214 History of Geographical Thought

positive view of geography that is reflected in his book Nature and Man in America'
published in 1893. He attempted to elaborate the concept of man's role in changing
the face of the earth.
The first separate department of geography was established in the United States
at the University of Chicago in 1903 under the headship of the geologist Rollin D
Salisbury.
2. AMERICAN GEOGRAPHERS
The first separate university department of geography in the United States was
established at the University of Chicago in 1903 under the charge of Rollin D.
Salisbury who was basically a geologist. After that separate department of geography
were established at various universities of the United States and teaching and
researeh work got momentum. In the development of geographical thought in Anglo
America, the contributions of W.M. Davis, R.D. Salisbury, Mark Jefferson, E.C
Semple. Ellsworth Huntington, Griffith Taylor, Isaiah Bowman, Carl O. Sauer.
Hartshorne etc. are of much significance.
(1) William Morris Davis
W.M. Davis (1850-1934) was pioneer professional geographer in the United
States. He was a leading American geographer of the latter half of the nineteenth and
early twentieth century. He is well known for his contributions to geomorphology.
particularly for the formulation of 'geographical
cycle' (cycle of erosion). He helped in the
establishment of some professional institutions.
Due to his
effort geography acquired
independent status as a discipline in the
country.
W.M. Davis was born in Philadelphia in
1850. He graduated in 1869 from Harvard
University. In 1870 he was appointed as an
assistant at Argentina Meteorological
Observatory where he worked until 1873. He
returned to Harvard for further studies. At
Harvard, Davis was appointed as assistant
(demonstrator) to N.S. Shaler in 1976. Davis
was appointed as Assistant Professor of
physical geography in 1885 at Harvard
William Morris Davis
University, where he was promoted as Professor
of Geography in 1899. He occupied this chair until his
one of the founders of the Association of retirement in 1912. He wa
established in 1904. He was a visiting professorAmerican Geographers
at the University of Berlinwhicn
in 1909.
and at the Sorbonne University during 1911-12. While working with
Shaler, a g
geologist of his time, he learned the art of careful field observation and
of it in logical and impersonal argument. He also acquired the habit of making
seeing man
and his works as the part of the iandscape. He also acquired a clear appreciation
New Geography in Anglo America 215

the importance of process of change in explaining the different features associated

with the earth's surface.
Davis was influenced by the Darwinian theme of change through time. In his
Gret naper (published in 1884) on the development of landforms, Davis referred to a
ovcle of life', and used such terms as birth, youth, adolescence, maturity and old age.
Thus, the concept of geomorphic cycle (cycle of erosion) was first formulated in
1884. Davis presented his "Theory of Cycle of Erosion' in the International
Geographical Congress in 1829. He preferred to use the term, 'the geographical
Cvele' in the place of 'cycle of erosion'.
Cvcle of Erosion Theory : W.M. Davis postulated his theory of 'geographical
le'popularly known as cycle of erosion' in 1899 to present a genetic classification
and svstematic description of landforms. According to Davis, geographical cycle is a
period of time during which an uplifted landmass undergoes its transformation by the
process of land sculpture ending into low featureless plain called peneplain or
peneplane. According to him, three factors viz. structure, process and time play
important role in the origin and development of landforms of a particular place.
These three factors are known as Trio of Davis. Davis formulated that 'landform is
the function of structure, process and time.'
According to Davis, the cycle of erosion begins with the upliftment of
landmass. Now erosion starts and the whole cycle passes through three stages : (1)
youthful stage, (2) mature stage, and (3) old stage. "Davisian model of geographical
cycle received world-wide recognition and the geomorphologists readily applied
model in their geomorphological investigations. The academic intoxication of Davis'
mode of cycle of erosion continued from its inception in 1899 to 1950 when the
model had to face serious challenges though his model was being criticised from the
very beginning of its postulation." (S. Singh, 2007, 217).
German scientist Walther Penk pleaded for the rejection of Davisian model of
geographical cycle based on time-dependent series of landform development and
presented his own model of 'morphological analysis' or 'morphological system' for
the explanation of landscape development. But it is generally accepted that Davisian
model of geographical cycle provided a theoretical framework in reference to which
the observed landforms could be described and analysed.
Geographical Thought: Davis was leading figure in American geography in
his time. This is why that he was concemed with problems in geographic education
and he was expected to state his position in regard to the nature and methodology of
Beography. In this regard his paper entitled 'An Inductive Study of the Content of
deography' was published in 1906 in which he had clarified that the essence of his
Pproach to geography was to seek cause and effect generalization usually between
Horganic elements of the earth acting as control and the distribution of the earth's
Organic inhabitants serving as response.
Davis had deterministic approach. He was one of the most prominent advocates
of Darwinism (environmental determinism) in human geography. Following the
Davisian system, teaching of geography in American school system became oriented
216

