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Biological Conservation 29:(1984),183-189

Crocodile Conservation in India

Antoon de Vos
Consultant, Food & Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations,
PO Box 34, Whitford, Auckland. New Zealand

ABSTRACT

The acconplishnentsof the Goveronient tf ndia/ UNDP/FAO Project

in the conservationof threespecies ofcrocodih'sdtringthe period1975 to
1982 are reviewed. Sixteen crocodile rehabilitationcentres and ehe'en
crocodilesanctuarieshave been established. A totalof1879 gharials. 190
estuarine crocodiles and 493 mugger have been released. A viable
breeding population oj gharials noit exists in the National (7hamnhal
Sanctuar'r.A Crocodile Breeding and ,MIanagenentTraining hstitute
was establishedb' the Government of mulia in 1980 and has trained48
managers of crocodile stations. hnprovenents are required in the
management of crocodile sanctuariesand the evaluation of crocodile
habitat.Releases of crocodiles in the wild r'quiremonitoring ofsurvit'al
and inovements. There isa need.lbr educatingthe public about crocodile
conservation.

INTRODUCTION

The authot was invited by the Government of India and UNDP/FAO to

evaluate the progress which has been made in crocodilc conservation
since a UNDPiFAO Crocodile Breeding and Management Project was
launched in 1975 in co-operation with the Government of India and
various State Governments. This paper reports the findings of a three­
month study from February to May 1982.
183
Biol.Conser'.0006-3207,84.$03-00 4'Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd. England.
1984. Printed in Great Britain

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184 Antoon de Vos

The status of Indian crocodilians in 1974

Prior to the start of the project in 1974. Dr H. R. Bustard was asked to

make a survey of the status of Indian crocodiles (Bustard, 1981), which
produced the following results:

GharialGavialis gangeticus
This species, which was formerly abundant in the rivers of North India,
was considered in danger ofextiaction because of habitat destruction, the
lethal effect of set nylon nets and poaching activity. It was found that the
surviving populations were extremely small.

Estuarih' crocodile Crocodylus porosus

This species was formerly common along the shores and rivers of the sub­
continent, but by 1974 it had become extinct in the States of Kerala,
Tanil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. A small population remained in the
Brahamani-Baitarani deltaic area of Orissa, the Sunderbans of West
Bengal and the Andaman islands.

Mugger Crocodylus palustris

By 1974 this species, formerly widespread and very abundant, was greatly
depleted in numbers and considered rare in most, if not all, of its former
range. It was considered that in South India/Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh remnant populations could show a rapid response to
management combined with protection and that this coutd also be the
case in Rajasthan and Gujarat. Much of the mugger habitat has been
affected by dam construction resulting in less favourable conditions for
crocodiles and conflict with fisheries because of crocodiles getting caught
in nylon gill nets. However, the species' adaptability to a wide range of
habitats, including small ponds and tanks, and its ability to move long
distances overland, tends to reduce its vulnerability.

Objectives of the project

The objectives of the project were:

(I) to collect and transport crocodile eggs to rehabilitation centres for
incubation and rearing of young until they were of a size suitable
for release in the wild; and
 Crocodile, conservationin India 185

(2) to locate, establish and manage a network of crocodile

rehabilitation centres and also sanctuaries in suitable habitats for
the three crocodilian species.

RESULTS

Sixteen crocodile rehabilitation stations have been established through­

out the country since the initiation of the project. Crocodiles have been
released in eleven specially gazetted sanctuaries and, in addition, in eight
other sanctuaries or national parks. At the time of writing (April 1982) a
total of 879 gharials, 190 estuarine crocodiles and 493 mugger have been
released in the wild (Table I). All these crocodiles were three years old on
release. Successful breeding of mugger has taken place in ten centres, of
the estuarine crocodile in two and of the gharia. in one centre. Further
details about the conservation status of the mugger can be obtained from
Choudhury (1982), of the estuarine crocodile in Bustard & Choudhury
(1981) and of gharial in Singh (1978).
No doubt the greatest success was obtained with the re-establishment
of the gharial. Viable breeding populations now exist in the Chambal and
Satkoshia Gorge sanctuaries, both exhibiting a satisfactory rate of
recruitment.
Soon after the initiation of the project it became apparent that a
crocodile conservation programme could not be successful in the absence
of well-trained managerial and research staff, and for that reason a
Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute was established
by the Government of India in Hyderabad in 1980, which has trained 46
managers for crocodile stations, most of whom are now working at the
various rehabilitation stations. In addition, under a cooperative effort
between Dr I. R. Bustard, the FAO adviser, and several universities, four
students obtained their PhDs in various aspects of crocodile biology and
ecology, and two are still working towards that goal. The results of their
work and also subsequent findings have been published (Singh, 1978:
Choudhury. 1982).
The Government of India is now supporting the work of rehabilitation
stations on a 50-50 basis on capital expenditure, provided that State
Governments have requested such funds in aid.
 TABLE 1
Crocodile Sanctuaries and Number of Crocodiles Reseased in Them

Namne of sanctuary Area in km 2 Number of crocodiles releasedup to 1982 State

Gharial Estuarine Mugger

crocodile

National Chambal 12568 758 U.P. MIP./Rajasthan

Katcrniaghat 400 (approx.) 14? Uttar Pradesh
Bhitarkanika 650 125 Orissa
Satkoshia 796 107 Orissa
Kinnersani* 635-4 33 Andhra Pradesh
Hadgarh 191 Orissa
Krishnagiri 130 Tamil Nadu
Coringa 236 3 Andhra Pradesh
Papikonda 591 Andhra Pradesh
Lanjumadugu 20 Andhra Pradesh
Manjira 20: Andhra Pradesh
Pakhal ;860 15 Andhra Pradesh
Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam (Krishna) 3-568 136 Andhra Pradesh
Hoggenakal* -) 48 Tamil Nadu
Mundanthorai' ? 25 Tamil Nadu
Shivpuri National Parke 156 25 Madhya Pradesh
Gir National Parka .1412-12 Gujurat
Similipal Tiger Reserve' 303 60 Oriss-i
Sunderbans Tiger Reservea 2585 65 West Bengal

Totals 879 190 475

Not created specifically for crocodiles.

