American Journal of Business

ANTECEDENTS OF CONSUMER ANIMOSITY AND THE ROLE OF PRODUCT INVOLVEMENT ON PURCHASE

INTENTIONS
Ji Eun Park Sung-Joon Yoon
Article information:
To cite this document:
Ji Eun Park Sung-Joon Yoon , (2017)," ANTECEDENTS OF CONSUMER ANIMOSITY AND THE ROLE OF PRODUCT
INVOLVEMENT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS ", American Journal of Business, Vol. 32 Iss 1 pp. -
Permanent link to this document:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/AJB-08-2016-0028
Downloaded on: 19 February 2017, At: 04:18 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 0 other documents.
To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 1 times since 2017*
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by emerald-srm:173272 []
For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service
information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please
visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company manages a portfolio of
more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as well as providing an extensive range of online
products and additional customer resources and services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication
Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation.

*Related content and download information correct at time of download.

 ANTECEDENTS OF CONSUMER ANIMOSITY AND THE ROLE OF PRODUCT
INVOLVEMENT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS

Consumer animosity has gained considerable attention in the international marketing

literature as a determinant of foreign product purchase behavior. The developing research stream

on consumer animosity illustrates that feelings of animosity from a given country’s political,

economic, and social past are associated with their negative effects on foreign products,

consequently bringing decrease of consumption. The literature has confirmed the work of Klein
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

et al. (1998) in different contexts (e.g., Hoffman, Mai and Smirnova, 2011; Huang, Phau, and

Lin, 2010; Klein 2002, Leong et al., 2008; Nijssen and Douglas 2004; Russell, 2004), extended

the animosity model by investigating market or individual characteristics that impact animosity

(e.g., Klein and Ettenson, 1999; Ma, Wang, and Hao, 2012; Soham et al., 2006), and refined the

animosity construct (i.e. Jung et al., 2002; Ang et al.. 2004; Riefler and Diamontopoulos, 2007;

Harmeling, Magnusson, and Singh, 2015). However, animosity research has been mainly

confined to general products without identifying product type or high involvement products,

such as cars, television, computers, or appliances. Different product category on purchase

intention of foreign products with the negative impact of animosity remains unexplored. As such,

this article’s contribution is its proposal that international marketers can adopt to deal with

animosity depending on product category: low involvement vs high involvement.

As globalization of the social, political and economic environments continues in tandem

with the self-interested pursuits of individual nations, the resulting geopolitical externalities may

foster more consumer animosity, thus improving our understanding of consumer animosity and

how it affects purchase intentions becomes valuable for both academicians and practitioners.

1
 Therefore, the purpose of this study is to further our understanding of the moderating role of

product involvement on purchase intention and the sources of consumer animosity.

More specifically, the objectives of this study are threefold. First is to examine if the

effect of animosity is consistent across product categories of differing levels of involvement.

While animosity has been shown to affect willingness to buy (e.g. Klein, Ettenton, and Morris,

1998), we examine the role of product involvement on intention to purchase. Riefler and

Diamantopoulus (2007) note that nearly half the studies examined in the animosity literature
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

focused on the effects of animosity on products in general from a specific country. The

remainder examined effects on general products (e.g. Harmeling et al., 2015; Lee and Lee, 2013;

Nes, Yelkur, and Silkoset, 2012) or specific product categories, typically high-involvement

goods such as TVs, cameras, stereos, laptop, and automobiles (e.g. Klein, 2002; Klein et al.,

1998; Nijssen and Douglas, 2004; Fong, Lee, and Du, 2013, 2015). Riefler and Diamantopoulus

(2007) further point out that only by examining specific product categories can it then be

determined if animosity can influence all product purchases. The second objective of this paper

is to bring more clarity to the understanding of animosity by exploring additional antecedents of

animosity, specifically cosmopolitanism, consumer ethnocentrism, and susceptibility to

normative influence (SNI). The third objective is to provide guidelines to international marketing

managers who can better devise advertising strategies and branding plans for their international

markets.

The remainder of the paper proceeds as follows. First, we review world culture theory

which characterizes the environment which motivates individuals to consider their place in the

world with respect to other societies. Next we discuss each of the constructs of interest and the

theoretical relationships among the constructs in order to develop hypotheses. Then the research
2
 method and sources of data are described, and the results and implications for management and

research follow. For this research we have chosen to study animosity in the context of South

Korea (hereafter referred to as simply ‘Korea’) toward Japan.

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS

World Culture Theory

World culture theory is a sociological theory that refers to how individuals apply
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

meaning to living in the world as a single place (Robertson, 1992). Robertson (1992) describes

globalization as not only the compression of the world, i.e. ease and frequency of cross-cultural

interaction, but also as the “intensification of consciousness of the world as a whole” (p. 8). Thus,

an increased consciousness of the world as a single place prompts individuals to adopt different

views of world order that vary from a collection of closed societies to that of a single “global

village.” In this world-view, the individual views the world with the potential for becoming a

single community adopting all of humankind as a point of reference rather than individual

nations or societies. It follows logically then that individuals who have adopted such a global

perspective would be less likely to exhibit strong negative feelings or animosity towards national

groups because the very idea of national groups contradicts the overall perspective that all

humans belong to a single community. This type of post-nationalist view suggests that the

actions of governments (e.g. war, embargoes etc.,) would be less likely to influence individual

attitudes towards that nation’s people, firms and its products.

In the current study, the constructs, such as cosmopolitanism and consumer

ethnocentrism are posited to reflect such a world view with cosmopolitanism indicating an

unbiased processing of foreign cultural experiences (Cannon and Yaprak, 2002) and consumer

3
 ethnocentrism (the lack of) indicating an openness to foreign made products (Shimp and Sharma,

1987). The subjective norms of the cultural group should play an important role to reflect such a

world view since perceived group norms have been shown to predict attitudes (Terry and Hogg,

1996). In other words, consumers form attitudes toward a world depending on subjective norms

embedded in the country. Thus, we also examine susceptibility to normative influence to account

for subjective norms and the prevailing public opinion in the country of study. In brief, world

culture theory describes a post-nationalist view of humanity and offers an overarching

Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

explanation for the relationship between the three constructs of interest with animosity.

Discussion and hypotheses for each of the antecedents are discussed next.

Animosity

Klein et al. (1998) introduced the concept of consumer animosity and conceptually

defined it as “remnants of antipathy related to previous or ongoing military, political or

economic events”. Klein et al. (1998) empirically showed that animosity had a negative impact

on consumers’ willingness to buy products of countries for which consumers have animosity.