philosophy of cause and effect relationship between physical

to a restricted This approach of teaching geography in the
environment and human response. time.
long
United States had continued fora
(2) Rollin D. Salisbury and geographer in the United
Salisbury (1858-1952) was a renowned geologist geography was established in th.
separate university department of
States. The first Chicago in 1903, and R.D. Salisbury was
United States at the University of
founder chairman. Salisbury was basically a geologist as he wae
appointed its
educated and trained in geology. He took over
his first appointment as an assistant professor in
geology in Beloid college in 1882. In 1891 he
went to Wisconsin University to join as assistant
professor in the department of geology. Next
year in 1892 he joined as Professor of Physical
Geography in the geology department at newly
established University of Chicago. In 1903 when
the department of geography was established at
the same university, he became professor and
head of the geography department.
Salisbury was a renowned scholar of
geomorphology and influential orator. In 1919,
Chamberlin was retired from chairmanship of
geology department and Salisbury was appointed
as chairman of the geology department. Rollin D. Salisbury
Salisbury wrote a textbook 'Physiography' which was first published in 1907. This
book continued as a popular text book in the United States for a long time. He also
wrote three other books on geography with his colleagues. These were (1)
Geography of Chicago and its Environs (1899), (2) Explanation of Topographical
Maps (1908), and (3) Elements of Geography (1912). Thus, there is a great
contribution of Salisbury in the extension of geographical study in the secondary and
higher education in America.
(3) Mark Jefferson
Mark Jefferson (1863-1944) has a special place in the history of American
geography. He was graduated from Boston University in 1884. In 1884 he wvent to
Argentina for six year. In 1890 he returned America and completed his specific study
in geomorphology in the guidance of W.M. Davis at Harvard.
of the most outstanding students of W.M. Davis. He Jefferson proved one
was appointed assistan
professor of geography at the Michigan State Normal College in Ypsilanti in 1901
where he worked until 1939. He was a
distinguished
America of his time. "Jefferson deserves a special place inteacher and researcher n
the history of Amertea
geography not only because of the enthusiasm he enkindled in his students, but also
for the many contributions to the conceptual structure of
his pen." (James and Martin, 1981, 296).
geography that came fro
New Geography in Anglo America 217

Jefferson was a famous methodological geographer. He insisted that the focus

of geography teaching should be 'man on the earth', in that order, not the earth and
man', He always attempted to promote a 'man-centred' or 'man-oriented' geography.
To lefferson, "The nature of geography is the
fact that there are discoverable causes of
distributions and relations between
distributions. We study geography when we
seek to discover them" (Martin 1968). To
Jefferson, geography concerned itself with man
'where they are, what they are like, and why
they are there. Jetterson's approach sought for
generalization regarding man's imprint on the
Jand. Thus, he believed in possibilism.
Mark Jefferson made outstanding
contributions in the field of urban geography.
He was the pioneer who presented a number of
outstanding papers during 1909-1920 dealing
with the distributions of urban people in Britain,
Japan and America. To Jefferson, "cities do not Mark Jefferson
grow up of themselves. Countrysides set them up
to do tasks that must be performed in central places." (Jefferson, 1931, 453).
Jefferson is known for his Law of PrimateCity' which was presented in 1939.
According to him, a country's leading city is always disproportionately large and
exceptionally expressive of national capacity and feeling. He called it the 'Law of
Primate City.
(4) Ellen Churchill Semple
E.C. Semple (1863-1932) was one of the most important protagonists of the
paradigm of determinism. Miss Semple was a
pupil of Ratzel who studied with him in 1891
92 at Leipzig. E.C. Semple was born in 1863 in
a elite family at Luisvile in Kentucky state of
the United States. After obtaining her graduate
degree, she started to work as a teacher in a
school at Luisvile. In 1891, she got her post
graduate degree in history. For higher education
In geography, she went Germany's Leipzig
University where she studied with Ratzel for
WO years (1991 and 1992). She was greatly
Stimulated by Ratzel's approaches mainly
reflected in his first volume of 'Anthropo
8eographie' published in 1882. In 1895 Semple
dgain went Germany and completed deep study Ellen Churchill Semple
in the guidance of Ratzel.
 218
appointed as Assistant Professor of Geography in the Clarl
E.C. Semnple was separate department of geography. She
University in 1897. She established their a
herself completely in the writing work, so that she resigned
was interested to engage human geography. She published her classic
from the post and started the writing of
"Influences of the Geographic Environment" in 1911. She started the study of
book, many times in coming
Mediterranean regions of the world and for this she travelledmaterials.
collected necessary
20 years toEurope, Asia and Africa, and
interesting, factful and
Semple was also a good orator. Her lectures were very
States. She
influential. Semple delivered lectures in various universities of the United of
delivered lectures as a visiting professor between 1906 to 1924 in the universities
Chicago and Oxford. She also provided her services as visiting professor to Colorado
University in 1916, and to California University in 1925. Semple joined as the
Professor of Geography in Graduate School of Geography at Clark University in
1921 where she worked until 1929. In 1921, Semple was also the President of
Association of American Geographers.
Semple's first professional book, 'American History and its Geographic
Conditions"' was published in 1903. With this publication, her professional status in
the field of American geographic scholarship came to be recognised. In this book she
offered a mechanical approach to describe the geographic influences on the course of
American history.
Semple is known mainly for her second book, 'Influences of Geogrpahic
Environment' which was published in 1911. This book is based on Ratzel's first
volume of Anthropogeographie' (1882). Here, Semple seems to be a stanch
determinist. The opening paragraph of her book starts :
"Man is a product of the earth's surface. This means not
of the earth, dust of her dust, but that the merely that he is a child
earth has mothered him, fed him, set him
tasks, directed his thoughts, confronted him with
his body and sharpened his wits, given him his difficulties that have strengthened
and at the sametime whispered hints for their problems of navigation or irrigation,
solution." (Semple, 1911, 1).
Semple's third book entitled, Geography of
Relation to Ancient History' was published Mediterranean Regions : Its
in 193lafter his death (1930).
discusses the influences of geographic environment on the This book
regions of the world. history of Mediterranean
In addition to these three books,
them, following are of much importance :Semple had published many papers, amongst
1. The Appalachian Barrier in
2. The Inhabitants of Eastern American History (1 897).
3. The Barrier Boundary ofKentucky Highland (1901).
the Mediterranean Basin and its
Breaches as Factors in History (1915). Northern
4. Closed Capes of Ancient
Mediterranean Regions (1927).
 merica
(5) Ellsworth Huntington 219
Ellsworth Huntington
half of (1876-1947) was one of
America in the first
human geography. He is the twentieth century. He the leading
geographer and famous as a made significantgeographers in
graduation from mete orol
Beloit ogist. geologist,his
After taking contribution to
went Turkey where he college
was (U.S.A.), as
he
teacher of geography in a appointed
college. He
a
there until 1901. During this period he worked
various parts of
Turkey and made travelled
geographical studies. During the
same various
also investigated the channel of period he
and collected extensive Euphrates River
research
1901. he returned his home materials. In
completed his postgraduate course country and
in geography
from Harvard University. Here he studied with
W.M. Davis.
For field study
Central Asia in l903-04 Huntington travelled
and Northern India in
1905-06. During his explorations, he found Ellsworth Huntington
much evidence to support the idea that
there had been a global progressive
desiccation since the glacial period. On the arrival
appointed instructor in the department of physics atofthehome country in 1907, he was
completed his doctorate thesis and next year he was Yale University. In 1909 he
appointed as an Assistant
Professor where he worked until 1915. In the last year of the First World War he also
worked in the vigilance department in army of the United States. In 1920 Huntington
was appointed as a research director in the department of geography at Yale
University where he worked untilhis retirement in 1945.
Huntington was a great thinker, writer and explorer in the first half of the
twentieth century. He wrote 28 books on his own credit. He also wrote about 30
books in co-authorship. Huntington in his life published more that 175 research
papers. The main themes of his writings were climate and its effect, evolution of
human civilization, geology and geomorphology, regional geography, human races
etc. Huntington's some of the famous books are as follows :
1. The Pulse of Asia(1907)
2. Palestine and its Transformation (1911)
3. Civilization and Climate (1915)
4. Principles of Human Geography (1920)
and Factors (1922)
O Climate Change: Its Nature
6. Earth and Sun (1923)
7. Character of Races (1924)
8. Human Habitat (1927)
 and
Civilization
Progress

