May–June 2023

Quick revision notes

Paper 2: The landscape, people and economy of Pakistan

SECTION A: The Physical Environment

1.1 Location, climate and biomes
a) Position of Pakistan in South Asia and globally, and regional variations in climatic
zones (humid subtropical, desert/semi-arid, temperate and Mediterranean).
Do this topic from a book

(b) The nature and causes of seasonal variations in precipitation and temperature, including
the characteristics and causes of the Southwest Monsoon and Western Disturbances.

Climate is the average state of the atmosphere near the earth's surface over a long span of
time. It refers to many elements including temperature, precipitation, humidity, air
pressure, wind movement and direction. Geographical location (latitude, coastal or
continental position) and physical settings (e.g. mountains) influence the climate of any
country.

Seasonal variations
Season is the climatic type, at any place, associated with a particular time of the year. The
change of season is mainly due to the change in angle of the earth's axis in relation to the
position of the sun at a particular place.

FACTORS AFFECTING SEASONAL VARIATIONS in temperature in PAKISTAN

Latitudinal effect; Latitude and the angle of sun: The term ‘angle of the sun’ refers to the
position of the Earth in relation to the sun. Latitudinal position determines the amount of
heat received by the Earth. The area closer to the Equator receives relatively direct rays of
the sun resulting in high temperature. Southern Pakistan is closer to the Equator than
Northern Pakistan.
Continental effect: It is a general term covering the climate of those areas protected from or
unaffected by maritime influence. Maritime influence means the influence of the sea on
temperatures. Along coastal areas, ocean currents and prevailing winds usually have a
moderating effect on temperature. This is why extreme winter and summer temperatures
are recorded in the interior of large landmasses away from the moderating influence of sea.
Altitude and temperature:
There is a relationship between altitude, air, density and temperature.
The air is denser at the sea level because that is where it absorbs most water vapour, dust
particles and solar radiation. Air is less dense at high altitude because less solar radiation is
absorbed at that level. With less air to absorb heat at higher altitude, there is an average
drop of 6.5 C in temperature for each 1000 metre increase in altitude.
Cloud cover and temperature: Cloud cover affects temperature to some extent. In the
daytime it reduces the amount of incoming solar radiation by reflecting it back into outer
space, resulting in a drop in day temperatures. At night the cloud cover traps the outgoing
heat. As a result, temperature on cloudy nights does not drop as temperature on a clear
night.

FACTORS AFFECTING SEASONAL VARIATIONS in precipitation in PAKISTAN

• The Southwest Monsoon occurs in late summer, between the end of June/July and
September. Half of the total annual rainfall in the areas affected by the monsoon occurs in
July and August, averaging about 255 mm for both months. The primary reason for the
rainfall during the summers is because of temperature differences between land and the
ocean. Rising temperatures in South Asia from April onwards heat up the land areas while
the ocean remains relatively cooler, resulting in the creation of a low-pressure zone over
South Asia. The low-pressure zone then causes the moist air above the ocean to move on to
land and results in rainfall. The Southwest Monsoon brings particularly heavy rainfall to
northern Punjab because this area is the most affected by the monsoon wind blowing from
the Bay of Bengal
• • Western Disturbances (depressions) mostly occur during the winter months
between December and March. The Western Disturbances originate in the Mediterranean
Sea and affect the western areas of Pakistan. They cause light to moderate showers in south
western parts of the country and moderate to heavy showers with heavy snowfall in the
northern parts of the country.
• • During the post Monsoon period between October to December there is little
precipitation in Pakistan as no active wind or pressure systems are present.
• • Between April and June (early summer) convection currents can cause convection
rain and thunderstorms in the northern and north west areas of Pakistan. Convection
rainfall is caused by rising moist air cooling into the higher levels of the atmosphere so that
condensation occurs. This causes the water vapour to condense and fall as convection rain.