They also found that the negative feelings did not distort consumers’ quality evaluations of the

concerned products. Since then, many studies replicated and validated the behavioral impact of

animosity construct in the different context (e.g. Nijssen and Douglas, 2004). For example,

Witkowski (2000) showed that economic animosity and political disputes decreased American

consumers’ willingness to buy Chinese products and Nijssen and Douglas (2004) reported that

economic rivalry and war animosity decreased Dutch consumers’ willingness to buy German

products. More recently, Lebanese consumers’ animosity toward the United States had negative

impact on wiliness to buy American products in Middle East and North Africa (the MENA

region) (Mrad, Mangleburg, and Mullen, 2014).

4
 Research has also been undertaken to identify different types and dimensions of

animosity. Klein et al. (1998) identified two major types of animosity, war animosity and

economic animosity, but also suggested that animosity can have many other different sources.

Other researchers have proposed political and diplomatic issues as sources of animosity. Reasons

for such political and diplomatic animosity include governmental corruption and national

diplomatic policies (Witkowski, 2000); different official position about the war (in Iraq) (Amine,

2008, Russell, 2003); and nuclear testing (Ettenson and Klein, 2005). Moreover, new concepts of
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

animosity were investigated such as intra-country animosity between two ethnic groups, Jewish

Israelis’ reactions to Arab Israelis (Shoham et al., 2006; Rose et al., 2009), regional animosity

representing individuals’ preference for their own geographic region (Shimp et al., 2004),

historical animosity referring to strong antagonistic emotions accumulated over time and

contemporary animosity referring to situational in that it deals with recent economic disputes

(Lee and Lee 2013).

The antecedents of animosity are known that consumers harboring high levels of

animosity are more likely to be patriotic and older (Klein and Ettenson, 1999) and have a

tendency to harbor more dogmatism, nationalism, and less internationalism (Shoham et al., 2006)

and more perceived threat, antithetical political attitudes and negative personal experiences

(Hoffman, et al., 2011). Cultural similarity (Ma et al., 2012) moderates the negative effect of

animosity on the foreign product evaluation and its purchase intention. Furthermore, studies by

Fong and his colleagues extend knowledge of branding strategy and FDI entry modes such as

joint ventures, acquisitions, and wholly own subsidiary in the context of animosity in the host

country (Fong, Lee, and Du, 2013, 2014, 2015).

5
 Several studies have refined the animosity construct. Jung et al. (2002) suggest a

typology of animosity categorized by two dimension; personal-national and stable-situational.

Riefler and Diamantopoulos (2007) challenge the traditional construct domain assumptions of

animosity and suggest that the animosity concept also encompasses individual perceived

differences. Hoffman, Mai and Smirnova (2011) addressed the development of a cross-nationally

stable scale of consumer animosity. Nes, Yelkur and Silkoset (2012) propose four-dimensional

construct of animosity including economic, military/war, people, and politics/government. Most

Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

recently, Harmeling et al., (2015) extend conceptual framework of consumer animosity using

cognitive-affective theories of emotion and introduced coping processes between different

negative emotions in animosity.

This brief review of consumer animosity highlights research gap in the field of

international marketing that extant literature suggests that animosity would have negative effect

on intention to purchase; however, we suggest that the relationship will differ based upon the

type of product, i.e. high versus low involvement. Moreover, in order to identify more detailed

segment of Korean consumers holding animosity towards Japan we seek to explore if world

culture oriented values contribute to the explanation of the animosity construct. The specific

hypotheses are put forward linking cosmopolitanism, consumer ethnocentrism, and susceptibility

to normative influence (SNI) to consumer animosity. The conceptual framework illustrated in

Figure 1 identifies these hypothesized relationships. In general, the hypotheses suggest that

individuals that exhibit the higher tendency of cosmopolitanism will be more likely to have the

lower level of animosity. Conversely, individuals who exhibit the higher tendency of

ethnocentrism and SNI will be more likely to have the higher level of animosity.

<< Insert Figure 1 about here>>

6
 HYPOTHESES

Cosmopolitanism and Animosity

The advent of multiculturalism in many countries provides opportunities for more people

to develop cosmopolitan tendencies. Cosmopolitanism refers to an individual’s openness to other

cultures and unbiasedness when processing foreign cultural experiences (Cannon and Yaprak,

2002) as well as a desire to learn about foreign cultures and lifestyles (Thompson and Tambyah,

1999). A cosmopolitan consumer orientation seeks to consume products from other cultures
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

(Caldwell et al., 2006). Consumers with global cosmopolitan orientation search for the best

product the world has to offer (Cannon and Yaprak, 2002), for example, French champagne,

German cars or Swiss watches because these items are the best in their product category.

Yet there is a vast majority of people who don’t move around the world and still have

strong ties to their national origins or their neighborhood and values of local communities.

(Calhoun, 2002). Nations are still important for them. As such, cosmopolitanism is defined in

opposition to local, and most importantly national, given that the nation has been the privileged

domain for understanding belonging (Beck, 2000). Nationalism refers to a perspective that one’s

country should be dominant and implies a denigration of other nations (Balabanis et al., 2001).

Contrary to cosmopolitan consumer orientation reflecting an open-mindedness and acceptance

concerning other nations and cultures, nationalistic people are more aggressive and prejudiced

towards other nations (Druckman, 1994). Furthermore, nationalism with history of war and

conflict raises ethnic identification, resulting in negative out-group attitudes (Brown et al., 2001)

and increased animosity (Shoham et al., 2006). On the other hand, Cannon and Yaprak (2002)

suggest that cosmopolitans are more likely to be open, tolerant and accepting of foreign products

without being affected by collective evaluation of a specific country. Animosity is a negative

7
 feeling towards a specific country resulting in negative impact on the products from that country.

It is more likely to be influenced by collective evaluation. Furthermore, a research found that

consumers in countries with a colonial heritage were happy to embrace the expatriate lifestyle

because of a quest for new and better experiences and feeling superiority to people with less

cosmopolitan orientation at the home country, which is consistent with elitism associated with

cosmopolitanism (Caldwell et al., 2006). We can expect consumers with high level of

cosmopolitan tendencies 1) seek to purchase the high quality of products in the world, 2) are not
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

limited to the national value regarding their evaluations and behaviors, 3) accept foreign products

without being affected by collective evaluation of a specific country, and 4) more enjoy

expatriate lifestyle due to their history of colonial heritage. Thus, we propose the following

hypothesis.

Hypothesis 1: Cosmopolitan value orientation is negatively related to animosity.