Transportation
ofMeans
Stimulus
15.
Cultural etc.
drink
and
Food Manufacturing Literature
17.
Covernment
Lumbering 13.
10. Commerce 16.
Recreation
Education
18.
Hunting 9.
Farming
Herding
8.
19. 20.
Religion
Science
Responses
Human Clothing
2. 7.
Fishing 11.
Mining 14.
Heaith
Shelter
3. Tools
4. Art, Huntington).
1. 12. 21.
5. 6.

(after
OccUcations
Fundamental
b. Geography

Geography Needs
a.Material
Needs
Higher Human
Efficiency
c.

Human of
d. Elements
of Life
ofForms C.
Man
Elements 14.1.
Fig.
Plants
A.
B.Animals

Conditions
Physical
Globe Water
ofII1.jBodies Minerals
and
IV.Soil
II.Land
Forms
a
as
Earth Climate

1.
V.
 New Geography in Anglo America
Economic and Social 221
10. Principles of
EconomicGeography
Geography
(1933)
Civilization (1945) (1940)
1. Main Springs of
Cleworth Huntington made
was a scientific determinist who significant contributions
to human
well known for his climatic stressed the importance of climatic geography. He
Springs of Civilization'. His mainoptimum theory as the causal determinism. He
Elements of Human
ideas are as follows
: explanation
of 'Main
comprehensive view of the Geography:
elements of human Huntington has taken a very
response to
bio-physical
environment. According geography in
to him, the subject terms of human
geography may be classified into four types of human matter of human
fundamental occupations, (C) resources : (a) material needs,
efficiency, and (d) higher needs. Huntington has
rsented the elements of human geography in a chart (vide Fig. 14.1).
(i) Scientific
determinism, also
Determinism : Huntington was the
known as neo-determinism. In his champion of scientific
demonstrated his scientific determinism. He considered writings he has amply
factor of environment and has climate as the sovereign
development of human civilization. developed
Huntington
the climatic optimum theory for
was a most prolific writer and an
imaginative interpreter of the effect of climate on human life. In his book
Civilization and Climate', he advanced the thesis that
only in the stimulating climates of the temperate regions,civilizations could develop
and that the monotonous
heat of the tropics had destined the people of those
areas to live in
Thus, Huntington stressed on climatic influences on civilization inrelative poverty.
a deterministic
style while at the same time American geographers were fast moving away from the
philosophy of environmental determinism. Owing to this, Huntington's impact on the
philosophy and methodology of American geography was rather limited.
(6) Isaiah Bowman
Famous American geographer Isaiah Bowmen (1878-1950) was born in
Michigan city in the United States. He was
educated in Michigan State Normal College
(1901-02) and Harvard University (1902-03). In
1905, he was appointed instructor at Yale
University under famous geologist H.E.
Gregory, where he worked until 1915.
Meanwhile he got his doctorate degree in 1909
from the same university. In 1915 Bowman was
appointed Director of American Geographical
Society where he worked until 1935 (for 20
years).
Bowman reached South America in 1913
to
explore Andes Mountain particularly
mountain areas of Peru, Bolivia and ofChile. Isaiah Bowman
During this journey he made special study the
 History of Geographical Though
222
Mountain. He also passed through Atacama Desert. In
topography of Central Andes President of John Hopkins University where he
1935 Bowman was appointed Afer
University quite efficiently.
economic problems of the
attempted to solve
Bowman in 1948, the department of geography of John Hopkins
retirement of School of Geography.
University was named Isaiah Bowman's researcher. He wrote a number of books
Isaiah Bowman was a great wTiter and
papers on his own credit. His outstanding writings are as follows :
and research
United States (1911).
1. Forest Physiography ofthe
2. The Andes of Southern Peru (1916).
Geography (1921).
3. New World : problems in Political
4. Desert Trails of Atacama (1924).
5. Intemational Relations (1930).
6. The Pioneer Fringe (1931).
(1934).
7. Geography in Relation to the Social Sciences
8. Limits of Land Settlements (1937).
Major Fields of Bowman's Contributions
in
) Physiography : During his university education, Bowman was trained
geomorphology under the guidance of W.M. Davis at Harvard University. He had
worked asademonstrator at Yale University under famous geologist H.E. Gregory.
His book 'Forest Plhysiography of the United States' (published in 1911) describes
the physiogrpahic regions, soils and forests of the United States. His second book
The Andes of SouhernPeru' was published in 1916 which proved an important book
of geomorphology.
(i) Political Geography : Bowman made very significant contributions to
political geography. When Bowman was appointed as the chief territorial specialist
of the American Commission to negotiate peace, he applied his geographical skillto