Rainfall in Pakistan
Source of rain
 Monsoon rain (summer July to September)
 Western Depression/winter rain (Winter December to March)
 Convectional rain/Thunderstorms (pre-monsoon (may-June) and post monsoon (oct-nov)
 Tropical Cyclone (Summer when sea/ocean water is warm)

Causes of Monsoon in Pakistan

High angle of the sun in summers/ warm air rises/ low pressure area develops on land/high
pressure on sea/ocean Land attracts cool moist air from the sea/ more humidity more
clouds formation/ condensation at higher altitude/precipitation
Characteristics
Giant sea breezes/bring heavy rainfall/time period July to September/ winds blow from Bay
of Bengal/only tail end of winds enters Pakistan/winds coming from Arabian sea.
Impacts of a heavy monsoon.
Negative
Floods
Heavy rain; causes poor visibility and accidents
Roads become rivers; cannot travel to work or school / towns and cities
cut off
Flights cancelled; negative impact on trade / tourism / business
Crops destroyed; which causes food shortages / can lead to famine

Homes washed away / flooded / buildings destroyed; loss of

Possessions / people are homeless

Positive
Water level in reservoirs or dams rises; leading to more water for
Irrigation / domestic / industrial use / no water shortages / HEP
Businesses
Brings rainfall to desert areas; desert blooms
Replenishes groundwater; reduces water shortages

Western depression
Distribution
 Western part of Pakistan e.g whole Balochistan and whole KPK
 Northern and western mountains e.g Himalaya, Karakoram and Hindu Kush
 Northern part of Punjab only
 No influence over central and southern part of Punjab and whole Sindh Province

Causes of western disturbances/ depression

Western disturbances originate over the Mediterranean A high-pressure area develops
allowing the cold air from Polar Regions to meet an area of relatively warmer air with high
moisture.
This forms an eastward-moving depression. This moves towards the Indian Subcontinent
until the Himalayas and produces rain
Characteristics
Pakistan only received rainfall between Decembers to March/winter season Western areas
of
Pakistan like Peshawar, Quetta, Chital etc receive rainfall through western disturbances Rain
in the form of light showers and drizzling.

c) Distribution and characteristics of large-scale ecosystems (i.e. biomes).

Do this topic from book

1.2) Tectonic and glacial processes and landforms, and geophysical hazards

a) Tectonic processes affecting Pakistan and the formation of the Himalayan

landscape (fold mountains).

Mountain Building Process; Origin and Formation of Fold Mountains

PLATE TECTONICS THEORY
The word “tectonics” comes from the Greek word ‘tekton’, meaning ‘builder’.
The theory suggests that the surface of the earth is made up of rigid plates of
lithosphere (Earth’s crust) which ‘float’ on the more mobile asthenosphere
(soft layer of mantle which is 35 km below the Earth’s crust). Owing to the
movement in the asthenosphere, the plates are in constant motion. It explains
many of the major processes of the Earth, such as drifting of continents,
mountain building, earthquakes and volcanic activity.

Many of this activity occurs at the edges, or margins of the plates.

To the north, north-west of Pakistan, there lies three ranges of mountains.
They are fold mountains. Before the formation of these mountains, the area
was occupied by a long, narrow, shallow sea known as the “Sea of Tethys”.
The mountain building would appear to have resulted from the movement of
the Earth’s plates, which led to the squeezing and folding, and ultimately the
elevation of different layers of sediments from the sea.
During the mountain building process, the Earth’s crust weakened due to great
strains and pressures and this occasionally resulted in earthquakes. However,
volcanoes, which are normally associated with young fold mountains, are
strangely absent in the Himalayas.
Fold mountains are mountains that form mainly by the effects of folding on
layers within the upper part of the Earth's crust. These forces act at line to the
surface of the earth and are primarily a result of plate tectonics.
Earthquake impacts
Content Guide: Answers are likely to refer to: Deaths; Injuries; Damage to property, Fires; Damage to
gas/water pipes; Disruption of electricity supplies; Damage to roads; Damage to hospitals; Economic
impact/damages to factories/offices etc.

