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Nano technology based P fertilizers for higher efficiency and agriculture

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DOI: 10.47815/apsr.2022.10149

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Annals of Plant and Soil Research 24(2):198-207 (2022)
https://doi.org/10.47815/apsr.2022.10149
Nano technology based P fertilizers for higher efficiency and agriculture sustainability

K.N. TIWARI, YOGENDRA KUMAR, TARUNENDU SINGH AND R.K. NAYAK

2
IFFCO, IFFCO Sadan, C-1, District Centre, Saket Place, Saket, New Delhi 110017

Received: February, 2022; Revised accepted, March, 2022

ABSTRACT
Nutrient use efficiency (NUE) is a critical parameter for determining sustainability of crop production
systems. Under the current fertilization practices involving conventional fertilizers, the NUE ranges 30–40% for N-
fertilizers and 18–20% for P-based fertilizers. Apparently, only a fraction of these nutrients is available for crop
growth and yield formation. In contrast, a relevant amount of fertilizers is released into the environment annually,
resulting in eutrophication and groundwater contamination that threatens environmental resources, public
health, and economic investments. Thus, it will be essential to introduce agro technological innovations and
revolutionary agri inputs. Nanotechnologies have the potential to produce a significant boost in crop yield
along with improvement of food production systems. This innovation can lead to more precise application of
nutrients along with saving of the nutrients. This review provides a critical view of the latest advances in nano
fertilizer research, mainly referring to nano-hydroxyapatite based nanoparticles and other alternative
nanotech based nanofertilizers.

Keywords: Sustainable agriculture; nanotechnologies; nano-enabled agriculture; fertilizer delivery;

nano-hydroxyapatite, nano DAP

INTRODUCTION fertilizers is released into the environment

annually, resulting in eutrophication and
According to Organization for Economic groundwater contamination that threaten
Cooperation and Development (FAO), about 85% of environmental resources, public health, and
the growth in global agricultural production over economic investments. A nutrient leaching
the next ten years is expected from the causes environmental pollution and water
improvement in crop yield resulting from more eutrophication, while nutrient excess favors
intensive use of inputs and investments in spread of pests and weeds. Since the excess of
production technology and best farming nutrients in the environment is a major source of
practices. The intensification of land use through water, soil, and air pollution, negatively impacting
more crops per year will represent another 10%. biodiversity and climate, all efforts should be
At the same time, the expansion of the cultivated made to reduce nutrient losses by at least 50%,
area is predicted to represent only 5% playing a while ensuring no deterioration on soil fertility. At
marginal role compared to the previous decade, the same time, a reduction in fertilizer use by at
improving the sustainability of agriculture. The least 20% is expected by 2030 (Seck et al.,
requirements for N-based and P-based fertilizers 2012). This review aims at analyzing the
are expected to reach 137.4 million tons (Mt) of perspective of P nutrition of plants through
N and 52.9 Mt of P fertilizers in 2030 (OECD- different P carrying engineered nanomaterials
FAO 2020). The nutrient use efficiency (NUE) is a (ENMs) with particle dimensions in the range 1–
valuable parameter in the evaluation of 100 nm and high surface area to mass ratio to
sustainable crop production systems. The ensure based different properties in comparison to
maximum crop dry matter produced per unit of the corresponding conventional bulk fertilizers.
that particular nutrient taken up by plants is Phosphorus is an essential element for plants
called NUE. Thus, it measures how well plants required for their development and reproduction,
use the available nutrients. The current and it is one of the main components of the
fertilization practices involving conventional fertilizers, fertilizers necessary to sustain modern
the NUE comprises 30–40% for N-fertilizers and agriculture. In soils, the concentration of
18–20% for P-based fertilizers. Apparently, only inorganic P (available to plants) ranges from 35
a fraction of these nutrients help in crop growth and to 70% of the total P. This form of P shows low
yield formation. In contrast, a relevant amount of diffusion and high fixation rates in soils
199 Nano technology based P fertilizers for higher agriculture sustainability