study the poltico-territorial problems of Europe. His book, The New World
Problems in Political Geography' (1921) dealt with particular problems of particular
region, with proper description of the local environmental setting and historical
backgrounds. According to Hartshome (1976, 248), extraordinary effective use of
maps in the book has made it a unique contribution in the field of political
geography. Bowman was the pioneer in boundary studies in the United States. From
boundary studies, he moved on to the study of fringes.
(üi) Human Geography : Bowman also made significant contributions to
human geography. Bowman is known for his writing The Pioneer Fringe' which was
published in 1931. It studied the nature of problems and offered examples from thne
western U.S.A., Canada, Australia, South Africa, Siberia, Mongolia and South
America. Bowman in his, Geography in relation to the Social Sciences ha
described the subject matter and methodology of geography. Bowman was fast friene
of French human geographer Jean Brunhes. He published English translation
Brunhes's book and thus had done a very significant work to make it available to the
 New Geography in Anglo America
223
English spcaking people. Bowman was
philosophy and became a possibilist championed
geographer.
the cause of the possibilist
(7) Griffith Taylor
Criffith Taylor (1880-1963) is
known
as
was born in 1880 in London. His
father was a
were migratedto New South Wales in A
Austminingraliaengineer.
n-AmericInan 1892
geographer. He
his parents
ustralia.
Taylor got his early education in England and
Australia. He completed his graduation in 1904
from Sydney University. Taylor was basicallya
geologist. In 1907, Griffith Taylor was
appointed as geomorphologist in the mining
department of Sydney University. He got his
doctorate degree in 19l6 from the same
university on the topic Geological Structure of
Antarctica'. He worked as assistant professor of
physical geography during 1918-1920 at the
Melbourne University.
In 1920, when the new
postgraduate
depart1mernt of geography was established at
Sydney University, Taylor was appoint its
founder professor. Taylor for several years was Griffith Taylor
an active member of Australian Weather
Service. In 1928,
post of professor at Sydney University and went to the Taylor resigned from the
United States. After his
arrival to America he was appointed against the vacant post of Professor of
Geography at Chicago University, where he worked until 1935. In 1935, Taylor
joined Toronto University in Canada as Professor and Head of the geography
department where he worked until his retirement (1951).
After taking retirement from the Toronto University he returned to Sydney
(Australia) in 1951 and became National Professor. In 1958 he was elected founder
President of Australian Institute of Geographers.
Griffith Taylor who was famous as an international geographer wrote more than
40 books related to various aspects of geography. He also published a number of
valuable research papers. His well known writings are as under :
1. Australia : Physiographic and Economic.
Z. Australian Environment and its Influence on British Settlement.
3. Racial Geography.
4. Urban Geography.
S. Essays on Population Geography.
6. Environment, Race and Migration.
British and French Settlement.
I Canadian Environment and its Influence on
8. Cultural Geography.
. Geography in Twentieth Century.
 History of Geographical Though,
224

10.11. Geological Structure of Antarctica.

Our Evolving Civilization : An Introduction to Geopacific, Geographical
Peace.
Aspects of the Path towards World
12. Joumeman Taylor.
Main Aspects of Taylor's Contribution
Taylor was a multi-dimensional geographer. He made intensive studies anA
wrote on different aspects of geography including physical geography, racial
geography. cultural geography, urban geography,. population geography and political
below.
geography. Some of his significantcontributions are discussed
(0) Migration Zone Theory : Griffith Taylor presented a theory about the
origin and evolution of human races in 1919 which is known as 'Migration Zone
Theor' or Zone and Strata Theory!. In this theory he described the origin and
evolution of human races in reference of time and space. He told that all the present
human races were formed before last great ice age (Pleistocene Age). He believed
that the primitive man was differentiated into 5 major races long before the later
races reached Europe. According to him the evolution of human races took place in
Central Asia before the last lce Age. Differentiations in both racial features and
cultural artifacts were caused by migrations. Taylor writes (Taylor, 1951, 450) : "If
there is a centre where evolution is taking place, then after a considerable time. the
various differentiated classes will be found to be arranged in zones....so that the
most