Consumer Ethnocentrism and Animosity

The concept of consumer ethnocentrism is defined as the belief among buyers that it is

inappropriate, or even immoral, to purchase foreign products, because to do so is damaging to

the domestic economy, costs jobs, and is unpatriotic. Klein (2002) concluded that animosity and

ethnocentrism are distinct constructs that play different role. Ethnocentrism leads consumers to

dismiss all product options originating from outside their home country, in the belief that their

own country is superior in all ways (see Shankarmahesh, 2006) while animosity is directed

towards a specific country (Klein, 2002; Klein and Ettenson, 1999; Klein et al., 1998). Both also

have unique consequences of consumers’ evaluations of the products. Animosity may negatively

impact consumers’ willingness to buy products from countries towards which they feel angry or

8
 hostile without necessarily distorting consumers’ evaluations of the quality of products, but

ethnocentrism is significantly related to both product quality judgments and purchase intentions

(Shimp and Sharma, 1987). However, at one level, ethnocentrism and animosity may be similar

constructs because they can stem from economic and political events and both provide insight

into consumers’ attitudes towards imported goods (Klein and Ettenson, 1999). On the other hand,

the relationship between consumer ethnocentrism and animosity may be hierarchical. The

relationship between traits has been shown to be hierarchical in nature with higher-order traits
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

influencing lower-order traits that are related to behavioral outcomes (e.g. Allport, 1961). We

propose that because of the targeted and specific nature of animosity that it occupies a lower

order than that of consumer ethnocentrism which is more general in scope. One such hierarchical

model known as the “3M Model” (Mowen, 2000) explains that traits at one level can directly

influence traits at any other lower-order level. Therefore, we propose consumer ethnocentrism as

an antecedent of animosity.

In general, the concept of ethnocentrism represents the universal proclivity for people to

view their own in-group as the center of the universe, offering protection against out-groups

(Shimp and Sharma, 1987). Consumer ethnocentrism gives the individual feelings of

belongingness and an understanding of what purchase behavior is acceptable or unacceptable to

the in-group. Given in-group identification, levels of ethnocentric tendencies tend to soar in the

presence of a perceived threat such as unfair economic trade, political disputes or disagreements,

or hostile memory of war. From the perspective of consumers, purchasing products from a

particular detested country may be wrong because it hurts the domestic economy and is

unpatriotic in their minds due to the ongoing disagreements of political and diplomatic items. In

9
 sum, ethnocentric people view their own in-group as the center of the universe and results in

negative out-group attitudes. Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis.

Hypothesis 2: Ethnocentric tendencies of consumers are positively related to animosity.

Susceptibility to Normative Influence and Animosity

Subjective norms have been found to influence attitudes (e.g. Terry and Hogg, 1996). In

the context of examining animosity towards another national group, the prevailing public attitude
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

in the home country towards another nation should to some degree influence the attitude of

individuals. The degree of influence that public opinion carries depends on the susceptibility to

normative influence of the individual. SNI is defined as the social influence to conform to the

expectations of another person or group (Burnkrant and Cousineau, 1975). A substantial body of

compliance and conformity research indicates that the influence of others affects individuals’

attitude and behavior (for a review, see Cialdini and Goldstein, 2004). Research has found that

high SNI individuals are concerned about public appearance, seek to gain social acceptance and

are willing to conform to others’ expectations. High SNI individuals tend to avoid presenting

themselves in a way that may result in social disapproval (Wooten and Reed, 2004). On the other

hand, low SNI individuals are presumably less concerned about what other people think.

Compared with low SNI consumers, high SNI consumers are more easily persuaded to join their

peers who support a boycott to abstain from buying products (Sen et al., 2001). Research (e.g.

Childers and Rao, 1992) also suggests that people’s decisions are strongly influenced by social

norms or their reference groups. Individuals consider social norms or reference groups to gain an

accurate understanding of and to effectively respond to social situations (Cialdini, 2001). High

10
 SNI consumers may feel pressure and, in turn, form attitude to comply with social norms or

expectations of reference groups.

In as much that world culture theory suggests that those adopting a worldview of a single

global community would have less animosity, SNI serves as a potentially countervailing force. If

the prevailing public opinion is one of animosity, the SNI would be positively related to

animosity. In cases where public opinion is one of admiration and liking, then the relationship

between SNI and animosity would be negative. In the research context of this study, public
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

opinion polls show high levels of distrust and bad relations between Japan and Korea (Taipei

Times, 2005), we propose that Korean consumers who are more susceptible to normative

influence will feel more animosity towards Japan to comply with social norms or their reference

group. In order to account for differences driven by the valence of the public’s attitude towards

the target country, we frame the hypothesis in the context of the Korean public’s documented

animosity towards Japan.

Hypothesis 3: Korean consumers’ susceptibility to normative influence is positively

related to animosity toward Japan.

Intention to Purchase: High Involvement vs Low Involvement Products

Researchers showed that animosity had a negative impact on consumers’ willingness to

buy products of countries for which consumers have animosity (Klein, 2002, Klein and Ettenson,

1999, Klein et al., 1998; Nijssen and Douglas, 2004; Witkowski, 2000). These studies

investigated the behavioral impact of the construct without distinguishing between types of

products. One important distinction may be the level of involvement. Baughn and Yaprak’s

(1993) review of country-of-origin research suggests that consumer involvement with the

product may be particularly important. Laurent and Kapferer (1985) identify involvement

11
 consisting of four dimensions: perceived importance, perceived risk with product purchase,

symbolic value of product, and hedonic value of the product. Under conditions of high

involvement, messages have greater personal relevance and elicit more personal connections

(Petty and Cacioppo, 1979) and individuals are more likely to engage in more information

processing and elaboration when forming attitudes compared to low involvement situations

(Petty et al., 1983). Extant research on animosity have often examined high involvement

products such as automobiles (Klein, 2002), movies (Russell and Russell, 2006), wine, clothing
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

and jewelry (Ettenson and Klein, 2005), or summed composite indicators of multiple products

(e.g. Klein et al., 1998; Shoham et al., 2006).

When products are perceived as more personally relevant or important, animosity likely

plays a greater role as individuals have more personal connections to the product. High

involvement products have more symbolic value and may signal support for the country of origin

of the product. In order to maintain attitudinal consistency with behavior, individuals with

animosity towards a particular country would avoid high involvement products from that country.

However, low involvement products seem less important, have less perceived risk, low symbolic

value and emotional appeal; therefore, the country of origin of the product may be deemed

irrelevant. Thus, for a high involvement product, we expect to find results consistent with prior

animosity research that shows that animosity negatively influences intentions to purchase.

However, we suggest that for a low involvement product animosity’s effect will be weaker than

the effect on purchase intentions of high involvement products.

Hypothesis 4: Consumer animosity has a stronger negative effect on purchase

intentions for high (vs. low) involvement products from a country
viewed with animosity.