through ligand exchange by 1: 1 clay minerals, fertilizers could be 20–30% (Kah et al., 2018).
Fe and Al oxides and hydroxides, and is thus
precipitated as Fe, Al, and Ca phosphates Nano-Hydroxyapatite as Source of Phosphorus
(Almeida et al., 2018). Increasing population,
growing preferences towards meat-based diets Needless to say, most research on
and rising demands for bio-energy crops will nanofertilizers has been done with metallic
increase the future demand for P fertilizers. nutrients like Cu, Mn, Zn, and Fe . Also, Al, Ce,
(Childers et al., 2011). However, application of P La, and Ti among other beneficial elements
fertilizers exacerbates eutrophication problem in (Chen 2018) have been tested as nanoparticles
surface waters. Therefore, numerous in plants. Consequently, during the last decade,
regulations, best managements practices metal nanoparticle production has grown
(BMPs) and remediation technology have been exponentially, with a global production expected
proposed to reduce P fertilizer application and to to reach 58,000 metric tons by the year 2020
prevent the applied P from entering water bodies (United Nations Environment Programme). In
(Buda et al., 2012). To this end, it is expected contrast, research on macronutrients is limited,
that use of nano-P fertilizer, as an alternative to although these elements drive global crop
the regular P fertilizers on agricultural lands, production (Vazquez-Nunez et al., 2018). Among
would enhance agricultural production, use macronutrients, phosphorus (P) deficiency is a
efficiency of P, and improve the surface-water common factor hindering yield and crop quality
quality. Agriculture is the major user of mined globally (Aziz et al., 2013). The most used P
phosphorus (P), accounting for 80–90% of the fertilizers are NP (diammonium phosphate (DAP,
world demand for P (Childers et al., 2011). (NH3)2H2PO4), ammonium monophosphate
Additionally, phosphate fertilizers are obtained (MAP, NH3H2PO4), NPK complexes and single
from phosphoric rock, a nonrenewable resource, super phosphate. The P fertilizers are applied to
and whose reserves are running out. Due to soil, and P is released in water-soluble forms,
multiple problems associated with traditional highly mobile, and readily available to crops.
phosphate fertilizers, nanofertilizers could be a However, there is significant P losses by
suitable alternative. leaching or surface run-off. The use of poorly
soluble forms of P, such as phosphate rocks and
Nano technologies for P fertilizers apatite, on the one hand, reduces P losses, but
on the other, it makes more difficult the P supply
Currently, the development and utilization to plants. Among the critical factors associated
of the potential of nanotechnologies in crop with food security and environmental
fertilization is a high priority in fertilizer research sustainability is P shortage. Herein, the potential
with the target to prevent or minimize nutrient of using Nano-Hydroxyapatite as source of
losses (Chhipa 2016) and increase crop phosphorus nano-CaP for the controlled delivery
productivity through target delivery or slow of P is being reported.
release of nutrients, thereby limiting the rate of Crystalline and nanocrystalline calcium
fertilizer application through significant increase phosphate compounds (CaP) are found (i) in
in the NUE (Kah et al., 2019). This controlled biological system after precipitation in mild
release of nutrients is exactly synchronized with conditions of pressure and temperature, and (ii)
the nutritional needs of the crops (Zuverza-Mena in the environment as mineral deposits formed in
et al., 2017). It has been already demonstrated thousands of years under heavier conditions of
that the size reduction by physical or chemical pressure and temperature. Calcium phosphates
methods increased the surface mass ratio of are also the most important inorganic
fertilizers, which allows a significant increase of constituents of biological hard tissues in living
nutrient absorption. In that way, slow, targeted, systems. Owing to their peculiar properties
and more efficient nutrient release becomes (hosting of a variety of cations, eg., K, Mg, Zn,
possible, allowing: (i) reduction of dosages and anionic substitutions, adsorption of organic
application costs, (ii) significant reduction of molecules, and pH-responsive solubility) CaP,
nutrient losses, and therefore (iii) increase of under several crystal forms, has been widely
NUE. It is estimated that the gain in NUE when used for a broad range of applications (Epple
using nano-fertilizers instead of conventional 2018).
 K.N. TIWARI, YOGENDRA KUMAR, TARUNENDU SINGH and R.K. NAYAK 200