Landslides rock falls/slope failures are caused by earthquake vibrations.

• Tsunami large coastal waves result from

Earthquakes out at sea flooding coastal areas

• Fires caused by broken gas pipes/electricity cables
• Diseases resulting from contaminated water supplies.

• Damage to infrastructure, such as roads prevents aid from reaching affected

areas.

• Landslides, liquefaction and fallen debris may prevent essential medical

supplies reaching affected areas, especially remote rural regions.

Earthquake responses

National

Organisations such as the International Rescue Committee are based in Pakistan and
have extensive experience of responding to events in Pakistan. Therefore, the
organisation was able to make a rapid and significant contribution in 2005 when a
powerful earthquake affected northern Pakistan. The organisation provided shelter,
food, water, medical aid and counselling to thousands of survivors
• During the 2008 earthquake which affected Balochistan, international organisations
such as the World Health Organisation sent medical aid and supplies for 50,000 people.
This provided essential treatments for those injured and suffering from hyperthermia.
During the 2013 Balochistan earthquake, international agencies made a more limited
contribution to the relief effort, at least initially, as there was a significant army
presence in the affected area.

International

In 2005, the government rapidly deployed the Pakistani army ensuring humanitarian aid
reached isolated communities and to co-ordinate relief supplies. The Pakistani government
and army were therefore an essential part of the aid effort.
• Much of the relief operations were Pakistani lead, with organisations such as NATO
working with the Pakistani army and other groups. For example, NATO engineers
worked with the Pakistani army on project Winter Race in 2005 to provide winter
shelters for people living in the mountains. International organisations therefore
depended on a partnership with the government/army to provide relief.
• A similar situation occurred in 2018 when the army played a significant part in co-
ordinating relief. Following the 2008 earthquake event, a number of Pakistani Islamic
groups such as the Jamaat-Ud- Dawa made small but significant contributions to the
relief effects and used local knowledge to reach

b) Glacial processes that operate in the Himalayan landscape (long-term and seasonal
accumulation/ablation of glacial systems).
The mass balance of a glacier involves two main components: accumulation of snow in the
glacier's zone of accumulation and the ablation of ice in the zone of ablation. The zone of
accumulation occurs in the upper reaches of the glacier where yearly additions of snow
exceed losses due to melting, evaporation, and sublimation. The surface of this zone is
covered by snow throughout the year. Below the zone of accumulation is the zone of
ablation. In this zone, the losses of snow and ice from melting, evaporation, and sublimation
are greater than the additions. The line that separates these two areas is called the snow
line.

Glacial processes of accumulation

Accumulation occurs in upland areas where large volumes of snow/precipitation fall.

Over a period of time the snow/frozen becomes compacted to form accumulated
glacier ice.
• • More snow/precipitation falls in mountain areas than the volume of snow/ice
which melts (ablates). Over time, the snow/frozen precipitation increases in volume to
form a thick layer of accumulated glacier ice.
• • Avalanches or snow slides can add snow to the glacier when snow falls down a
steep slope from above. This increases the glacier’s volume and the process of
accumulation.
Glacial Erosion:
Land and rock cannot move out of the path of a glacier, so they are subjected to glacial
erosion, which is simply the carving and shaping of the land beneath a moving glacier.
Glacial erosion and the interesting landforms that result from this process are the subjects
of this lesson. There are two main processes of glacial erosion.

1-Plucking
2-Abrasion
1-Plucking:
As a glacier moves over the landscape, water melts below the glacier and seeps into cracks
within the underlying bedrock. This water freezes and melts, weakening the bonds holding
pieces of bedrock in place. These pieces of rock can now be picked up or plucked from their
rocky base and carried along with the moving glacier.
Plucking also contributes to the second process of glacial erosion, known as abrasion.
Abrasion is defined as the erosion that occurs when particles scrape against each other. The
enormous weight of the glacier, along with rocks and sediment plucked up and clinging to
its belly scratch and carved the rock surface below. It's almost as if the moving glacier is
sanding the rocks with abrasive sandpaper.