12
 METHODOLODY

Choice of Country Context

Despite improving relations between South Korea and Japan, negative memories of past

events especially those related to the Second World War persist. Under Japanese colonial

occupation for 35 years from 1910 to 1945, the Korean people experienced terrible atrocities as

Japan exploited Korea during its effort to win the Second World War. According to Ang et al.
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

(2004), Korean national animosity towards Japan has not changed. Despite repeated and

continuing efforts to try to improve the bilateral relationship, Korea appears to harbor painful

and persistent memories of Japanese colonization. Resentment is fueled by these memories

whenever political and diplomatic issues cause disagreements. In sum, the Japanese occupation

of Korea in the Second World War, and more recently, the territorial disputes, political

differences and the Japanese government’s attempt to distort or deny previous war-time

wrongdoings has resulted in long-standing tensions between Korea and Japan. Given the

background and relationship between the two countries, the study of Korean animosity towards

Japan is an appropriate setting for this study.

Sample

In conducting international research, non-probabilistic methods have been commonly

employed (e.g. Klein et al., 1998). In this study, a convenience sample from Korea was used and

Japan is employed as the target of animosity. Surveys were completed by employees of several

firms in Seoul and Kyoungki because of their fairly high percentage of population and high

degree of market integration in Korea. The research team distributed the questionnaires and

waited for each to be completed on-site.

13
 The questionnaire consisted of several sections, with items using 7-point Likert scales.

Items employed to measure the various constructs of interest are contained in the Appendix.

Given the items were first developed in English, the initial draft survey was assessed for cultural

compatibility and adequacy for a Korean sample by native speakers fluent in English (Craig and

Douglas, 2001). Minor modifications were made, based on their feedback, to ensure that all

items to be employed were appropriate, adequate, and meaningful for respondents. The survey

was then translated from English to Korean and back-translated to English independently by two
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

separate native Korean speakers. A review of the back-translation suggested that the Korean

language survey was comparable to the English language survey. A total of 240 surveys were

completed. After eliminating 45 incomplete cases, the final sample consisted of 195 usable

responses. The sample is approximately half female while remaining demographics indicate a

relatively young sample with average to above average income and education levels, see Table 1.

<<Insert Table 1 about here>>

Measures

Established scales were adapted to measure each of the constructs of interest. The

Appendix reports the psychometric properties of all scales employed and Table 2 reports

correlations between model constructs. Each item was measured using 7-point Likert scales.

Animosity was measured similar to Klein, et al. (1998) as a second-order latent construct. In

addition to the one first-order item and second-order items for war animosity and economic

animosity, another latent construct political animosity was added. Political animosity is defined

as a source of enmity in the original study by Klein, et al. (1998) along with war and economic

animosity. Furthermore, as we noted earlier, political dispute or disagreement is one of the major

sources that Korean consumers hold animosity towards Japan. Three scales of SNI were selected

14
 from the research of Bearden, Netemeyer, and Teel (1989), 4 items of consumer ethnocentrism

were chosen from the research of Shimp and Sharma (1987), and 6 cosmopolitanism items were

used from Yoon, Cannon, and Yaprak’s research (1995).

For this study, two products were employed to represent high and low involvement

products. High involvement products are purchased with a great deal of time or cognitive effort

as these products involve greater consumer expenditure or are seen as more risky, while low-

involvement products are bought frequently with a minimum of thought and effort (Radder and
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

Huang, 2008, Wong et al., 2008). Some product categories such as television sets, washing

machines, automobiles and cameras tend to command higher levels of involvement than products

such as instant coffees, breakfast cereals, breads, and mouthwashes (e.g. see Laurent and

Kapferer, 1985). In this study the products used were a digital camera for high involvement, and

pen/pencils for low involvement (e.g. see Ahmed et al., 2004).

<<Insert Table 2 about here>>

Validity and Reliability

We evaluated the psychometric properties of the eight latent constructs involving 24

items in one confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using LISREL 8.8 (Jöreskog et al., 2001). In

addition, we examined the higher-order structure of animosity as a second-order factor of war,

economic and political animosity. We assessed the second-order construct of animosity in a

separate measurement model using six second-order indicators (two for each war, economic and

political animosity), and one first-order indicator and support was found for the higher-order

structure: war animosity (loading = 0.82, p < 0.001), economic animosity (loading = 0.51, p <

0.001), political animosity (loading = 0.77, p < 0.001), and the first-order item (loading = 0.50, p

15
 < 0.001). The model fit for the second-order animosity construct was acceptable: χ2 = 14.78,

χ2/d.f.(11) = 1.34, RMSEA = 0.04, SRMR = 0.02, NNFI = 0.99, CFI = 0.99.

Non-significant factor loadings, high modification indices, and high residuals forced the

elimination of three items. Subsequent to eliminating these items, unidimensionality and

convergent validity was evident by all items significantly loading on their respective constructs,

and the CFA produced respectable fit: (χ2 = 361.40, χ2/d.f.(163) = 2.22, RMSEA = 0.079, SRMR

= 0.07, NNFI = 0.91, CFI = 0.93). Discriminant validity was evident in that no confidence
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

interval for the phi correlations between pairs of variables contain 1.0 (e.g. Anderson and

Gerbing, 1988), and all squared phi correlations were less than the respective variance extracted

estimates for all pairs of constructs (e.g. Fornell and Larcker, 1981). We assessed construct

reliability by calculating composite reliability for each construct (Fornell and Larcker, 1981).

The scales’ reliabilities exceeded recommended thresholds and ranged from 0.77 to 0.96.

ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

A structural equation model was estimated in Lisrel 8.8 to assess the proposed model.

The results are summarized in Table 3. The analysis provides evidence for the hypothesized

relationships among all the variables of interest, i.e. susceptibility to normative influence,

cosmopolitanism, consumer ethnocentrism, animosity, and intention to purchase. As proposed,

the hypothesized antecedents are all significantly related to consumer animosity. Susceptibility to

normative influence is positively related (β = 0.23, p < 0.05) in support of H1; as is consumer

ethnocentrism (β = 0.19, p < 0.05) in support of H2. The data also provides evidence that

cosmopolitanism is negatively related to animosity (β = -0.23, p < 0.05), supporting H3. Finally,

in support of H, consumer animosity is negatively related to intention to purchase the high-

16
 involvement product, i.e. Japanese digital camera (β = -0.19, p < 0.05); but not related to

intention to purchase the low-involvement product, i.e. Japanese pen/pencils (β = -0.06, p > 0.05).

In sum, the results support the hypothesized model.

<<Insert Table 3 about here>>

External Validity of the Role of Product Involvement

To extend the examination of product involvement, hypothesis 4, in the proposed model,

we collected a second data sample. Referring to the FCB grid model (Vaughn, 1980, 1986), six
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

different product categories were chosen: digital camera, automobiles and life insurance for high

involvement products and pen and pencils, green tea and detergent for low involvement products.