Liu and Lal (2014) synthesized nHA in the field should be safe to the
hydroxyapatite (Ca5(PO4)3OH) nanoparticles environment and the ecosystem. This research
(NPs), approximately 19 nm in size, and indicated that nHA could be used as a P fertilizer
evaluated their effect on soybean (Glycine max) in enhancing crops’ yields and biomass
in a substrate (50% perlite and 50% peat) in the production (Liu and Lal, 2014). They also
greenhouse to assess the fertilizing effect of emphasized that more research is needed to
synthetic apatite nanoparticles on soybean systematically elucidate the interaction of nHA
(Glycine max). This is the first report on with plants and soil. Field studies also needed to
synthesis and application of nHA as nano P confirm the fertilizing effect of nHA on various
fertilizer for increasing soybean yields. The data plants and in various soil environments. The
showed that application of the nanoparticles eutrophication potential of nHA needs to be
increased the growth rate and seed yield by specially addressed.
32.6% and 20.4%, respectively, compared to Rane et al. (2015) reported that calcium
those of soybeans treated with a regular P phosphate nanoparticles supplemented calcium
fertilizer (Ca(H2PO4)2). Biomass productions and phosphate, the essential macronutrients
were enhanced by 18.2% (above-ground) and required for profuse root proliferation. Calcium
41.2% (below-ground). Apparently, using apatite phosphate nanoparticles may help in the
nanoparticles as a new class of P fertilizer can formulation of new nano growth promoter and
potentially enhance agronomical yield and nanofertilizers for agricultural use. Therefore, it
reduce risks of water eutrophication. It is likely could potentially help in reduction of the quantity
that the retention time of nHA was longer in the of fertilizer applied to crops and contributing to
porous medium than that of the soluble precision farming, as it reduces fertilizer wastage
phosphate, and thus the former had supplied and in turn environmental pollution due to
more P to the plants than the latter. There might agricultural malpractices. The study conducted
be two reasons for the difference in P retention by Marchiol et al., (2019) tested the potential of
time in the medium (Childers et al., 2011): (1) nHAP to be used as both a P supplier and carrier
Soluble phosphates are more easily removed of other elements or molecules in a germination
from the solution phase through precipitation trial carried out on Lycopersicum esculentum
when solution chemistry changes (pH increased (Table1). The fate of P in soil is strongly
or more cations introduced) or being absorbed influenced by the properties of the soil itself,
by iron/manganese minerals or other clay such as temperature, moisture, aeration, and pH
minerals (Fageria 2009) while nHA may remain (Shen et al., 2011). For this reason, studies on
relatively stable in the suspension and be the behavior of nHAP in soil columns were
affected less by the solution pH, co-existing ions, conducted (Montalvo et al., 2015). In this case,
or solids. The aqueous solution containing the potential of nHAP was evaluated at two
soluble P may leach out of the soil column faster levels. At first, bulk HAP and nHAP were
than the nHA solution because the latter compared in saturated soil column experiments
contained the macromolecular CMC and had using two Andisols (from Chile and New Zealand,
higher viscosity. Thus, there was much more P respectively) and two Oxisols (from Australia).
remaining in the growing medium for plant roots Subsequently, the P availability to Triticum
to absorb in the case of nHA. Nevertheless, NPs aestivum fertilized with bulk HAP, TSP, and nHAP
may increase reactive oxygen species (ROS) was evaluated. The results showed that in the
levels in plants, which cause cytotoxic effects. experimental conditions, the P uptake and the
The enhanced ROS levels triggered by NPs may percentage of P in the plant that was derived
lead to the activation of defense pathways to from the fertilizer followed the order: TSP >
combat the oxidative stress. When plants nHAP > bulk HAP (Table1). A second
achieve an efficient control of ROS, these experiment dedicated to studying the behavior of
molecules can be used as signals to regulate nHAP in soil was carried out by Xiong et al.,
growth, development, and responses to (2018) wherein three forms of nHAP having
environmental cues (Rawat et al., 2018). different surface charges (positive, neutral, and
An assessment of nHA toxicity by lettuce negative) were administered to Helianthus
seed germination test indicated that nHA did not annuus grown in P deficient Ultisol and Vertisol,
exhibit any acute toxic or inhibitory effect on the respectively. Conventional P fertilizers (TSP and
germination and that application of engineered rock phosphate) were tested, as well. In the acid
201 Nano technology based P fertilizers for higher agriculture sustainability