Human races

Negrito
Negro
Australoid
Mediterranean

Nordic
Apine
Mongoloid
Fig. 14.2. Taylor's Migration Zone Theory (after G.
Taylor)
 New Geography in Anglo America 225

Surface

Negrito

Negro
ndea

Australoid

Mediterranean

Nordic

Alpine

Mongolic
Central Asia

Fig. 14.3. Diagrammatic Representation of Zone and Strata Theory

primitive is at the margin, and the advanced at the centre of the series of zones. Thus
the earliest class will have covered the greatest area in its migrations ...but buried in
the deepest stratum under the latest strata at the centre of evolution." According to
Taylor's 'Zone and Strata Theory, there is a common cradle land where cuitural
activity is greatest in the centre of the zones, and the primitive types move out irom
the cradle land to the margins. Thus Mangolic race is found in the centre (Central
Asia) and other primitive racial zones serially are : Alpine, Nordic, Mediterranean,
Australoid, Negro and Negrito.
which are
According to origin, Negrito is the oldest human race, evidences of
presently has
found in deepest zones while Mongolic or Mongoloid is latest race that
occupied the land of central Asia.
known as founder of Neo
(ii) Neo-determinism : Griffith Taylor is of 'Stop and Go
determinism. As a sharp reaction to possibilism he gave the dictum America, Taylor
Determinism'. With his personal experience in Australia and Anglo geographers to
advised the
showed complete indifference to possibilist thinking and
practise scientific determinism. Taylor (1951) writes : "Protagonists of the possibilist
the carrying of fertilizers to the Canadian Prairies or the remarkable
theory instance
human control. Idonot for
development of somewhat sterile Denmark as examples ofbut man is not a free agent "
important part ....
a moment deny that man plays a very the progress of country's
According to him, "man is able to accelerate, slow or stop who alters the rate hut
city,
development. He is like the traffic controller in a large
 History of Geographical
Thowght
226
phrase 'Stop and Go
progress, and perhaps the
not the direction of writer's geographical philosophy
(Tatham, 1951). Determinism'
expresses succinctly the Human Races : In 1921 Griffith Taylor presented his
(iü) Clasification
of
mainly on the basis of cephalic index and hair texture
classification of human racesfollowing 7 major categories.
He classified human aces
in
The Negritoes are short statured, wooly haired, flat nosed,
(1) Negritoes :
dolichocephalic and black people.
Negroids have physical features, most of which are associated
(2) Negroids :
with the Negritoes.
: They have wavy to curly hair, dark borwn to blacl.
(3) Australoids
complexion, dolichocephalic and short statured.
(4) Mediterranean Race : They are mesocephalic and have wavy to curly
hair, light brown complexion and medium stature.
(5) Nordic Race : Nordic people are mesocephalic and have curly-wavy hair.
blue eyes and long stature.
(6) Alpine Race : Such people are brachycephalic and mesorrhine, and have
wavy hai, light brown complexion and medium stature.
(7) Mongolic or Mongolian Race : Its main physical traits are brachycephalic,
straight to wavy hair, yellow complexion, medium stature and oblique eyes
with an epicanthic fold.
(iv) Climatic Graphs : Griffith Talor had devised two climatic graphs : (1)
climograph, and (2) hythergraph for graphic presentation of Australian weather
conditions. These graphs became very popular in geographical studies. To draw the
climograph he correlated mean monthly wet-bulb temperature as ordinates and mean
monthly relative humidity as abcissa. Twelve points relative to temperature and
humidity for each month are thus obtained and joined by straight lines to give a
twelve sided figure (polygon).
In Hythergraph each of the twelve monthly points show a temperature and
rainfall ratio. Here the temperature is plotted against the vertical coordinate and the
rainfall against the horizontal coordinate. This graph helps in a quick
of the relationship between rainfall and temperature of a place on understanding
the earth's surtace.
(8) Carl 0. Sauer
Carl O. Sauer (1889-1975) was one of the renowned
American methodological
geographer of twentieth century. He was born in 1889 in Varonton
State in the U.S.A. He completed his town of Missou
graduation in
During his graduation course he studied geography, 1908 from Varonton
sociology, COlceand
anthropology
zoology. He completed his Ph.D. in 1915 from
supervision of famous geographer R.D. Salisbury. Chicago University under u
Carl Sauer was appointed as
University in 1915 where he workedAssistant Professor of Geography at Micnig
until 1923. In 1923 when the new department
geography was established at
as Professor and Head of California University, Carl Sauer was appointed there
the Geography Department where until his
he worked
 New Geography in Anglo America 227