Survey data were collected from undergraduate students enrolled in a university in Seoul, Korea.

A proportion of the enrolled students was instructed to take the survey questionnaire home to

administer survey to their parents while the rest of the respondents were instructed to answer the

questionnaire themselves. It was reasoned that this would achieve two objectives; first, it would

spread out the age distribution of the sample so that it is possible to generalize the result based on

age cohort. Secondly, the parents who aged above 40 or 50 would have better historical

knowledge and awareness of the adverse relationship between Korea and Japan. A total of 228

surveys were completed. After eliminating 10 incomplete cases, the final sample consisted of

218 usable responses. The demographics of the second sample include a much greater percentage

of the over 40 age group (39% vs 11% in the first sample), and less educated (only 29% have a

Bachelor’s degree or higher vs. 83% in the first sample), see Table 4.

<<Insert Table 4 about here>>

A structural equation model was estimated in Lisrel 8.80 to replicate hypothesis 4. The

analysis provides evidence for the hypothesized relationship. As predicted, in support of H4,

17
 consumer animosity is negatively related to intention to purchase the high-involvement product,

i.e. Japanese digital camera, automobiles, and life insurance (β = -0.19, p < 0.05); but not related

to intention to purchase the low-involvement product, i.e. Japanese pen/pencils, green tea, and

detergent (β = -0.07, p > 0.05), see Table 5.

<<Insert Table 5 about here>>

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

The findings of the study support the proposed animosity model in the context of Korea

and Japan. All three antecedents (SNI, consumer ethnocentrism, and cosmopolitanism) are

significantly related to animosity. Korean consumers who are more susceptible to normative

influence or more ethnocentric feel more animosity towards Japan, but Korean consumers who

have a more cosmopolitan orientation feel less animosity towards Japan. Perhaps the most

interesting finding of this research is the role of product involvement in the relationship between

animosity and Korean consumers’ intention to purchase Japanese products. This study

investigates the behavioral impact of animosity by distinguishing between types of products:

high (digital camera) – low (pens and pencils) involvement products. We found that animosity

negatively influences intentions to purchase for digital camera, automobile, and life insurance

(high involvement product) while animosity does not affect purchase intention for pens and

pencils, detergent, and green tea (low involvement product).

These findings are important because it establishes a boundary condition and identifies an

exception to the previous findings (e.g. Klein et al. 1998) that in general animosity has a negative

impact on consumers’ willingness to buy products of countries for which consumers have

animosity. In other words, the effect of animosity on purchase intention of products from a

18
 disliked country is influenced by the degree of involvement. The findings do not indicate a

preference for Korean products, rather a preference against high-involvement Japanese products.

World culture theory posits four different world views. One such view is called

Gemeinschaft 2 which views the world as being a single community, or at least the potential to

become so (Robertson 1992). Thus, the notion of animosity directed at other national groups is

incompatible with this view due to the post-national view of the world described by

Gemeinschaft 2. The results from this study affirm the Gemeinschaft 2 view explained by world
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

culture theory by offering evidence that greater cosmopolitanism and less ethnocentrism result in

less animosity transcending war, economic, and political disputes. In addition, those not adopting

a worldview of a single global community, but holding antagonistic sentiments toward a specific

country by subjective norms embedded in the country would have more animosity. The results

cannot offer the degree to which this world-citizen view is taking hold; however, continued

globalization compels individuals to consider their relationship to the rest of the world. What the

result implies is important since it suggests that people’s world view may translate into a

collective sentiment against a specific country. This connection between global outlook and

country-level attitude offers new insight to marketers who want to position their products as truly

global product with little connection with local identities.

Therefore, animosity should become a more relevant construct in international marketing.

This study found that Korean consumers still hold high level of animosity toward Japan and

these feelings negatively impact their purchase intentions of Japanese products despite S.

Korea’s high level of globalization (a nation’s degree of globalization ranks 29th ahead of Japan

and China) (Ernst & Young, 2011) and economic development (its market economy ranks 15th in

the world by nominal GDP and 11th by purchasing power parity).

19
 This study benefits marketing managers in a few important ways. It may be especially

relevant in emerging markets such as Korea and China who have long and complicated histories

and even in highly globalized and economically developed country. Marketing managers would

be advised to identify market segments containing consumers holding high level of animosity

and to target them with separate branding strategy excluding country of origin information. As

foreign brands enter these emerging markets the degree to which consumers identify those

brands with the country of origin could impact the brand’s success. Market research can include
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

measures of animosity to determine which segments are particularly high in animosity, as well as,

the degree of association between the brand and its country of origin. Based on such information

marketers may choose to alter the marketing strategies, perhaps even entering the market with

alternative brand names. Especially, when marketing high-involvement products rather than low-

involvement products, managers may want to avoid the image of the country of origin of the

product as individuals have more personal connections to the product and consequently

animosity plays a greater role. Thus, marketing managers should emphasize attributes unrelated

to the country of origin of the product when people hold adverse national sentiments against

countries selling the products. The findings of this study suggest that advertising and

promotional campaigns could employ salient spokespersons, role models and opinion leaders to

ease inherent animosity.

Like any other international marketing studies, this current study has also limitation. First,

we used a convenience sample, which limits the generalizability of the findings. However, our

data collection produced a sample that is somewhat representative of the demographics of

Korean consumers. Secondly, our research establishes that SNI, consumer ethnocentrism, and

cosmopolitanism are related to animosity. More research would be necessary to explore the

20
 linkage the relationships of these three constructs to the concept of animosity. We assume that

cars, cameras and life insurance represent high involvement products, while pens, pencils, tea

and detergent represent low involvement products. However, consumers may vary in their

perceptions of such products. Furthermore, investigation of additional antecedents, adding

product quality judgment in the model, and replicating this animosity model in the context of

other country settings would help determine if the proposed model is universal or culture specific

to Korea.
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

21
 REFERENCES

Ahmed, Z. U., Johnson, J. P., Yang, X., Fatt, C. K., Teng, H. S. and Boon, L. C. 2004. "Does
country of origin matter for low-involvement products?". International Marketing Review,
21, 102-120.
Allport, G. W. 1961. "Pattern and growth in personality", New York, Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, Inc.
Amine, L. S. 2008. "Country-of-origin, animosity and consumer response: Marketing
implications of anti-Americanism and Francophobia". International Business Review, 17,
402-422.
Anderson, J. C. and Gerbing, D. W. 1988. "Structural Equation Modeling in Practice: A Review
and Recommended Two-Step Approach". Psychological Bulletin, 103, 411-423.
Ang, S. H., Jung, K., Kau, A. K., Leong, S. M., Pornpitakpan, C. and Tan, S. F. 2004.
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