Reasons of Glacial Ablation

A glacier retreats or shrinks through melting or when the evaporation process exceeds the
rate of accumulation of snow, which is also known as ablation or wastage.
Solar Radiation
The melting of glaciers depends on a variety of factors, the most important of which is the
amount of solar radiation hitting the ice. Glaciers deflect up to 80% of solar radiation
(sunlight), while absorbing the rest. When a glacier melts completely, it exposes the earth’s
surface, and this has the opposite effect, meaning that 80% of heat is absorbed and 20% is
deflected. Increased radiation increases melting rates, causing glaciers to shrink.

Global warming

Studies show that human-caused global warming is the leading cause of glacier retreat.
Glacier retreat results in a variety of negative consequences, including increased sea levels,
floods, and fresh water shortages. When ice glaciers melt faster, temperatures rise further,
and more glaciers shrink, which creates a vicious cycle that is significantly changing the
climate across the globe.

Explain one way in which glaciers transport material.

As the glacier moves downhill, it moves material which has fallen onto its surface. As the
glacier moves downhill, it moves material which has been buried within the ice. Material
which is at the base of a glacier is moved downhill by melt water.
Explain one reason why a glacier may deposit some of its load.
Glaciers may melt because temperatures increase in the summer. Material carried by the
glacier may become lodged because the glacier passes over an obstruction. The mass of the
glacier may reduce because levels of snowfall decrease. Global warming may cause the
glacier to melt.

1.3 Relief, drainage and hydro meteorological hazards

Topography is a configuration of a land surface including its relief and contours, the
distribution of mountains and valleys, the patterns of rivers, and all other natural features
that produce the landscape.

Drainage
Drainage pattern is the pattern formed by the streams, rivers, and lakes in a particular
drainage basin. They are governed by the topography of the land, whether a particular
region is dominated by hard or soft rocks, and the gradient of the land. the drainage pattern
resembling the branches of a tree is known as “dendritic” the examples of which are the
rivers of the northern plain such as ‘The Indus’.
Dendritic drainage systems are not straight and are the most common form of drainage
system. In a dendritic system, there are many contributing streams which are then joined
together into the tributaries of the main river (the branches and the trunk of the tree,
respectively). They develop where the river channel follows the slope of the terrain.
Dendritic systems form in V-shaped valleys.
Topography of N.Mountains
-Sharp edges ridges -pyramidal peaks -steep slopes -flat land -thin soil (slopes) thick
soil(valleys) -Bare rocks -scree/talus
Scree a mass of small loose stones that form or cover a slope on a mountain Glacier a
Compact mass of ice which moves very slowly down to valley by the force of gravity. Bare
rocks mountains with no vegetation snowfield land covered with permanent snow snowline
Imaginary line on high mountains dividing permanent snow cover abrasion erosional
process done by glaciers on high mountains, wears down or rubs away surface rocks
Plucking erosional process, glaciers on high mountains, plucks and pull surface rocks.

Natural drainage of Northern Mountains

• • Fast flowing rivers
• • Main river indus ( starts from Mansrowar lake in Tibet)
• • Indus river tributaries, shyok, gilgi and shigar rivers
• • Drainage features. Gorges, waterfalls, rapids, streams and springs

Western Mountains
This region consists of the mountain ranges, namely; the Waziristan hills, the Safed Koh
range, the Sulaiman range and the Kirtharr range (shown on map).
Topography
All of these ranges run in the North-South direction except the Safed Koh, which runs from
East to West. The Safed Koh mountain range is the only range, which has some existing
snow-capped peaks. Other ranges are quite dry. These mountains generally have bare rocks
due to low rainfall and in some cases very high temperatures (which leads to high rates of
evaporation). These mountain ranges have steep sided peaks along with deep narrow
valleys and gorges.