Ultisol (pH 4.7), the addition of TSP or any of the be developed based on the results of the studies
nHAPs increased plant biomass, whereas, in conducted in this still exploratory phase. On the
basic Vertisol (pH 8.2), none of the nHAPs other hand, several workers found
significantly increased the plant growth. Both nanohydroxyapatite to be such an alternative
studies confirmed the potential of nHAP, but the phosphate fertilizer, thereby showing that
fertilizing effect was lower than conventional nanofertilizers help minimize the quantity of
TSP. On the other hand, likely, the nanofertilizers added fertilizer while reducing fertilizer loss and
that will be used on a large scale in the future will pollution due to agricultural malpractice (Liu and
be different from the nano-forms studied at this Lal 2015, Tulsi et al., 2015 and marzouk et al.,
time. New design criteria for nanofertilizers will 2019).

Table 1: Nano hydroxyapatite as a source of P

Experimental
Material Species Treatment Results
Conditions
-1
nHAP, 16 nm Glycine max 21.8 mg L as P Perlite-peat moss Increased growth rate
(1:1), nutrient solution, (+32.6%), aerial
greenhouse. biomass (+18.2%) and
seed yield (+20.4%)
than control.
nHAP, 94–163 Solanum 0, 2, 20, 200, 500, 1000, 2000 Germination, Stimulation of root
nm lycopersicum mg L-1 hydroponics. elongation; no plant
toxicity.
-1
nHAP, primary Triticum 0–150 mg kg P nHAP, Soil columns; Increased shoot dry
size 22 nm aestivum glasshouse pot matter and P uptake than
experiment; Andisol bulk-HA but less than the
and Oxisol. conventional P fertilizer.

nHAP (+), nHAP Helianthus bulk-HA, triple Glasshouse pot In Ultisol nHA (−) more
(0), nHAP (−), annuus superphosphate (TSP) experiment; P-deficient effective in supplying P
average 150 kg ha−1 nHAP (+);nHAP Ultisol (pH 4.2) and than TSP; in Vertisol
(0); nHAP (−); triple Vertisol (pH 8.2). nHAP did not increase
size 25.7 nm
superphosphate (TSP); rock plant growth.
phosphate (RS),
nHAP, rod Adansonia Control (unfertilized); MAP; Pot experiment; sandy Increased plant growth
shaped 59.5 × digitata DAP; nHAP. soil. Foliar application (plant height, leaf area,
10.6 nm of 20 mL of different P plant fractions dry
sources weekly. matter) compared to
other P sources.
Urea–nHAP Camellia 50% NPK 4 Splits; 50% Field experiments in Enhancement of NUE;
nanohybrid, sinensis NPK 2 Splits; 100% N (HA- three different increased quality
<100 nm urea nanohybrid) + 100% K locations; parameters of tea
MOP (2 Splits); 100% N Urea-nHAP leaves (e.g., total
(Urea-nHAP) + 100% K nanohybrid provided polyphenols and total
MOP (4 Splits); 50% N as ground fertilizer. amino acids).
(Urea-nHAP) + 100% K
MOP (4 Splits); 50% N
(Urea-nHAP) + 100% K
MOP (2 Splits); 100%
conventional NPK fertilizer .
(4 Splits).
nHAP with Zea mays nHAP-natural HA; nHAP- Growth chamber; pot Early growth, better salt
natural and synthetic HA; experiment stress tolerance and
synthetic humic Superphosphate; Nha. yield.
substances (HA)
 K.N. TIWARI, YOGENDRA KUMAR, TARUNENDU SINGH and R.K. NAYAK 202