"Animosity towards economic giants: what the little guys think". The Journal of
Consumer Marketing, 21, 190-207.
Balabanis, G., Diamantopoulos, A., Mueller, R. D. and Melewar, T. C. 2001. "The impact of
nationalism, patriotism and internationalism on consumer ethnocentric tendencies".
Journal of International Business Studies, 32, 157-175.
Baughn, C. C. and Yaprak, A. 1993. Mapping country-of-origin research: recent developments
and emerging avenues. In: PAPADOPOULOS, N. & HESLOP, L. A. (eds.) Product-
country images: Impact and role in international marketing. New York: Haworth Press.
Bearden, W. O., Netemeyer, R. G. and Teel, J. E. 1989. "Measurement Of Consumer
Susceptibility To Interpersonal Influence". Journal of Consumer Research, 15, 473-481.
Beck, U. 2000. "The cosmopolitan perspective: Sociology of the second age of modernity". The
British Journal of Sociology, 51, 79-106.
Brown, R., Maras, P., Masser, B., Vivian, J. and Hewstone, M. 2001. "Life on the ocean wave:
Testing some intergroup hypotheses in a naturalistic setting". Group Processes &
Intergroup Relations, 4, 81-97.
Burnkrant, R. E. and Cousineau, A. 1975. "INFORMATIONAL AND NORMATIVE SOCIAL
INFLUENCE IN BUYER BEHAVIOR". Journal of Consumer Research, 2, 206-215.
Caldwell, M., Blackwell, K. and Tulloch, K. 2006. "Cosmopolitanism as a consumer orientation:
Replicating and extending prior research". Qualitative Market Research, 9, 126-139.
Calhoun, C. 2002. "Imagining solidarity: Cosmopolitanism, constitutional patriotism, and the
public sphere". Public Culture, 14, 147-172.
Cannon, H. M. and Yaprak, A. 2002. "Will the Real-World Citizen Please Stand Up! The Many
Faces of Cosmopolitan Consumer Behavior". Journal of International Marketing, 10, 30-
52.
Childers, T. L. and Rao, A. R. 1992. "The Influence of Familial and Peer-Based Reference
Groups on Consumer Decisions". Journal of Consumer Research, 19, 198-211.
Cialdini, R. B. 2001. "Influence: Science and practice", Boston, Allyn & Bacon.
Cialdini, R. B. and Goldstein, N. J. 2004. "Social influence: Compliance and conformity".
Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 591-621.
Craig, S. C. and Douglas, S. P. 2001. "Conducting international marketing research in the
twenty-first century". International Marketing Review, 18, 80-90.

22
 Druckman, D. 1994. "Nationalism, patriotism, and group loyalty: A social psychological
perspective". Mershon International Studies Review, 38, 43-68.
Ernst & Young 2011. Winning in a polycentric world: Globalization and the changing world of
business.
Ettenson, R. and Klein, J. G. 2005. "The fallout from French nuclear testing in the South Pacific:
A longitudinal study of consumer boycotts". International Marketing Review, 22, 199-
224.
Fifield, A. and Pilling, D. 2005. "Years of Rapprochement Efforts Threaten to be Undone by a
Japanese Prefecture's Territorial Claim". Financial Times, March 19.
Fong,C.M., Lee, C.L., and Du, Y. 2013. "Target reputation transferability, consumer animosity,
and cross-border acquisition success: A comparison between China and Taiwan",
International Business Review, 22(1), 174–186
Fong,C.M., Lee, C.L., and Du, Y. 2014. "Consumer Animosity, Country of Origin, and Foreign
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

Entry-Mode Choice: A Cross-Country Investigation". Journal of International Marketing,

22(1), 62-76.
Fong,C.M., Lee, C.L., and Du, Y. 2015. "Consumer animosity and foreign direct investment: An
investigation of consumer responses". International Business Review, 24(1), 23–32.
Fornell, C. and Larcker, D. F. 1981. "Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable
variables and measurement error". JMR, Journal of Marketing Research (pre-1986), 18,
39-50.
Han, J. 2008. "Dokdo Row Triggers Boycott Calls on Japanese Goods". Korea Times, July 21.
Harmeling, C.M., Magnusson, P., and Singh, N. 2015. "Beyond anger: A deeper look at
consumer animosity". Journal of International Business Studies, 46, 676–693
Hoffmann, S., Mai, R., and Smirnova, M. 2011. "Development and validation of a cross-
nationally stable scale of consumer animosity". Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice,
19(2), 235-252.
Huang, Y.A., Phau, I., and Lin, C. 2010. "Consumer animosity, economic hardship, and
normative influence: How do they affect consumers' purchase intention?". European
Journal of Marketing, 44(7/8), 909 - 937.
James, V. 2005. "How Korea became cool". New Statesman, March 7.
Jöreskog, K. G., Sörbom, D., Du Toit, S. and Du Toit, M. 2001. "LISREL 8: New statistical
features", Chicago, Scientific Software International.
Jung, K., Ang, S.H.,Leong, S.M., Tan, S.J., Pornpitakpan, C., and Kau, A.K. 2002. "A typology
of animosity and its cross-national validation". Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,33(6), 525-
539.

Klein, J. G. 2002. "Us versus them, or us versus everyone? Delineating consumer aversion to
foreign goods". Journal of International Business Studies, 33, 345-363.
Klein, J. G. and Ettenson, R. 1999. "Consumer animosity and consumer ethnocentrism: An
analysis of unique antecedents". Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 11, 5-24.
Klein, J. G., Ettenson, R. and Morris, M. D. 1998. "The animosity model of foreign product
purchase: An empirical test in the People's Republic of China". Journal of Marketing, 62,
89-100.
Laurent, G. and Kapferer, J.-N. 1985. "Measuring consumer involvement profiles". Journal of
Marketing Research, 22, 41-53.
23
 Lee, R., and Lee, K.T. 2013. "The longitudinal effects of a two-dimensional consumer
animosity". Journal of Consumer Marketing, 30(3), 273-282.
Leong, S.M., Cote, J.A., Ang, S.H., Tan, S.J.,Jung, K., Kau, A.K. and Pornpitakpan, C. 2008.
"Understanding Consumer Animosity in an International Crisis: Nature, Antecedents, and
Consequences". Journal of International Business Studies, 39(6), 996-1009 .
Ma, F., Wang, S., and Hao, W. 2012. "Does cultural similarity matter? Extending the animosity
model from a new perspective". Journal of Consumer Marketing, 29(5), 319 - 332.
Mowen, J. C. 2000. "The 3M model of motivation and personality: Theory and empirical
applications to consumer behavior", Boston, Kluwer Academic Pub.
Mrad, S.B., Mangleburg, T.F., and Mullen, M. R. 2014. "Do Consumers Forgive? A Study of
Animosity in the MENA Region". Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 26(2),
153-166.
Nes, E.B., Yelkur, R, and Silkoset, R. 2014. "Consumer affinity for foreign countries: Construct
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

development, buying behavior consequences and animosity contrasts". International

