism 6
1.4. Code choice 10
1.5. The Bilingual Brain 13
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

1.6. Mother tongue and First Language 15

1.7. Foreign Language and Second Language 17
1.8. What is the role of input in L2 learning? 18
1.9. Bibliographical references 22

In depth 24

Test 26
 Scheme
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign Languages

3
Unit 1. Scheme
 Key Ideas

1.1. How to study this unit

In order to study this unit, you must read, as mandatory contents, the Key Ideas. In
addition to these mandatory contents, other recommended resources have been
included to deepen your knowledge, although they will not be requested in this unit’s
test.

In this unit a brief overview of the most important aspects connected to the
concept of bilingualism will be provided:

▸ First, we will pay attention to the definitions of bilingualism and multilingualism

as language phenomena, and their dimensions. We will talk about how bilingual
speakers choose the language code, focusing on the concepts of code-switching
and code-mixing, and about the bilingual brain.
▸ Then, the terms mother tongue and first language, as well as the difference
between the concepts of Foreign Language and Second Language will be
discussed.
▸ Finally, we will focus on the difference between learning and acquisition, and the
role of input in L2 learning.
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign Languages

4
Unit 1. Key Ideas
 1.2. Bilingualism and multilingualism

Nowadays, thousands of languages are spoken all over the world. In fact, linguists
estimate that there are approximately 5000 languages in the world and around 200
countries, so most countries are multilingual.

The number of bilingual and multilingual speakers is constantly increasing. Hence,

bilingualism and multilingualism are becoming extremely common phenomena.
(Should you want to know more about the European Commission’s multilingual policy
go to the In depth section).

The question of how to define bilingualism and multilingualism has engaged

researchers for a long time. Bilingualism is normally defined in a simple way as the
ability to express oneself in two languages. Multilingualism can be defined as the
ability of an individual speaker to communicate in more than two languages or as a
phenomenon which describes the situation of coexistence of more than two
languages within a speech community. However, they are not so easy to be defined,
since each individual has different characteristics.

In the past, some researchers favoured very narrow definitions and argued that only
those individuals who have equal knowledge of their languages should be considered
bilingual or multilingual.

However, recent research is focused on a much wider perspective, since there are
different kinds of bilinguals and multilinguals. Therefore, the concept of bilingualism
should include both the balanced bilinguals and those bilinguals which could be
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

considered ‘imperfect’ because one language is dominant over the other on some
occasions. (Dewaele et al., 2003).

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign Languages

5
Unit 1. Key Ideas
 There are several linguistic and sociolinguistic factors that influence the use and the
knowledge of each language. Hence, we need to pay attention to different
perspectives.

Main features of bilingualism and multilingualism

Was the language learnt as a mother tongue, a second language or a
foreign language? How old was the learner when he/she started learning
Means of
acquisition the language? How much input was he/she exposed to?
The level of development in each of the linguistic skills (reading, writing,
Degree of
development speaking and listening) may vary depending on the means of acquisition.
Certain functions may be preferred to be performed in a specific
language, e.g. Bilingual teachers who speak English and another language
may feel more comfortable teaching in English but might use the other
Functions language for bureaucratic procedures.
It might be determined by social context. Three factors should be taken
into account: the location, the role relationships among the speakers, and
the topic of the conversation, e.g. Bilingual speakers of English and
Spanish living in NY may use English when talking to work colleagues who
only speak English but use Spanish or ‘Spanglish’ when speaking to
Language choice members of their family.

Table 1. Main features of bilingualism and multilingualism.

1.3. Types of bilingualism

When studying bilingualism, two different sides of this phenomenon can be

highlighted: the social side and the individual one. Even though a lot of research has
been done on this topic, the concept of bilingualism is sometimes difficult to define
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

and understand.

▸ Social bilingualism refers to a linguistic community in which two languages are in

contact and that results in two codes being used in the same interaction and a
number of individuals being bilingual. (Hammers & Blanc, 2000). Social

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign Languages

6
Unit 1. Key Ideas
 bilingualism can also be defined as an area of linguistics concerned with the study
of the social dimensions of bilingualism, particularly, the characteristics of
bilingual and multilingual societies i.e. the dimension of the use of two languages
within a group or community.