retirement in 1957. After retirement from active

service, he also worked for some years as
Emeritus Professor. Sauer in his entire academic
life were engaged in teaching. study and
research related with geographic problems.
Carl Sauer was a renowned scholar of
cultural and historical geography. He was a
great methodological geographer and scholarly
writer. He published many books and research
papers of international reputation. Some of his
much significant books are given as under:
1. Human Use of Organic World (1920).
2. Ozark Highlands : A Study in Upland
Geography (1920).
3. The Morphology of Landscape (1925). Carl 0. Sauer
4. Cultural Geography (193 1).
5. Introduction to Geography (1932).
6. Aboriginal Population of North-West Mexico (1935).
7. Introduction to Historical Geography (1941).
8. Agricultural Origin and Dispersal (1952).
9. Teaching of a Geographer (1956).
Carl Sauer's most important contribution is concerned with the development of
methodology of geography. As a methodological geographer he has explained in
details the concepts of chorology, landscape, possibilism and cultural hearth.
(i) Concept of Areal Differentiation : Following the works and ideas of two
eminent German geographers: Humboldt and Hettner, Sauer defined geography as
the study of things associated in area on the earth's surface, and the differences in the
nature of areal aggregations from place to place in regard to both physical as well as
cultural factors. To Sauer, geography is a comparative study of regions. The term
'areal differentiation' was first of all used by Carl Sauer in 1925 dealing with the
morphology of the larndscape.
"The concept of chorology in the study of cultural landscape promoted by Sauer
differed from the concept of chorology advocated by Hettner (and later by
Hartshorne) in that Sauer's concept was not a historical or anti-historical in spirit and
design. On the contrary, a keen historical insightwas viewed as an essential part of
the methodology pursued by Sauer and his students." (Dikshit, 2006, 109).
(ii) Concept of Landscape : Carl Sauer was pioneer who introduced and
explained the term "landscape' into American geography in 1925 publishing his
paper, "The Morphology of Landscape' This famous paper drew on the concept of
landschaft developed by German geographers, particularly by Passarge and
Schluter. He put forward the concept of landscape as an alternative to environmental
determinism. Sauer's concept of landscape included the features of the natural area
228 History of Geographical Thongh
and the forms superimposed on the physical landscape by the human activities h
he classified the landscape into two broad categories physical landscapea
cultural landscape. In fact, Sauer's attention was mainly on cultural landscape and
established cultural geography.
(ii) Possibilist Approach : Carl Sauer believed in possibilism. He wa
activist of possibilist movement in the Anglo America during the inter-war peri
Sauer at Berkley (California) called for such field studies which aimed at exposine
the areal expression of human activities. According to him, man behaving i
accordance with the norms of his culture, does works on physical and biotic element.
of his natural surroundings,and transforms them into the cultural landscape.
According to Sauer, man changes physical and biotic features of his surroun.
dings in terms of his cultural appraisal and transforms them into cultural landscane
To him, man is the agent of change in the landscape.
environment should not be considered as the main source of Accordingly physical
explanation of the
humanised landscape or cultural landscape (Hartshorne, 1960, 154).
(iv) Cultural Hearth : The term 'cultural hearth' was first
used by Carl Sauer
for the origin place of agricultural techniques. The centre or the
culture or cultural group from where the successful culture or cradle land of a
cultural group was
spread, effecting the changes in the natural landscape in ancient period is
cultural hearth. Carl Sauer has explained major cultural hearths of the termed as
including Mesopotamia, Indus valley, Hwang-Ho valley, Nile valley, world
African-Sudan, Central American and Peru-Andes. Agean-Greek.
(9) Rechard Hartshorne
Rechard Hartshorne (1899-1992) was one of the renowned American
geographers of twentieth century. He was mainly a methodological
contributed very much in the development of geographer who
geographical thought in twentieth century. He
was a geographer of international fame who
made extraordinary contri-bution in the
explanation of conceptual and methodological
aspects of geography.
Hartshorne was born in 1899 in Kittonning
city of west Pennsylvania in the United
He got higher education with States.
Princeton University. mathematics from
During 1921-1923
Hartshorne worked as assistant teacher at
Chicago. He got his Ph.D. degree in 1924 from
Chicago University. The topic of his research
was 'Lake Transport of Chicago.
In 1924,
Hartshorne was appointed lecturer
in the Geography Rechard Hartshorne
Department of Minnesota
University where he worked until 1940. He became
geography department at Wisconsin University where heProfessor and his
worked until Head of
retirement
 New Geography in Anglo America 229