Business Review, 23(4), 774–784.
Nijssen, E. J. and Douglas, S. P. 2004. "Examining the animosity model in a country with a high
level of foreign trade". International Journal of Research in Marketing, 21, 23-38.
Petty, R. E. and Cacioppo, J. T. 1979. "Issue involvement can increase or decrease persuasion by
enhancing message-relevant cognitive responses". Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 37, 1915-1926.
Petty, R. E., Cacioppo, J. T. and Schumann, D. 1983. "Central and Peripheral Routes to
Advertising Effectiveness: The Moderating Role of Involvement". Journal of Consumer
Research (pre-1986), 10, 135-146.
Radder, L. and Huang, W. 2008. "High-involvement and low-involvement products". Journal of
Fashion Marketing and Management, 12, 232-243.
Riefler, P. and Diamantopoulos, A. 2007. "Consumer animosity: a literature review and a
reconsideration of its measurement". International Marketing Review, 24, 87-119.
Robertson, R. 1992. "Globalization: Social theory and global culture", London, Sage
Publications Ltd.
Rose, M., Rose, G.M., and Shoham, A. 2009. "The impact of consumer animosity on attitudes
towards foreign goods: a study of Jewish and Arab Israelis". Journal of Consumer
Marketing, 26(5), 330 - 339,

Russell, C. A. "Now showing: Global movies crossing cultural lines. Is resistance futile?".
CIBER Working Paper Series, 2003 San Diego, CA. San Diego State University.
Russell, D. W. and Russell, C. A. 2006. "Explicit and implicit catalysts of consumer resistance:
The effects of animosity, cultural salience and country-of-origin on subsequent choice".
International Journal of Research in Marketing, 23, 321-331.
Sen, S., Gurhan-Canli, Z. and Morwitz, V. 2001. "Withholding consumption: A social dilemma
perspective on consumer boycotts". Journal of Consumer Research, 28, 399-417.
Shankarmahesh, M. N. 2006. "Consumer ethnocentrism: an integrative review of its antecedents
and consequences". International Marketing Review, 23, 146-172.
Shimp, T. A., Dunn, T. H. and Klein, J. G. 2004. "Remnants of the U.S. Civil War and Modern
Consumer Behavior". Psychology & Marketing, 21, 75-84.

24
 Shimp, T. A. and Sharma, S. 1987. "Consumer Ethnocentrism: Construction and Validation of
the CETSCALE". JMR, Journal of Marketing Research, 24, 280-289.
Shoham, A., Davidow, M., Klein, J. G. and Ruvio, A. 2006. "Animosity on the Home Front: The
Intifada in Israel and Its Impact on Consumer Behavior". Journal of International
Marketing, 14, 92-114.
Terry, D. J. and Hogg, M. A. 1996. "Group norms and the attitude-behavior relationship: A role
for group identification". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 776-793.
Thompson, C. J. and Tambyah, S. K. 1999. "Trying to be cosmopolitan". Journal of Consumer
Research, 26, 214-241.
Vaughn, R. 1980. "How advertising works: A planning model". Journal of advertising research,
20(5), 27-33.
Vaughn, R. 1986. "How advertising works: A planning model revisited". Journal of advertising
research, 26(1), 57-63.
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

Witkowski, T. 2000. Effect of animosity towards China on willingness to buy Chinese products.
In: GARY MCLEAN, E. K., OSCAR ALIAGA (ed.) Managing in a Turbulent
International Business Environment. Hummelstown, PA: The International Management
Development Association-9th World Business Congress.
Wong, C. Y., Polonsky, M. J. and Garma, R. 2008. "The impact of consumer ethnocentrism and
country of origin sub-components for high involvement products on young Chinese
consumers' product assessments". Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 20,
455-478.
Wooten, D. B. and Reed, A. 2004. "Playing It Safe: Susceptibility to Normative Influence and
Protective Self-Presentation". Journal of Consumer Research, 31, 551-556.
Yoon, S.-J., Cannon, H. M. and Yaprak, A. 1995. "Evaluating the CYMYC cosmopolitanism
scale on Korean consumers". Advances in International Marketing, 7, 211-232.

25
 FIGURE 1
Conceptual Model

Involvement

Cosmopolitanism
H1(-)

H4(-)

Consumer H2(+)
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

Animosity
1 Purchase
Ethnocentrism Intentions
(-)
2
H3(+)

Susceptibility
to Normative
Influence

1. Animosity is a second-order latent construct comprised of war, economic, and political animosity, as well
as one first-order indicator, (e.g. Klein, Ettenson, and Morris 1998).
2. The relationship is hypothesized to be positive since the predominant attitude in Korea is one of animosity
towards Japan.

26
 TABLE 1
Sample 1 Descriptive Statistics
Variable Percentage
Total Sample Size: 195

Gender
Female 49%
Male 51%

Age: mean age = 32

20~29 40%
30~39 49%
Over 40 11%

Income
Below national average 18%
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

(below KRW3,000,000(USD2,280))
At the average income level 33%
(between KRW3,000,000 and KRW5,000,000
(USD 2,280 and USD 3,800))
Over the national average 48%
(greater than KRW 5,000,000 (USD 3,800))

Education
Graduate degree 27%
Bachelor’s degree 56%
2 year college degree 11%
high school graduation 5%
below high school <1%

27
 TABLE 2
Construct Correlations, AVE on Diagonal
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Intention to Purchase a Japanese
1 .96
Digital Camera
Intention to Purchase Japanese
2 .32** .96
Pens and Pencils
Susceptibility to Normative
3 .25** .33** .42
Influence
Consumer Ethnocentrism
4 -.05 -.02 -.21* .79
War Animosity
5 -.16* -.09 .08 .11 .93
Economic Animosity
6 -.14 -.02 -.10 .46** .40** .74
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

Political Animosity
7 -.21** -.13 .24* -.06 .64** .40** .63
Cosmopolitanism
8 .11 .12 .27** -.17* -.17* -.03 -.05 .50
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01

28
 TABLE 3
Sample 1 Standardized Results of the Hypothesis Testing

Standardized
Independent Variable Dependent Variable Coefficients Hypotheses

Suscept. Norm. Influence Animosity 0.23* H1: Supported

Consumer Ethnocentrism Animosity 0.19* H2: Supported

Cosmopolitanism Animosity -0.23* H3: Supported

Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

Intention to Purchase
a Japanese Digital -0.19* H4: Supported
Camera
Animosity
Intention to Purchase
Japanese Pens and -0.06 n.s. H4: Supported
Pencils

χ2 = 497.67; χ2/d.f. (229) = 2.17; RMSEA = 0.08; NNFI = 0.90; CFI = 0.92
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01
Note: The effect of income on purchase intention of high and low involvement products was controlled
for. The effect was non-significant for the high involvement digital camera (t=0.80), however, was
positive and significant for the low involvement pens and pencils (t=2.11).