▸ Individual bilingualism refers to the knowledge of two or more languages by a

particular person, ranging several dimensions (Hamers & Blanc, 2000). In other
words, it refers to the study of bilingualism as an individual phenomenon, or the
knowledge of two or more languages by a particular person.

Nonetheless, sometimes a clear-cut distinction between bilingualism as a social and

an individual phenomenon is difficult to be made.

In order to distinguish between different types of bilingualism, a lot of research has

been carried out in case of individual bilingualism.

Weinreich (1953) offered one of the first classifications. He referred to three different
types of bilingualism (coordinate, compound, and sub-coordinate) according to the
way in which concepts and meanings are encoded in the brain. This classification is
closely related to the way in which languages are learnt.

Weinreich’s classification on bilingualism

Language acquisition takes place in separate contexts, which is why
Coordinate languages are kept separately in the mind. Different contexts result
bilingualism on different meanings and a different conceptual system.
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

Compound Both languages are learnt in the same context simultaneously, thus
bilingualism both meanings show a combined representation in the brain
Sub-coordinate Language acquisition is consecutive. One language is acquired after
bilingualism another.

Table 2. Weinreich’s classification on bilingualism.

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign Languages

7
Unit 1. Key Ideas
 Another possible classification, done by Lambert (1955) focuses on the level of
proficiency in both languages.
▸ Balanced bilingual refers to those people who possess an equal competence in
both languages (almost impossible).
▸ Dominant bilingual refers to those speakers whose knowledge of the native
language is more extensive than their knowledge of the other language. (Very
common)

Figure 1. Balanced and dominant bilingual.

A classification according to the age of language acquisition can also be made. We

can distinguish three types:

▸ Childhood bilingualism can be subdivided into simultaneous and consecutive or

sequential depending on whether the languages were learnt at the same time or
consecutively. In this case the process of language acquisition coincides with the
child’s cognitive development.
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

▸ Adolescent bilingualism takes place when the cognitive process has already
finished, and the process is principally a relabelling of previous concepts.

▸ Adult bilingualism is similar to adolescent bilingualism in terms of the process.

The only difference that could be stated is that of age.

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign Languages

8
Unit 1. Key Ideas
 Depending on the social consideration that languages are given in the society where
they are spoken, we may distinguish between yet other two types of bilingualism.

▸ Additive bilingualism takes place when both languages are equally valued. This
means that the acquisition of the second language has beneficial effects on the
learner’s first language.

▸ Subtractive bilingualism takes place when the learning of the L2 interferes with
the learning of the L1, so the first language is usually replaced by the second one.

Figure 2. Additive and subtractive bilingualism.

Source: Adapted from https://fieldnotesfromeducation.files.wordpress.com/2014/04/two-types-of-bilingualism.jpg

Finally, Hamers and Blanc (2000) classify bilingual speakers into monocultural,
bicultural and acculturated bilinguals according to their cultural identity. (The topic
of cultural identity will be dealt with in later units).

 Monocultural bilinguals feel identified with one culture only.

 Bicultural bilinguals feel identified with two cultures, so it is a matter of
cultural orientation. Those speakers who have been exposed to, and have
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

internalised, two cultures can be considered bicultural (García-Sierra, 2002).

Biculturalism occurs when elements of both the minority and majority
cultures are present in the same proportion.
 Acculturated bilinguals’ cultural identity has been modified due to the
contact with another culture. Acculturation is, therefore, a process of cultural

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign Languages

9
Unit 1. Key Ideas
 exchange that implies adaptation and which takes place when different
cultures come into cultures with a particular individual. This is very much
connected to biculturalism because the prior existence of a minority
community is what usually leads to the process. Acculturation is, therefore, a
cultural shift with a predominance of the majority culture.

Bilingualism is not easy to be defined. It is a very complex global phenomenon

and, as we have seen, there are many different types of bilingualism
depending on the factors and parameters taken into account.

Time to think:
Do you consider yourself a bilingual/multilingual speaker? If so, which type?