Adopted from: Fellet et al. (2021) small diameter of the nanoparticles (25–50 nm)
results in increased total surface area and
More recently, Nano calcium phosphate decreased phosphorus fixation. The controlled
(NCaP) was successfully synthesized, release of nutrients and increased phosphorus
characterized and applied by and a pot uptake allow more P to be available for a longer
experiment was carried out in two successive time (Dhansil et al., 2018) reported that foliar
seasons in 2016 and 2017 on (Phaseolus application of NCaP had a significant positive
vulgaris L.) plants to obtain the best phosphorus effect on the leaf and N, P and K content
treatments. The results were applied in a field compared with traditional P fertilizer. Table 1
experiment during the 2018–2019 seasons. summarizes the state of the art of the studies
Single superphosphate (SSP) at 30 and 60 kg related to this perspective.
P2O5 ha-1 and NCaP at 10%, 20% and 30% from
the recommended dose were applied to the soil. Cryo-milled Nano P fertilizer
Foliar application involved both monoammonium
phosphate (MAP) at one rate of 2.5 g L-1 and Singh et al. (2021) demonstrated a novel,
NCaP at 5% and 10% from the MAP rate. The easy, effective, and environmentally benign
results of all experiments showed that NCaP physical method, namely cryo-milling, to prepare
significantly increased the shoot and root dry nano-diammonium phosphate (n-DAP) from
weights, the nutrient content in the shoot and commercial DAP (c-DAP). Cryo-milling involves
root, the yield components, the nutrient milling at liquid N2 temperatures and therefore
concentration and crude protein percentage in helps in brittle fracture of coarser DAP particles
pods of the snap bean plants compared with into n-DAP particles. Cryo-milled n-DAP, with
traditional P. The greatest increase was obtained particle size ∼5000 times smaller but specific
from a 20% NCaP soil application in combination surface area ∼14 000 times greater than that of
with a 5% NCaP foliar application. This study c-DAP enhanced efficacy of n-DAP on the
recommends using NCaP as an alternative growth of monocot (wheat) and dicot (tomato)
source of P to mitigate the negative effects of plants even for a far lower input than c-DAP. The
traditional sources. These results are in shoots of n-DAP treated seedlings were found to
agreement with those of Dhansil et al. (2018) be significantly longer than their respective c-
who found that the nutrient content of a pearl DAP counterparts at each concentration, with a
millet crop increased significantly when using maximum increase of 34.57% recorded at 25%
both Nano-P and traditional phosphorus (quarter-strength) dosage of supplementation.
fertilizers. The highest nutrient and crude protein The supplementation of n-DAP at half-strength
contents were obtained from the application of a (50%) or higher dosage produced seedlings with
2.5 times reduction in the recommended dose of at least 51.48% heavier shoots than the full-
phosphorus through NP fertilizer. The slow and strength c-DAP supplemented seedlings. The
steady release of nutrients from nanofertilizer first true leaf on n-DAP treated seedlings had
regulated the release of nutrients from the larger surface area over their respective c-DAP
fertilizer and minimized losses resulting in the counterparts. Even quarter-strength n-DAP
increased uptake of nutrients. Because treated seedlings had 13.11% more surface area
phosphorus is critical for root growth, density than the full-strength c-DAP treated seedlings.
and length (Desnos 2008), its further acquisition They concluded that n-DAP supplemented
improves the symbiotic relation between seedlings, starting from the quarter-strength
rhizobium and legume roots (Hussain et al., dosage, had ∼9% higher Fv/Fm values over the
2017); hence, it causes increased nodulation, full-strength c-DAP controls. The shoot samples
nitrogen fixation and, therefore, nitrogen content of 25% n-DAP grown seedlings even had
(Singh et al., 2011). In this context, Hagagg et al. 12.28% higher total soluble Pi content than the
(2018) recommended nano NPK supplements to 100% c-DAP treated seedlings. Similarly, the P
increase fertilizer efficiency. They ascribed that content of 50% n-DAP seedlings had a
nanofertilizers promote the uptake of water and tremendous 93.38% increase over their c-DAP
nutrients, which is reflected in plant growth. counterparts. Similarly, both quarter-strength
Moreover, nano-fertilizers have a huge surface and half-strength n-DAP supplementation
compared to conventional fertilizers, and this resulted in 23.47% and 27.63% higher root total
increases the plant’s metabolic efficiency. The soluble P over their respective c-DAP
203 Nano technology based P fertilizers for higher agriculture sustainability