 Crocodile conservation in India 187

DISCUSSION

Although the results obtained so far are a clear indication of the fact that
the Government of India and State Governments have made good
progress in establishing an effective programme of crocodile con­
servation, considerable work remains to be done, as is evidenced by the
following information:

(I) The management of crocodile sanctuaries leaves much to be desired.

Although some management plans have been drafted, none of them has
been executed so far. Sanctuaries are either being encroached upon or are
inhabited by man and his beasts; cutting of firewood is a common
occurrence; overgrazing takes place frequently and harassment of wildlife
by dogs often occurs; river banks are sometimes cultivated and/or
overgrazed; and, because of the presence of people, poaching is often
difficult to control.
(2) Inadequate information is available about the fate of crocodiles
which have been released, and there are indications that a certain
percentage of released gharials and estuarine crocodiles move out of
protected areas and become threatened by the rural populations. Limited
available dal;i on mugger, howeier, indicate good survival rates of
liberated stock (B. C. Choudhury, pers. comm.). It will be essential
to step up monitoring of released crocodiles in order to determine how
effective released programmes have been so far.
(3) There are general complaints by commercial fishermen that
crocodiles cause a decrease in their catches of commercial fish and that for
this reason no further release of crocodiles should be permitted. This is
contrary to the findings of Cott (1961) in Uganda and other studies, that,
rather than depleting commercial fish catches, crocodiles have instead
.increased them by controlling the populations of fish predators (fishes.
and birds), and fertilising the water with their excreta. In addition, young
crocodiles prey extensively on many invertebrate predators of fish fry. As
the results obtained in these studies may not necessarily apply in India, an
experiment should be started to study the relationship between crocodile
populations and economically valuable fishes.
(4) Much crocodile habitat continues to deteriorate, largely because of
man's continuing interference. Mangrove forests, the best habitat for
estuarine crocodiles in India, are either invaded by firewood gatherers or
destroyed altogether in various places. Gharial habitat is affected by

7
188 Antoon de Vos

increasing erosion of river banks and siltation of river bottoms. It will be

difficult to reverse this trend because of increasing population pressures
on the land. The rate of habitat deterioration should be monitored.
(5) Although India has adopted suitable legislation through the Wild
Life (Protection) Act, 1972, protection of crocodile populations against
poaching still leaves much to be desired. For example, Choudhury &
Bustard (1980) have indicated a very high level of predation of estuarine
crocodile nests on North Andaman Island. There is a need for better
staffing of crocodile sanctuaries by a cadre of motivated and specially­
trained protection staff.
In addition to what has already been stated, one major problem in
crocodile conservation in India is the ignorance of the people, who
consider that crocodiles are either man-eaters or competitors which
should be eliminated. There is therefore a need to enlighten people about
why crocodile conservation should be undertaken. The best places for
dr.ong this are, in fact, the various Crocodile Rehabilitation Centres now
established by State Governments. Already large numbers of curious
tourists are visiting some of these centres. This should be encouraged
further and efforts should be made to have somebody on hand to exp;ain
the objectives of crocodile rchabili,ation. In addition, films and slides
about crocodile ecology and pamphlets should be used wherever possible.
It is hoped that the Crocodile Breeding and Management Training
Institute, situated at Hyderabad, will in the future play a pivotal role in
crocodile conservation in India by effeztively advising State personnel
about improved management procedures for captive crocodiles and
crocodile sanctuaries and by creating a more favourable attitude among
the public at large for crocodile conservation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author acknowledges the assistance of Drs B. C. Choudhury and
1. A. K. Singh for providing the necessary background data for this
paper. Dr J. B. Sale, commented on a draft of the manuscript.

REFERENCES
Bustard. H. R. & Choudhury, B. C. (1981). Conservation of the saltwater
crocodile (Crocodyls porosus) in India. J. Bombay nat. His. Soc., 77,
201-14.
 Crocodile conservation in India 189

Bustard, H. R. (1981). Crocodile breeding project. In Wildli in India, ed. by

V. B. Saharia, 147-64. New Delhi, Department of Agriculture &
Cooperatives, Government of India.
Choudhury, B. C. (1982). Rehabilitatiig the endangered mugger crocodile
(Crocodylus palustris Lesson) in India-case histories and future.
Symposium on Milestones in Biological Research, Utkal University,
Bhubaneshwar.
Choudhury, B. C. & Bustard, H. R. j1980). Predation on natural nests of the
saltwater crocodile (Crocodlhs porosus Scheider) on North Andaman
Island with notes on the crocodile population. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.,
76, 311-23.
Cott, H. B.(1961). Scientific results of an inquiry into the ecology and economic
status of the Nile crocodile (Crocodihs nilolicus) in Uganda and Northern
Rhodesia. Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond., 29(4).
Singh, L. A. K. (1978). Gharial conservation in Orissa. hId. For., 104, 823-9.