Drainage
The Safed Koh range is drained by River Kabul, which runs in West to East direction and
eventually joins River Indus. The Waziristan hills are drained by small seasonal rivers like
Kurram, Tochi and Gomal. These rivers run from West to East, and all are the Western
tributaries of the River Indus. The Sulaiman range is drained by small hill torrents and small
seasonal rivers such as the Bolan . These rivers usually lead to small inland lakes, where the
water collects sand then dries up (for example the lake Damas).The Kirthar range on the
other hand is drained by the River Hab (seasonal river),which flows in a North to South
direction and eventually joins the Arabian Sea.

Indus Plain
Divided into three
a) Upper Indus Plain (UIP) Attock to Mithankot
b) Lower Indus Plain (LIP) Mithenkot to Indus delta
c) Delta plain

Natural topography of Upper Indus Plain

flat land, few low hills, Quartzite/slate hills, thick soil (alluvium), Doabs. Sub features e.g
Bluff/scarp, alluvial terrace/bar upland or bars, Piedmont plains on foothills of Siwaliks
between Jhelum and Chenab.

Flood plains
A flood plain is a wide area of flat, low-lying land either side of a river channel. It is formed
by meanders migrating downstream and is composed of alluvium deposited by repeated
flooding.

At times of high discharge, a river carries large amounts of material in suspension. When the
river floods it overflows its banks and the water covers the surrounding flat land. The
increased friction between the water and the land reduces the velocity of the water and the
sediment is deposited.
Every time the river floods, another layer of alluvium is added, forming a flat flood plain. The
heaviest and coarsest material is deposited first along the banks of the river whilst the finer
alluvium is carried further away before being deposited. Repeated flooding results in the
accumulation of the coarse silt next to the river, forming a natural embankment known as a
b levee.

• Active flood plains. Sub features

Levees, Braided channels, Dry channels, Ox-bow lakes, Meanders

• • Old flood plain. Sub features

Abandoned channels, remains of ox-bow lakes, Scars of meanders

• • Natural Topography of Lower Indus

Flat land, gentle slope, alluvium soil, few low hills, Limestone hills / custas, rolling and dunes
in arid part, Delta, AFP and OFP, piedmont plains, River indus on foothills of Suleiman and
Kirthar ranges.
Deltas
A delta is a low-lying area of land formed at the mouth of a river where the stream loses
velocity and drops part of its sediment load.

Formation of Indus delta

As a river enters the sea, its speed is checked suddenly and it begins to deposit its load. A
delta is formed when the load is deposited more quickly than the sea's currents and tides
remove it. Over time, the deposits build upwards and outwards to form a delta. As the delta
grows, sediments accumulate and block the path of the main river forcing it to split into a
number of smaller streams, known as distributaries. Gradually, the delta is colonized by
plants to stabilize it.

Characteristics of Indus delta coastline

Extensive area/ approximately 41,440 km2 of flat land due to river deposition of
sediment as the river losses velocity.
• The river Indus divides in to channels/distributaries due to deposition of
sediment blocking the main river channel and causing the river to divert its
course.
• There are extensive mangrove forests growing in the inter-tidal zone because
mangrove trees are specially adapted to low oxygen conditions as they have
aerial roots to absorb gasses.
• The Indus Delta used to flood regularly after the monsoon rains, however since
the 1940’s large scale irrigation schemes on the River Indus have reduced the
amount of water and sediment reaching the delta therefore the delta has
decreased in size.
• The Indus delta changes the regional shape of the coastline as elongated
‘finger-shaped’ low sandy areas separated by channels called distributaries form
an indented fan shaped coastline instead of a smooth coastline.