(1970). After his retirement from Wisconsin University, Hartshorne served as

Professor Emeritus for some years. In 1960 he was awarded 'Daly Gold
Medal' by
American Geographical Society.
Hartshorne who is recognised as one of the eminent
geographers in America contributed amazingly in the development ofmethodological
thought. He wrote two classical books and about 50 articles mainly on thegeographical
aspects of geography. His books are : conceptual
1. The Nature of Geography (1939), and
2. Perspective on the Nature of Geography (1959).
Both books of Hartshorne are recognised standard book in
dealing with geographical ideas and history of their development.English language
books are complementary of each other. In his book The Nature of Actually both
had described the literature of geography in detail and Geography' he
of ideas of various renowned geographers of presented influential analysis
Germany, France, America and Britain.
This book was published in 1939 under the patronage of the
Association of American
Geographers which proved as a landmark in the history of geographical thought.
Nature of Geography (1939) described geography as the study of The
differentiation. areal
The Hortshornean tradition of areal differentiation was subject to a bitter
criticism in the United States, particularly by F.K. Schaefer (1953). Hartshorne
expressed his reaction to Schaefer's attack and criticism to his regional paradigm
through his articles published in 1955 and 1958 and his book 'Perspective on the
Nature of Geography' published in 1959. In this book he defined geography as that
discipline which 'seeks to describe and interpret the variable character from place to
place of the earth as the world of man'.
Hartshorne made very significant contributions in the methodological and
conceptual development of modern geography. He successfully attempted to explain
various philosophical (conceptual) aspects in very simple language including
concepts of earth's surface, areal differentiation, landscape, possibilism,and dualism
in geography.
(i) Concept of Earth's Surface : Hartshorne became successful to clear the
concept of earth's surface. He expressed that geography is a spatial science which
studies the phenomena on the earth's surface as a home of man. There are three major
forms of spatial science : astronomy, geology and geography. Astronomy studies
about celestial bodies and geology about the internal structure of the earth while
geography is concerned with the study of outer surface of the earth. Hartshorne has
clarified that for the point of scope of geography, earth's surface include lithosphere,
hydrosphere and atmosphere.
(ii) Concept of Areal Differentiation : Hartshorme supported the views of
Hettner and Carl Sauer and presented acritical review of the concept of areal
differentiation. In his Nature of Geography (1939), Hartshorne writes : "Geography
is that discipline that seeks to describe and interpret the variable character from place
230 History of Geographical Thouohr
to place on the earth as the world of man." Thus, he recognised the
differentiation. concept of areal
(ii) Concept of Landscape : Hartshorne found that the followers of
concept of geography as the science of landscape were far from
concept of landscape, leading to a good deal of confusion. The precise
Germanin te
their
"landschaft' has two or more distinct meanings and thus the concept becar
surrounded by a 'mystical significance'. Lack of clear definition as to the scone
geography as a landscape science was also source of confusion. Hartshorne clear.
expressed that landscpe is not an exact translation of German term landschas
Following Carl O. Sauer, Hartshorne recognised two types of
landscape and cultural landscape. landscape: natural
(iv) Possibilism : Like Carl O. Sauer, Hartshorne was
also supporter of
poss.bilism. He attempted to present man as a modifier of physical environment in
geographical studies. Herejected German concept of environmental determinism
the
and provide full support for French concept of
10. Other American possibilism.
Geographers
() Albert Perry Brigham : Brigham was a
of the Davisian tradition. He protagonist of deterministic concept
worked with Shaler and Davis at Harvard
1891-92. Later he joined the faculty of Colgate University in
1925. He was an active member of the University from where he relived in
1914 he was elected the Association of American geographers, and in
President of the
Geographic Influence' was published in 1915 inAssociation. His paper, 'Problems of
Annales of Association of American
Geographers.
(iü) H.H. Barrows : Barrows opposed the paradigm of
considered that geography should concentrate on the study of man'sdeterminism and
his natural association with
environment. To him adjustment was not
caused
environment was a matter of human choice. He
but by the physical
conditions must be studied in relation to man. He insisted that the physica
ecology. declared geography as the human
(iüi) D. Whittlesey :
who introduced Whittlesey was one of the leading American
his concept of
geography as a succession of stages 'sequent occupance, which denotes thegeographe view
genetics of each stage in terms of its of human Heoccupance which established the
'compage', a specific and total topicpredecessor. is also known for his
region. His outstanding work in concept 0
geograplhy is 'major
isan outstanding bookagricultural regions of the world'. His book 'Earth and economik
on political the Stale
(iv) F.K. Shaefer: geography.
Shaefer was originally an
of geographers economist joined the group
teaching in the Economics who
He criticised the Department of the lowa University 2
his scape from
Germany.
Hartshorne. He elaborated the nature ofexceptionalist approach of Hettner and
peculia
characteristics of geography as a social science. science and defined the
In addtion, there have
been a
a lot in the number
of in the United
States who contributed various prominent geographers
fields of modern The U.S
geography.
 New Geograply in Anglo America
231
geographers of twentieth century whose
contributions are not mentioned above are:
Harold McCarty, John Weaver, G.T.
Trewartha,
E.L. Ullman, B.J.L. Berry, M.F. Dacy, J.Q. J.W. Alexander, W.L. Garrison,
Buttimer, J. Russell Smith, P.E. James, C.F.Stewart, A.E. Ackerman, C.D. Harris, A.
Jones, J.E. Spencer, W.M. Thomas,
Wilbur, Zelinsky, G.F. Carter, Homer Hoyt, Howard J. Nelson, and many others.
3. VARIOUS
DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN GEOGRAPHY
After the establishment of the separate
University. professional geography had spread department
rapidly
of geography at Chicago
across the United States. "The
habit of independent thinking inspired by a
vigorous competition for new approaches to dedicated bond of scholars now led to
107), Until Second World War the study of geographical enquiry" (Dikshit, 2006,
geography as chronology, historical geography, physical geography, human ecology.
organization etc. was much frequent. But after Second landscape, spatial functional