1.4. Code choice

According to Wardhaugh (2002), the term ‘code’ refers to any kind of system used
by two or more people for communication.

In case of bilingual speakers, a lot of research has been done to study the factors that
determine the choice of code in different situations. Language plays an essential role
in our lives, so the choice of the one to be used in each case is extremely important.

The term code-switching refers to the combination of two codes (i.e. languages) in
the same conversational situation. Two main types are usually distinguished:
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

▸ Situational refers to those cases which are determined by contextual factors such
as topic, or mode of interaction. For example, the speaker changes the language
if the topic of the conversation changes.

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign Languages

10
Unit 1. Key Ideas
 ▸ Metaphorical is not predictable and depends on the decision of the speaker. For
example, a mother talking to her child: Tidy up all your toys, please. Are you
listening? ¡Te he dicho que recojas tus juguetes!

In case of bilingual learners, the change of the code is not always intentional. Those
learners who receive bilingual education tend to transfer words, syntactic
constructions and phonological features from one language to the other. For this
reason, it is very common that children or L2 learners copy these structures and use
them in the target language.

According to de Bot (2002), code-switching is a natural process of self-expression

that takes place in bilingual contexts. Bilingual learners use different languages and
tend to switch codes naturally.

Typical code-switching cases include tag-switching, inter-sentential switch and intra-

sentential switch.

▸ Tag-switching occurs when a speaker uses exclamations or question tags from

one language in the utterances done in the other language. According to Hamers
and Blanc (2000), tags usually contain minimal syntactic restrictions, so they do
not break syntactic rules when they are introduced into a sentence given in the
L1. Example of tag-switching: A veces es difícil, you know.

▸ Inter-sentential switch is usually found in sentence boundaries. “Since inter-

sentential code-switching takes place within the same sentence or between
speaker turns, it entails fluency in both languages such that a speaker is able to
follow the rules of the two languages” (Eldin, 2014 and MacSwan, 1999, as cited
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

in Heeti and Al Abdely, 2016, p 11). Example of inter-sentential switching: Ya

sabía yo que te pasaba algo. Podrías habérmelo dicho antes. I am so sorry. Let’s
do something to cheer you up!

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign Languages

11
Unit 1. Key Ideas
 ▸ Intra-sentential switch takes place inside the sentence. It is also generally
referred to as code-mixing since it contains the highest syntactic risk. According
to Poplack (1980), is the most complex type because it can occur at clausal,
sentential or even word level. Example of intra-sentential switching: Yo pensaba
que ya os conocíais or else I would have introduced you.

Figure 3. Code-switching and code-mixing.

Code-mixing is different from code-switching, although both terms are often used
interchangeably since they describe aspects that partially overlap. Code-mixing takes
place when speakers change the code within a single clause. In most cases, speakers
are not aware of the language shifts.

Code-mixing highlights hybridization, whereas code-switching emphasises

movement from one language to the other.
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

As teachers, we need to understand that our students will probably code-switch

and/or code-mix while they are in the EFL classroom.

Another interesting concept to mention and that goes further than the concepts
above mentioned is the phenomenon of translanguaging, also known as bilingual

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign Languages

12
Unit 1. Key Ideas
 languaging. Bilingualism and multilingualism are becoming gradually more common,
so the practice of mixing elements of different languages when bilinguals or
multilinguals communicate with interlocutors who share a similar linguistic
background is also increasing. According to Escobar and Dillard-Paltrineri, (2015),
languaging bilingually is a controlled and intentional practice that communicates
linguistic and social information. Thus, that bilingual languaging goes beyond the
perspective of code-switching. For EFL teachers this means thinking about the
classroom in a more flexible way. Second language learning requires flexible spaces
that empower the learners and help then communicate freely. Therefore, in
educational programmes translanguaging should be addressed from a broader
perspective to avoid monolingual bias in bilingual and foreign language education.

Time to think:
Do you remember if you have ever code-switched or code-mix?
Can you think of examples of each of the code-switching types described in this
section?