Cyclones
A cyclone is a tropical storm or atmospheric turbulence involving circular motion of winds.
Technically, a cyclone is an area of low pressure where strong winds blow around a centre in
an anticlockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and a clockwise direction in the
Southern Hemisphere. Cyclones occurring in the tropical regions are called tropical
cyclones. The tropics can be regarded as the region lying between 300N latitude and 300S.
Causes

Cyclones develop over warm seas when the surface temperature is more than 270C. The air
above the sea is heated, it expands and rises very rapidly creating an area of intense low
pressure. The warm, moist air spirals upwards, condenses and forms clouds and rain. Air
from the surrounding area spirals inwards to replace the rising air. This spinning air can
reach speeds of 200 km/hr and absorbs large amounts of moisture forming cumulonimbus
clouds which result in heavy rain. The cold air then sinks. The center of the cyclone is calm
and is known as the eye (see Figure 2.4).

Among all the atmospheric disturbances, cyclones are the most destructive. The diameter of
cyclone may range from 300 km to 600 km.

The most striking feature of a cyclone is its 'eye'. The can be seen clearly in satellite pictures
case of a well-developed cyclone. is small and almost circular; it coincides with area lowest
pressure has diameter ranging from 8 km to 50 km. warmer than rest storm area. More
violent storm, eye. Winds are very light eye, usually not 25 30/hr rain practically absent.
Contrast, strongest heaviest occur just outside this central eye.
The life cycle of a cyclone ends soon after the cyclone reaches land ('landfall'), because it is
cut off from its moisture source.
Characteristics of tropical cyclone
Warm sea surface, Temperature of at least 27°C, Location between 5 and 20° north or
south, An existing storm/depression, An area of low pressure

Storm surges
In addition to the waves associated with winds, abrupt surges of water known as storm
surges are associated with cyclones. They strike the coast nearly at the same time that the
centre of the storm crosses the coast. Most of the damage during a cyclone is done by the
storm surges, which sometimes wash over entire offshore and large areas on the coast.

CAUSES OF STORM SURGE:

A storm surge is a rise in sea level that occurs during tropical cyclones. Intense storms also
known as typhoons and hurricanes. The storm produces strong winds that push the water
into shore, which can lead to flooding. A storm surge is primarily caused by the relationship
between the winds and ocean’s surface. The low pressure of the storm has minimal
contribution. The wind circulates around the surface and produces a vertical circulation in
the ocean.

CHARACTERISTICS OF STORM SURGES:

1. Fast moving storms.
2. High surges along the open coast and lower surges along sheltered bays.
3. Slow moving storms result in flooding inside bays.
4. Large storms affect longer stretches of coast line.
1.3.3. RIVER FLOODS
Rivers provide an attraction for human settlement and economic development. Water is a
vital resource to people for drinking, washing, industrial processes, leisure, agriculture and
transport. However, excessive water in the rivers may cause floods.
The Indus and its tributaries swell, and almost every year overflows their banks. The flood in
most years is not serious. However every 7 to 8 years there are severe floods.
CAUSES OF FLOODS IN PAKISTAN:

Physical/natural causes

Pakistan’s monsoon climate causes heavy rainfall from June to September. Approximately
75% of Pakistan’s rainfall occurs during monsoon season increasing over-land and river flow
and resulting in periodic flooding in cities such as Karachi and rural areas.
• Glacial melt. Increasing temperatures in spring and summer in the Himalayas and other
mountain ranges result in glacial ablation. Much of the melt water flows into Pakistan’s
extensive river network and, as a large proportion for the country is part of a flood plain or
delta, this causes flooding in these flatter areas.
• The steep relief of the mountain ranges in the north and North West of Pakistan, for
example the Hindu Kush range, mean that there is rapid surface run-off which causes rivers
to flood areas downstream.
• The mountain ranges in the north and North West of Pakistan are formed of impermeable
rocks and have a very thin covering of soil. Therefore, nearly all precipitation and glacial
melt water flows over the land surface as surface run-off and into rivers. This increases river
discharge and flooding in the lower lying areas downstream.
• Coastal tropical cyclones may produce storm waves which prevent a river, especially the
Indus, from flowing into the sea which causes flooding of coastal areas. This process can
result waves of up to four metres when combined with spring tides.