29
 TABLE 4
Sample 2 Descriptive Statistics
Variable Percentage
Total Sample Size: 218

Gender
Female 38%
Male 62%

Age: mean age = 34

Under 30 46%
30~39 15%
Over 40 39%

Income
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

Below national average 14%

(below KRW3,000,000(USD2,280))
At the average income level 62%
(between KRW3,000,000 and KRW5,000,000
(USD 2,280 and USD 3,800))
Over the national average 24%
(greater than KRW 5,000,000 (USD 3,800))

Education
Graduate degree 2%
Bachelor’s degree 27%
2 year college degree 13%
high school graduation 55%
below high school 4%

30
 TABLE 5
Sample 2 Standardized Results of the Hypothesis Testing

Standardized
Independent Variable Dependent Variable Coefficients Hypotheses
Intention to Purchase
Japanese High
Involvement Products
-0.19* H4: Supported
(Digital Camera,
Automobiles, and
Life Insurance)
Animosity
Intention to Purchase
Japanese Low
Involvement Products
-0.07 n.s. H4 Supported
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

(Pens and Pencils,

Green Tea, and
Detergent)
χ2 = 133.88; χ2/d.f. (74) = 1.81; RMSEA = 0.06; NNFI = 0.93; CFI = 0.95
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01
Note: The effect of income on purchase intention of high and low involvement products was controlled
for. The effect was non-significant for both high involvement products (t=-0.57) and low involvement
products (t=0.06).

31
 APPENDIX. Sample 1 Measurement Scales with Source, Item Loadings, CR, and AVE.
Loadings
War Animosity (Klein et al. 1998)
(CR = 0.96, AVE = 0.93)
1. I feel angry toward the Japanese because of past wars. --
2. I will never forgive Japan for forcing Korean women to work as prostitutes during the war. 0.98
3. I will never forgive Japan for forcing Korean men into compulsory military service for Japan. 0.95

Economic Animosity (Klein et al. 1998)

(CR = 0.85, AVE = 0.74)
1. Japanese companies are taking advantage of Korean consumers. 0.86
2. Japan has too much economic influence over Korea. --
3. Japanese companies conduct business unfairly with Korea. 0.86

Political Animosity
(CR = 0.77, AVE = 0.62)
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

1. The Japanese government implements unfair policies against Korea. --

2. The Japanese government distorts history to make Japan look good and Korea look bad. 0.81
3. The Japanese government should admit its past wrongdoings against Korea. 0.77

Intention to Purchase Japanese Digital Camera

(CR = 0.96, AVE = 0.96)
1. The next time I buy a digital camera, I would consider buying a Japanese digital camera. 0.96

Intention to Purchase Japanese Pens and Pencils

(CR = 0.96, AVE = 0.96)
2. The next time I buy a pens and pencils, I would consider buying a Japanese pen and pencils. 0.96

Susceptibility to Normative Influence (Bearden, Netemeyer and Teel 1989)

(CR = 0.68, AVE = 0.42)
1. If I want to be like someone, I often try to buy the same brands they buy. 0.59
2. When buying products, I generally purchase those brands that I think others will approve of. 0.78
3. To be sure I buy the right product, I often observe what others are buying and using. 0.56

Consumer Ethnocentrism (Shimp and Sharma 1987)

(CR = 0.94, AVE = 0.79)
1. Purchasing foreign-made products is un-Korean. 0.84
2. Korean should not buy foreign products, because this hurts Korean businesses and causes 0.89
unemployment.
3. A real Korean should always buy Korean-made products. 0.93
4. It is not right to purchase foreign-made products. 0.90

Cosmopolitanism (Yoon, Cannon and Yaprak 1996)

(CR = 0.86, AVE = 0.50)
1. I do, or wish I could, speak at least one foreign language. 0.53
2. I like immersing myself in different cultural environments. 0.69
3. I enjoy getting news from all over the world. 0.86
4. World issues concern me a great deal. 0.78
5. When I make an important decision, I look for information and opinions from a diverse set of 0.65
sources.
6. I like to have contact with people from different cultures. 0.70
CFA fit: χ2 = 361.40, χ2/d.f.(163) = 2.22, RMSEA = 0.079, SRMR = 0.07, NNFI = 0.91, CFI = 0.93

32
 Responses to Reviewers
Manuscript ID AJB-08-2016-0028
" ANTECEDENTS OF CONSUMER ANIMOSITY AND THE ROLE OF
PRODUCT INVOLVEMENT ON PURCHASE INTENTIONS"

Reviewer #1 Comments:

3. Methodology: Paper's argument was developed only on the basis of few concepts
& ideas but the researchers have not grounded it firmly in an existing theory.
Authors could justify sample size and sampling method but the research design part
was not emphasised.
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)

First, we extended the literature review to present up-to-date literatures and

referenced recent studies such as Fong et al., 2013, 2014, 2015; Harmeling et al.,
2015; Hoffmann et al., 2011; Huang et al., 2010; Lee and Lee 2013; Ma et al.,
2012; Nes et al., 2012. We also explicitly identify contributions of other studies
and how our study fits within the literature.

Second, in sample 1, surveys were completed by employees of several firms in

Seoul and Kyoungki because of their fairly high percentage of population and
high degree of market integration in Korea and the demographic characteristics
of the respondents exhibited broad representation across the categories of income
and education. In addition, the newly added sample 2 offers some counterbalance
to sample 1 by including a larger portion of respondents over 40 years old and a
majority of respondents at an average income level.

4. Results: Results and Conclusions could partially tie together the other elements of
the paper. Purpose of the paper was to study the moderating role of Product
Involvement on Purchase Intention which has failed to address in the results.
Thank you for this feedback. After adding the control, intention to purchase
digital cameras (high involvement) is still negative and significant (t=-2.08) and
intention to purchase pens and pencils (low involvement) is still nonsignificant
(t=-0.74).

We have also added a second sample for external validity of the role of product
involvement that examines additional products, i.e. automobiles and life insurance
as high involvement and tea and laundry detergent as low involvement.

1
 5. Paper's findings could add to existing literature and could identify Implications
for future research and the outcomes of the study could also be applied to real
world.
Thank you for this comment. The Discussion has been re-written, i.e. study’s
findings from marketing perspective and study’s uniqueness and contribution.
Downloaded by University of Newcastle At 04:18 19 February 2017 (PT)