1.5. The Bilingual Brain

A highly debated question in recent years, is concerned with the way in which
semantic information is stored in the brain, particularly, whether bilinguals own one
or two mental lexicons. Those who advocate for the idea of one lexicon, claim that
semantic information is stored in a single semantic system, whereas the second
group considers that vocabulary is divided into two separate sets. Surprisingly, latest
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

research in the field points to the existence of three different types of stores: a
conceptual store, a language store for the first language and a language store for
the second language.

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign Languages

13
Unit 1. Key Ideas
 According to researchers in the field, bilinguals do not really have an advantage or
disadvantage in terms of language development, but they have cognitive
advantages. “Specifically, studies since the early 1960s have reported that bilinguals
have increased mental flexibility compared to monolinguals” (Peal & Lambert, as
cited in Ramírez-Esparza & García-Sierra, 2002, p 42).

Speaking more than one language makes certain neuronal areas activate. It also
makes the white matter of the brain, which covers the nerves connections, increase.
These differences make bilingual people more efficient and flexible, prevent cognitive
decline, and enhance their ability to concentrate.

Using two languages forces certain mental processes that change and train
the brain. This training eventually ends being a clear advantage for most
cognitive activities.

In fact, bilingual and monolingual speakers use different parts of the brain to
change from one cognitive task to another. Bilinguals use the same area that they
use to shift from one language to another (Broca’s Area and basal ganglia), whereas
monolinguals control these functions mostly from the right hemisphere.
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

Figure 4: Broca’s area and the basal ganglia. Source: Adapted from "Brain Illustrations" by Denise
Wawrzyniak https://search.creativecommons.org/photos/98c6514d-b441-4198-8e96-
ab64cc1e5e2b

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign Languages

14
Unit 1. Key Ideas
 For further information about the benefits of bilingualism for the brain watch the
video The Benefits of a Bilingual Brain, which you will find in the In depth section.

1.6. Mother tongue and First Language

Generally speaking, there is no significant difference between mother tongue and

first language. In fact, they are normally used as synonyms.

However, they present different scenarios: The mother tongue is normally defined
as the language spoken at home by the family. On the other hand, the first language
is the language that the child acquires in the first place, but it broadens the definition
of mother tongue, as it also takes into consideration social context.
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign Languages

15
Unit 1. Key Ideas
 Mother tongue and First language

Mother tongue The language spoken at home by the family.

The language that is acquired in the first place (whether at home or in

First language the social context in which the learner lives)

Table 3. Mother tongue and First language

The definition of the term ‘mother tongue’ is somehow arguable, as it might become
problematic in some contexts e.g. when the child’s carer is not the mother.
Furthermore, a child can also have two mother tongues e.g. any parent is bilingual or
if each of them has their own mother tongue spoken to the child.

For instance, a Spanish family living in the UK may only speak English with their child,
even though their native language is Spanish, so English would be the child’s mother
tongue and first language. If the same family talked to the child in Spanish, then her
mother tongue would be Spanish, and her first language could be any of the two
languages or even both of them simultaneously.

Due to all this, most linguists and educators frequently use the term L1 to
refer to a first language or mother tongue, and L2 to refer to a second
language or a foreign language, as we will see next.

Time to think:
Are your mother tongue and your first language the same?
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign Languages

16
Unit 1. Key Ideas
 1.7. Foreign Language and Second Language

As we have previously mentioned, both Foreign and Second Language are many times
referred to as L2. However, there is a difference that needs to be considered.

Foreign language is a language that the learner will seldom have opportunity to be
exposed to outside the classroom. For example, if we teach English in Spain, it is quite
difficult that our students have exposure outside formal contexts such as the
classroom.

On the other hand, Second Language is the term used to refer to situations in which
the language learner is exposed to the target language outside the classroom in
different types of situations. For instance, if we teach English to refugees in the UK,
they are constantly going to be exposed to the target language.

Foreign Language and second Language

Foreign Language The learner is exposed to the target language in the classroom.

The learner is constantly exposed to the target language inside and

Second Language outside the classroom.

Table 4. L2: Foreign Language and Second Language

Time to think:
Do you think it is the same to teach English as a Foreign Language than as a Second
Language? Why?
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign Languages

17
Unit 1. Key Ideas
 1.8. What is the role of input in L2 learning?

In order to understand how we learn and acquire languages we first should

understand the difference between acquisition and learning.