Human causes

Deforestation in the upper courses of the rivers, such as the Himalayan foothills, results in
rapid surface runoff and soil erosion. Rivers silt up due to increased deposition of eroded
soil, this can raise the river bed, reduce river capacity and as a consequence increase the
likelihood of flooding. Trees also intercept precipitation therefore reducing flood risk;
therefore, deforestation may significantly increase flooding.
• Urbanisation and agriculture on rivers’ flood plains, especially the Indus, increases run off
and reduced interception by vegetation, leading to reduced lag times and increased
flooding.
• Poorly maintained river embankments, especially along the Indus, results in the
embankments collapsing during flood events and allowing flood waters to escape from the
river channel.
• Pakistan is at risk from the impact of human-induced climate change, which is thought to
result in increased rainfall, especially during the Monsoon period, increasing the flood risk.

CAUSES OF COASTAL FLOODS:

Coastal floods are caused by extreme sea levels which arise as a combination of four main
factors. Waves, tides, storm surges and sea levels. The worst coastal flooding occurs when
the peak storm surge coincides with high spring tide. The strong wind pushes the water up
and creates high waves. A flood starts when waves move inlands on an undefended coast or
over top. The waves attack shore, time and again.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COASTAL FLOODS:
1. Water level drops and rises with the tide.
2. At high tide the water may flow in and at low tide it may recede again.
3. Once it overtops and breach the defences, the sea enters fast but slows down when it
spreads over a large area.

ENERGY RESOURCES
Energy can be obtained from various sources, e.g. fuels, water and sunlight. These are either
renewable or nonrenewable resources. Energy exits in various forms like heat, light, electrical
and chemical. All forms of energy can be converted into power, which can be used to do work.
For example, when petrol or diesel is burnt in a car engine, its chemical energy is used to make
the car move. Electricity is used to operate machines and appliances.
Minerals.
Minerals are inorganic natural substances and one of the natural resources of a country. They are
obtained from under the surface of the earth, (though they may not be far under).
The exploitation of natural resources is the use of natural resources for economic growth,
sometimes with a negative connotation of accompanying environmental degradation.
RENEWABLE RESOURCES
The resources which are being continuously consumed by man but are renewed by nature
constantly are called as Renewable Resources. These resources are inexhaustible because
they cannot be exhausted permanently. Renewable resources are also called as ‘Non-
Conventional’ sources of energy.
Examples
⦿ Solar energy
⦿ Wind energy
⦿ Tidal energy
⦿ Hydro power
⦿ Geothermal energy
⦿ Biofuels
Renewable energy in Pakistan is a relatively underdeveloped sector; however, in recent
years, there has been some interest by environmentalist groups and from the authorities to
explore renewable energy resources for energy production, in light of the energy crises
and power shortages affecting the country. Most of the renewable energy in Pakistan comes
from hydroelectricity.

Solar Energy
Pakistan being in the Sunny Belt and is lucky to have long sunshine hours and high insolation
levels and is ideally located to take advantage of solar energy technologies as shown in Fig.
2. This energy source is widely distributed and abundantly available in the country.
Harnessing the sun’s power is considered an attractive alternative because it is a renewable
resource, which causes no pollution. In contrast to conventional fuels, its use eliminates the
need for refining, transporting and conveying fuels and power over long distances. The use
of solar energy for heating and cooking purposes a more repaid pay off than other energy
alternatives because the basic technology already exists and need only minor refinements.

Wind energy
Pakistan has a considerable potential of wind energy in the coastal belt of Sindh, Balochistan
and as well as in the desert areas of Punjab and Sindh. This renewable source of energy
has however, not so far been utilized significantly. the coastal belt of Pakistan is blessed with a
God gifted wind corridor that is 60 km wide (Gharo ~ Kati Bandar) and 180 km long (up to
Hyderabad). This corridor has the exploitable potential of 50,000 MW of electricity generation
through wind energy.