supplemented counterparts. Then they tested fractionation of doses. However, the most
the inverse effect of P content and anthocyanin relevant aspect of this study was that it was
accumulation in shoot tissues. The n-DAP carried out for three years in different locations
supplemented seedlings accumulated at least in Sri Lanka characterized by different climatic
28.28% lower anthocyanin than their respective and pedological conditions, thus also
c-DAP treated counterparts. Furthermore, the introducing environmental variables. Overall,
shoot total carbohydrate content in n-DAP the results demonstrated that the application of
treated seedlings was significantly lower than slow-release fertilizer significantly increased
their respective c-DAP controls. Through a soil P, leaf N, and P concentration, particularly
series of morphological, physiological, and in unfavorable climatic conditions.
biochemical assays, they have provided Herein, we cite a recent study concerning
evidence on the superior agronomic use the synthesis of hybrid nanostructures (Yoon et
efficiency of n-DAP over c-DAP. Improved al., 2020). In this case, the possibility of
biomass, pronounced P content, and reduced associating natural or synthetic humic
anthocyanin at the quarter-strength (in tomato) substances with nHAP, exploiting the interaction
and half-strength (in wheat) n-DAP between the polyphenolic groups of humic
supplemented seedlings support the improved substances (HA) and the surface charge of
agronomic use efficiency of the developed nano- nHAP. Zea mays were grown in a pot trial and
P fertilizer. Such a surge in plant total soluble P fertilized with commercial P fertilizer, bare nHAP,
content is often associated with better P uptake and nHAP-HA. The synergistic co-release of P
efficiency, in this case primarily from the ions and humic substances resulted in a
supplemented n-DAP that outsmarts its granular significant increase in plant growth, corn yield,
counterpart for this trait. Besides the potential and resistance to salt stress (Table1). Saleem et
better agronomy of n-DAP over c-DAP, the use al., (2021) studied the effect of coated
of n-DAP in reduced quantities while meeting the nanoparticles (NPs) of potassium ferrite
plants' optimum P nutrient requirement is (KFeO2 NPs) on di-mmonium phosphate
preferred for better soil health and agricultural (DAP) fertilizer with three rates (2, 5, 10%) of
sustainability. It is thus concluded that nano DAP KFeO2 NPs and were evaluated for release of
enhanced the growth of monocot (wheat) and N, P, K and Fe supplementation in clay loam
dicot (tomato) plants due to improved and loam soil up to 60 days. In India, IFFCO
bioavailability of Pi even for a far lower input has recently brought Nano DAP to cater to the
than c-DAP. Phenotypic observations such as needs of the farmers. Field trials started from
higher leaf biomass, longer shoots, shorter roots, Kharif 2021 to study the relative potential of Di-
and less anthocyanin pigmentation manifested ammonium Phosphate sources (DAP and Nano
the extraordinary efficacy of cryo-milled n-DAP DAP) have shown very encouraging results.
for 75% lower input than c-DAP. Nano DAP developed in India ranges in size
Studies were also conducted on from 10 to 30 nanometers and has 8 percent
cultivated species of regional interest. For nitrogen and 16 percent phosphorus content.
example, a study was carried out on Nano DAP, will not only save money but would
Adansonia digitata (baobab) where the be economical for the farmers in terms of low
effectiveness of the foliar application of MAP, cost and higher nutrient use efficiency. Nano
DAP, and nHAP was investigated (Soliman et DAP would play an important role in self-reliance
al., 2016). Baobab plants sprayed with nHAP in terms of DAP.
showed a significant increase in several growth
traits (plant height, stem diameter, number of FUTURE RESEARCH
leaves per plant, leaf area, root length, total
dry weight) compared to conventional P (1). One of the great technical challenges to be
fertilizers. A conceptually similar study was overcome in the future is the fact that protocols
conducted on Camelia sinensis (Raguraj et al., to quantify nanoparticles within plant tissues are
2020). Different P fertilization strategies were not well established yet. Furthermore,
tested, which included comparing conventional nanoparticle absorption, translocation, and
fertilizers and nHAP, and a different accumulation processes depend on plant
 K.N. TIWARI, YOGENDRA KUMAR, TARUNENDU SINGH and R.K. NAYAK 204