According to Krashen (1981), acquisition of a language is a spontaneous, natural

process that takes place in an informal context which is, therefore, related to the L1.
On the other hand, learning refers to a conscious, formal process which takes place
in a formal context and is related to the L2. This leads us to the conclusion that
learning does not always necessarily become acquisition.

Another difference we need to pay attention to is that of the concepts of input and
intake. Input is all the information received by the student, whereas intake is the part
of that input that the student eventually acquires.

Taking the concept of input into account, there are several theories of learning to
which we should focus on. Some of them give more importance to the innate capacity
of the learner. Others emphasise the role of environment. Still others pay attention
to the engagement of the learner with the social context.

Behaviourism explains learning in terms of imitation, practice, reinforcement, and

the formation of habits. This is why activities based on behaviourist theories put their
emphasis on mimicry and memorisation. Behaviourism can also be connected to the
contrastive analysis hypothesis since is assumes that a second language learner will
“start off with the habits formed in the first language” and that these habits will
“interfere with the new ones needed for the second language”. (Lightbrown & Spada,
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

2006, p 34).

The rejection of behaviourism started with Chomsky and his idea of Universal
Grammar (UG), as he argued that we all possess an innate knowledge of principles
that help us learn a language.

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign Languages

18
Unit 1. Key Ideas
 Krashen, whom we have mentioned earlier, was influenced by Chomsky’s UG. He
developed several hypotheses of second language acquisition (the input hypothesis,
the acquisition–learning hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, the natural order
hypothesis and the affective filter hypothesis) that are generally referred to as the
Monitor Model or the Input Hypothesis. This set of hypotheses put primary
importance on the comprehensible input (input that can be understood by the
learner) and the affective filter (a barrier that prevents learners from acquiring the
language when they are anxious, tired, bored…).

Currently, according to Lightbrown and Spada (2006), psychological theories have

become crucial for research in second language development. Some of these theories
use the computer as a metaphor for the mind while others lie on neurobiology,
pursuing to connect observed behaviour as directly as possible to brain activity.

Theories of learning
Input is received and acquired by the learner. The more input the
Behaviourist theories better. The student depends on the input received. It is very much
(Skinner) connected to L2 learning.
Input is necessary but other factors are essential for learning to take
place. Learners acquire language thanks to their innate ability to
Nativist theories organise the laws of language (UG), but they also need exposure to
(Chomsky and Krashen) that language. Input is seen as a trigger.
Other theories Consider the previous theories from an intermediate perspective,
(Ellis) stating that both input and other internal mechanisms are of utmost
importance, but they also consider other factors.

Table 5. Theories of learning

© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

As we have seen, input is essential to learn a language, but if we want to help our
students acquire the L2 we cannot forget all the other factors that we have
mentioned so far.

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign Languages

19
Unit 1. Key Ideas
 Learners should develop their communicative competence and their linguistic
competence, be aware of contextual variations, and increase their awareness of how
meaning should be negotiated. (Rezaie and Lashkarian, 2015).

Figure 5. Input and Output. Source: Adapted from Teorías sobre el aprendizaje y adquisición de
una segunda lengua. Influencia del español en el aprendizaje del inglés (Hurtado & Hurtado, 1992).

Errors and mistakes can also derive from imitation. The way in which these can be
avoided is by carrying out contrastive analysis. However, since the idea of contrastive
analysis derives from behaviourist theories it has been criticised by saying that not all
the errors and mistakes made by L2 learners derive from the L1. In fact, quite often,
some of the errors and mistakes that have been predicted do not occur.

Interlanguage

In 1972, Selinker, an American professor of Applied Linguistics, coined the term

interlanguage referring to a type of language system used by L2 learners in process
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

of learning a language. This idea is very much connected to Chomsky’s theory of

Universal Grammar (UG), which claims that the child’s mind innately possesses a set
of structural rules and a series of universal principles that relate to language
acquisition because all languages have a common structural basis.