In addition to that there have been some other wind sites have been exploited in coastal
area of Balochistan and some Northern areas. Most of the remote villages in the south can
be electrified through micro wind turbines. It is estimated that more than 5000 villages can
be electrified through wind energy in Sindh, Balochistan and Northern areas.

Why is it important to develop renewable energy resources?

Pakistan depends on imported non-renewable energy resources, therefore developing
renewable resources will help to improve Pakistan’s trade balance.
· Remote rural areas do not have access to electricity, therefore small-scale renewable
schemes will help local/regional development.
· Non-renewable resources are finite, therefore renewable energy is needed to ensure
energy security in the future.
Non-renewable energy resources contribute to global climate change, therefore renewable
resources are needed to reduce to reduce CO2 emissions.

Explain the benefits of exploiting one named renewable energy resource in Pakistan.
There are a range of renewable energy resources being exploited in Pakistan including biogas,
hydroelectric power, solar and wind. • Use of renewable energy can expand capacity and provide
electricity when there are shortfalls from other sources. This can reduce reliance on non-renewable
energy sources such as coal and oil • Use of renewable energy sources can help to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions which contribute to climate change. • Some renewable energy sources
can allow more remote areas to access electricity. Rooftop solar power has provided electricity to a
large number of people particularly in remote off grid areas which wouldn’t have had power
otherwise. Small-scale power installations like this have been supported by NGOs and have helped
bring people out of poverty. • Household and village level biogas plants allow more remote places to
access energy.

NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES
The resources which are non-renewable are called as Non-Renewable sources. The Non-
Renewable resources do not replenish and cannot be renewed. It took thousands of years of
time to form the non-renewable resources which exist inside the earth in the form of coal,
fossil fuels, etc.
Examples
⦿ Fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas)
⦿ non- metallic Mineral (rock salt, lime stone)
Metallic minerals (iron ore, chromite bauxite)
⦿ Nuclear Energy

Difficulties in exploitation of non-renewable energy resources in Pakistan

High cost of construction e.g. nuclear plants. Pakistan has limited financial resources for
such projects due to the trade deficit, and it is cheaper to import oil than develop such
projects.
• Non- renewable resources are generally located in inaccessible areas without sufficient
infrastructure for their development and exploitation, for example the coalfields in the
Tharparker region.
• Pakistan lacks trained engineers and earth scientists to help locate and exploit non-
renewable resources, and lacks the capacity to train additional specialists.
• The Sui gas field in Bolochistan is in a remote location and requires pipelines to transport
the gas. This increases the exploitation costs, and also means that the pipelines are a
frequent target of terrorist attacks. Consequently, the Frontier Corps to took charge of the
Sui Gas Fields in 2011, again increasing financial costs.
• Exploitation is a dangerous and expensive process. For example in coal mines, there are
risks of gases (methane) and tunnel collapse.

Assess the environmental impacts which may result from exploitation of one non-
renewable energy resource in Pakistan.
There are deposits of lignite coal in the Thar coalfield however these deposits contain
impurities called volatiles which produce large volumes of CO2 when burnt. The coal will be
mined by open cast methods. This will result in huge open pits that reach below the water
table. Once mining is finished, the pits will fill with water contaminated with sulphur, which
can contaminate the ground water making it acidic and damaging to local ecosystems. Any
unwanted waste from mining is piled up near to the open cast pit. Rainwater passing
through the waste will pick up heavy metals such as mercury and arsenic, which are then
transported to streams and rivers, damaging wildlife and water quality.
The negative environmental impacts can be reduced if careful methods of coal extraction
are enforced. For example, there are plans in Thar to line the reservoir tanks serving the
coal mines, therefore preventing contamination of ground water and resulting
environmental problems. Modern coal fire power stations can have ‘scrubbers’ that extract
pollutants before they are released into the atmosphere. This reduces greenhouse gasses
especially CO2.