species, as well as size, type, chemical and safety risks, potentially posed by nanoscale
composition, functionalization, and stability of the materials in agriculture, will become very soon of
nanoparticles (Gonzalez-Gomez et al., 2017). paramount importance (Lavicoli et al., 2017).
(2). Many efforts have yet to be undertaken for However, the fact remains that most of the
optimization of nanoparticles delivery, aiming to literature data come from studies carried out in
minimize risks from over-dosage and artificial conditions (laboratory and hydroponic
accumulation. For these reasons, the use of experiments, or pot experiments with
highly biodegradable biopolymers that reduce commercial potting soil or other artificial
the persistence of nanostructures in the soil and substrates). Since they do not predict the results
on the plants is promising (e.g., cellulose, lignin, under natural soil conditions, more experiments
zein, chitins) (Grillo et al., 2021).The risk of with natural soil and field conditions are strongly
undesired effects must therefore lead to find requested. Field trials are necessary to develop
technological solutions able to optimize the more applicative knowledge relating to the open
interaction between nanomaterials and plant, field handling of nano-agrochemicals, the use of
thus enabling agronomical treatments with a low specific operating machines, and precautions for
environmental impact, which is exactly what operators and consumers. Such information is
nanotechnologies are applied for in agriculture. also essential to provide the elements necessary
These considerations imply an accurate design to structure the rules, standards, prescriptions,
and customization of the nanoparticles and precautions to develop nano-enabled
concerning their charge, as well as morphology agriculture and reap the expected benefits fully.
for a specific interaction with different plant
species. The choice of spherical particles might EPILOGUE
not be the best technological solution in the case
of foliar distribution, where rod- and platelet-like The Second Green Revolution requires a
carriers provide a more efficient adhesion due to profound transformation of the agricultural sector,
their high contact surface area. Therefore, the which will have to become more sustainable and
aspect ratio and morphology of nanoparticles has ensure universal access to healthy food. Thus,
to be considered in the future for the best there is a consensus on the need to introduce
assessment of field applications (Grillo et al., significant innovations into the global agricultural
2021). system for sustainable intensification to ensure
3. More research is needed to systematically food security and protect natural capital. Within
elucidate the interaction of nano P fertilizers this context, in the next years, a strong challenge
with plants and soil. Field studies are needed will need to be faced regarding developing new
to confirm the fertilizing effect of nano P and more efficient uses of nutrients in
fertilizers/ nHA on various plants and in various agriculture, being the nutrient use efficiency
soil environments. The eutrophication potential (NUE) paramount in sustaining high crop
of nano P fertilizers needs to be specially productivity without depleting biodiversity, and
addressed. altering both the natural and agricultural systems.
4. The positive prospects related to With global population anticipated to surpass 9
nanomaterials in agriculture cannot make us billion in the next few decades (United Nations
underestimate the precautionary principle. The 2013). In order to maintain sufficient crop
deliberate introduction of nano-sized materials production, the demand for phosphate fertilizers
within agricultural activities raises questions and is also expected to rise. Elemental phosphorus
concerns over the possible human and (P) is obtained by plants in the form of plant-
environmental health implications. Nanomaterial accessible water-soluble P salts, which are
residues in soil and crops are expected to normally applied to fields as triple super P (TSP),
increase with exposure routes, including possible and mono and diammonium P (MAP, DAP).
bioaccumulation in the environment and food However, only about 20% of the P applied to
chain. In this perspective, the purpose of fields is actually used by the crops during a
achieving sustainable agriculture overlaps the growing season. Some of the applied P forms
need to balance the benefits provided by nano- complexes with soil aluminum, calcium, and iron
products in solving environmental challenges. oxides, resulting in plant-inaccessible forms.
Thus, the assessment of environmental, health, However, much of the soluble P is lost to
205 Nano technology based P fertilizers for higher agriculture sustainability

agricultural run-off into local water bodies, where distribution of nutrients. Knowledge in the field of
it contributes to eutrophication and may cause nano fertilisers is developing very rapidly. The
algal blooms, with their devastating effects on literature highlights the high potential of
the aquatic ecosystems. Little P actually reaches nanomaterials in crop fertilization in terms of
target crops and mineral rock P is a limited, non- more accurate delivery of nutrients. The physico-
renewable, and increasingly costly resource. In chemical characteristics of the nanostructures
the future, plant P acquisition and use efficiency influence their behavior (e.g., solubility, stability,
might be improved but in the short term nutrient release rate). Nonetheless, uptake and
alternative fertilizing technologies are worth use efficiency, as well as the effects of the
examining. Recently, nanofertilizers are being nanoparticles on growth and metabolic functions
tested as a new technology, either for soil or in plants, vary between genotypes. For this
foliar applications, to improve food production reason, the design and development of
and with a reduced environmental impact due to nanofertilizers requires close collaboration
improved nutrient delivery for a more finely between researchers in the field of nanochemistry,
tuned, accurate, and saving-resources crop nutrition and agronomy.

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