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign Languages

20
Unit 1. Key Ideas
 The main idea was that children have independent grammars which are not
variations of the adult grammar. This led to the thought that second language
learners follow a similar process and also build independent grammars that are not
debased versions of either the first or the second language, but something
independent, named, according to different authors as ‘approximative system’,
‘transitional competence’ or more commonly preferred ‘interlanguage’, coined by
Selinker (1972) was preferred. (Nemser, 1971, Corder, 1967 and Selinker, 1972, and
Cook, 2017).

Interlanguage is generally characterised for being an autonomous individual

system that intercedes between the L1 and the target language of the learner,
and which is flexible and, thus, in constant evolution.

However, in this ‘system’, which is supposed to include several stages in order to

acquire the target language, the learner can get stuck at a point in which it does not
have the characteristics of the target language, and when that happens the
interlanguage is considered to be ‘fossilized’ (Han 2004; Cook, 2017).

Therefore, EFL teachers should be very patient with learners and constantly
encourage them to practise not focusing so much on their errors and mistakes, but
on the improvements that they are making. We need to motivate them and let them
know that making mistakes is the best way to learn.

Time to think:
How would you describe Chomsky’s Universal Grammar with your own words?
Do you think interlanguage should be accepted in the EFL classroom?
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign Languages

21
Unit 1. Key Ideas
 1.9. Bibliographical references

Bot, K. (2002). Home Language and Language Proficiency. Journal of Multilingual and
Multicultural Development, 23(3), 175-194.

Cook, V. (2017). Second language acquisition. (pp. 557-581). In The Handbook of

Linguistics. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
doi:10.1002/9781119072256.ch27

Dewaele, D. J., Housen, A., Li, P. W., & Grover, M. (2003). Bilingualism: Beyond basic
principles. Channel View Publications.

Escobar, C. F. & Dillard-Paltrineri, E. (2015). Professors' and students' conflicting

beliefs about translanguaging in the EFL classroom: Dismantling the monolingual bias.
Revista De Lenguas Modernas, (23), 301-328.
http://www.espaciotv.es:2048/referer/secretcode/docview/1765132147?accountid
=142712

Hamers, J. F & Blanc, M. H. A. (2000). Bilinguality and Bilingualism. Cambridge

University Press.

Heeti, N. & Al Abdely, A. (2016). Types and Functions of Code-switching in the English
language used by Iraqi doctors in formal settings. International Journal of Advanced
Research and Review, 1(8), 10-18.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/306031490_TYPES_AND_FUNCTIONS_O
F_CODE-
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

SWITCHING_IN_THE_ENGLISH_LANGUAGE_USED_BY_IRAQI_DOCTORS_IN_FORMA
L_SETTINGS

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign Languages

22
Unit 1. Key Ideas
 Hurtado, P. y Hurtado, M. T. (1992). Teorías sobre el aprendizaje y adquisición de una
segunda lengua. Influencia del español en el aprendizaje del inglés. Ensayos: Revista
de la Facultad de Educación de Albacete, 7.
http://www.uclm.es/ab/educacion/ensayos/pdf/revista7/r7a14.pdf

Lambert, W. E. (1955). Measurement of the linguistic dominance in bilinguals. Journal

of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 50, 197-200.

Lightbrown, P. M. & Spada, N. (2006) How Languages are Learned. Oxford University
Press.

Poplack, Sh. (1980.) “Sometimes I’ll start a sentence in Spanish y termino en español”:
toward a typology of code-switching. Linguistics, 18(7/8), 581-618.

Ramírez-Esparza, N. & García-Sierra, A (2014) The Bilingual Brain: Language, Culture,

and Identity. In The Oxford Handbook of Multicultural Identity. (pp 35-56). Oxford
University Press.

Rezaie, M. & Lashkarian, A. (2015) Reviewing Different Aspects of Classroom

Discourse. International Journal of English and Education, 4(4), 449-459.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282878593_Reviewing_Different_Aspec
ts_of_Classroom_Discourse

Wardhaugh, R. (2002). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Blackwell Publishing.

Weinreich, U. (1953). Languages in Contact. Mouton.

© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign Languages

23
Unit 1. Key Ideas
 In depth
The Benefits of a Bilingual Brain

Nacamulli, M. (2015, June) The Benefits of a Bilingual Brain [Video file] TED Conferences.
https://www.ted.com/talks/mia_nacamulli_the_benefits_of_a_bilingual_brain

In this video, Mia Nacamulli explains how being bilingual can be beneficial por many
different reasons. She also details the three types of bilingual brains, according to
Weinreich’s classification, and shows how knowing more than one language keeps
your brain healthy, complex and actively engaged.

About multilingualism policy

European Commission (s.f.) About multilingualism policy-Education and Training.

https://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/multilingualism/about-multilingualism-
policy_en

This is the section of Education and Training of the official website of the European
Commission, which promotes language learning and linguistic diversity across
Europe. Here you will find information about the different actions that are being
implemented and studied in order to promote multilingualism.
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign Languages

24
Unit 1. In depth
 Bilingualism and thought in the 20th Century.

Pavlenko, A. (2011). Introduction: Bilingualism and thought in the 20th Century. In

Thinking and Speaking in Two Languages (pp. 1-28) Channel View Publications. ProQuest
Ebook Central. https://bv.unir.net:2056/lib/univunirsp/detail.action?docID=718011

In this chapter, Aneta Pavlenko, as a bilingual individual herself, explains some of the
basic ideas surrounding thinking and speaking in bi- and multilingual speakers.
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign Languages

25
Unit 1. In depth
 Test
1. What is multilingualism?
A. The ability to express oneself in several languages.
B. A phenomenon that describes the situation of coexistence of more than two
languages within a speech community.
C. A phenomenon that describes how learners speak more than two languages.
D. None of the answers is correct.

2. An area of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the social dimensions of
bilingualism is:
A. Individual bilingualism.
B. Compound bilingualism.
C. Balanced bilingualism.
D. Social bilingualism.

3. When two languages are learnt in the same context simultaneously that is called:
A. Coordinate bilingualism.
B. Sub-coordinate bilingualism.
C. Compound bilingualism.
D. Balanced bilingualism.

4. Depending on social consideration, what types of bilingualism can be

distinguished?
A. Balanced and dominant.
B. Coordinate and compound.
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

C. Additive and subtractive.

D. Bicultural and monocultural.

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign Languages

26
Unit 1. Test
 5. Situational code switching refers to:
A. Those cases in which language choice is related to a specific topic or content.
B. None of the answers is correct.
C. Those cases that are determined by the speaker’s feelings.
D. Those cases that are determined by contextual factors.

6. What is translanguaging?
A. Using the L1 and the L2 unintentionally in the same sentence.
B. A controlled and intentional practice that communicates linguistic and social
information.
C. A situation in with only the L2 is used.
D. A situation in which the speaker translates words from the L1 to the L2 in
order to communicate effectively.

7. Which of the following statements is true?

A. Bilingual and monolingual people use the same parts of the brain to change
from one cognitive task to another.
B. Bilingual and monolingual people use different parts of the brain to change
from one cognitive task to another.
C. Bilingual people are more intelligent than monolingual people.
D. All the answers are incorrect.

8. We can talk about Foreign Language when

A. The L2 is taught in a context in which the learner is exposed to the target
language only outside the classroom.
B. The L2 is very different from the L1.
C. The L2 is taught in a context in which the learner is constantly exposed to the
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

target language outside the classroom.

D. The L2 is taught in a context in which the learner is not usually exposed to
the target language outside the classroom.

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign Languages

27
Unit 1. Test
 9. What is the difference between learning and acquisition?
A. Learning is natural and spontaneous, and acquisition is formal.
B. Learning is a conscious and formal process, and acquisition is spontaneous
and natural.
C. Learning is a conscious and natural process, and acquisition is formal and
conscious.
D. None of the answers is correct.

10. What is the difference between input and intake?

A. There is no difference; they are exactly the same.
B. They are very similar, but intake is more important than intake.
C. Intake takes place before input and it is what makes learning possible.
D. Input is all the information received by the learner whereas intake is the part
that the student eventually acquires.
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

Further Training on Disciplinary Knowledge of Foreign Languages

28
Unit 1. Test