changed conditions, there appeared many new World War, following the
new branches of geography. In approaches and developed various
twentieth century, American geographers made very
significant contributions in the development of physical
geography, human ecology, historical geography, human
geography, urban geography, populationgeography, cultural geography. political
geography, geographical thought and
methodology ete.
(1) Physical Geography : R.D. Salisbury, a
pioneer American geographer and
Professor of Geography at Chicago University published his Physiography' in 1907
which remained for a long time in the U.S.A. as a
reputed and popular text book of
geography. W.M. Davis, a great geomorphologist, postulated his 'theory of
geographical cycle' also known as 'cycle of erosion' in 1899. He stressed that three
factors viz. structure, process and time play important role in the
development of landforms of a particular place. To Davis, geographical origin and
cycle is a
period of time during which an uplifted landform undergoes its
transformation
process of denudationending into low featureless plain called peneplain. by the
(2) Human Geography : Ellsworth Huntington made
significant contribution
to human geography. Huntington was the champion of scientific deternminism (neo
determinism). He has taken a very comprehensive view of the elements of human
geography in terms of human response to physical and biological environment. He
classified the elements of human geography in three categories : physical conditions,
forms of life and human responses. He included 21 elements under human responses
that are actual elemnents of human geography.
E.C. Semple presented the version of the first volume of Ratzel's
'Anthropogeographie' (1982) in her book entitled 'nfluences of Geographic
Environment' (19|). She was one of the most important protagonists of the
paradigm of determinism. Huntington stressed the importance of climatic
determinism. Griffith Taylor presented his 'Migration Zone Theory' or 'Zone and
Strata Theory' in 1919. Taylor gave the dictum of 'Stop and Go Determinism' and
founded the concept of neo-determinism in human geography.
(3) Human Ecology : H.H. Barrows advised to express geography as the
study
 History of Geographical Thoughy
232
of man's adjustment to the natural environment called human ecology. The concept
ecology was set forth clearly for the first time by H
of geography as human address to the Association of American Geographer
Barrows in his presidential of Association of American
Geogranher
1922 which was published in the Annals
therefore, proposed that the specialized branches of geography, such
1923. "He, should be abandoned and
geomorphology, climatology, and biogeography
ecology as the unifying theme - the
geographers should concentrate upon human
organizing principle - for their work" (Dikshit, 2006, 107).
central
innovators in historical geography in
(4) Historical Geography : The two mainBrown, and CarlO. Sauer. In his work
first halfof the twentieth century were Ralf H. of the eastem
entitled "Mirror for Americans' (1943) Brown portrayed the geography second book
seaboard of the North America for the period around 1810. In his
had explained
"Historical Geography of the United States' (1948), BrownU.S. settlement by
geographical changes that had taken place in the course of the
European emigrants.
The other major contribution in the development of historical geography ofin
America was of Carl Sauer. Sauer and his students at Berkeley produceda number
studies of past landscapes. D. Whittlesey was another major contributor to historical
geography. He formulated the concept of 'sequent occupance'.
(5) Cultural Geography : The two chief innovators in cultural geography in
the United States were Carl O. Sauer and Griffith Taylor. Taylor presented his
'Migration Zone Theory' in 1919 dealing about the origin and evolution of human
races. He described the origin and evolution of human races in reference to time and
space. He believed that all the present human races were formed before last Ice Age
He also mentioned that differentiation in both racial features and cultural artiacts
were caused by human migrations.
Carl Sauer's book 'CulturalGeography' was published in 1931. He was Car
Sauer who first used the term 'cultural hearth'. J.E. Spancer and W.L. Thomas
published a book on cultural geography in 1969, entitled 'Cultu°ral Geography : n
Evolutionary Introduction to Our Hunanised Earth' It proved a standard text boo
on the subject.
(6) Geographical Thought: A number of geographers in America mau
tremendous efforts in the development of geographical ideas and methodolog
this regard, major contributors are W.M. Davis, Mark Jefferson, ElSMOHH.
Huntington, E.C. Semple, Isaiah Bowman, Griffith Taylor, Carl O. Sauer,
Barrows, and Richard Hartshorne.
0
The main contribution of W.M. Davis to geography was the concept factors
'geographical cycle'. He stressed that a landform is the result of three Cinyin
structure, process and time. Mark Jefferson presented his 'Law of Primate large
1939, and expressed that a country's leading city is always disproportionatelyadviset
and exceptionally expressive of national capacity and feeling. H.H. Barrows Th
entitledbuil
to express geography as human ecology. Carl Sauer published his article
Morphology of Landscape' in 1925. He was critical of the concept of geogrpalhy
New Geography in Anglo America
233
around the theme of man-land relationships. Sauer classified
groups :physical landscape and cultural landscape. landscape into two
Hartshorne's contributions in the methodological and conceptual
of geography are of great importance. He development
attempted successfully to explain various
philosophical aspects of geography developed in European countries: Germany,
France and Great Britain and Anglo America in very simple language and with clear
views. He elaborated the concepts of earth's surface, areal
dualism in geography etc. differentiation, landscape,
(7) Political Geography : The main contributors in the
geography in the United States are Isaiah Bowman and D.development
of political
Whittlesey.
book 'New World : Problems in Political Geography' (192 1) has been Bowman's
astandard book of political geography. Bowman was the pioneer in recognised as
in the North America. D. Whittlesey boundary studies
introduced concept of 'sequent
the
which expresses a succession of stages of human occupance. Whittlesey's occupance'
book The
Earth and the State' proved a standard book on political geography.
(8) Urban Geography : Urban Geography is well developed in the United
States. American geographers have presented outstanding works in the field of urban
geography. Significant contributors in the development of urban geography are Mark
Jefferson, H.M. Mayer, C.F. Kohn, Kingsley Davis, John W. Alexander, C.D. Harris,
Howard J. Nelson, H.L. Green, Edward Ullman, John Brush, B.J.L. Berry, W.L.
Garrison, Homer Hoyt, E.W. Burgess and many others. The major fields of urban
geography developed by American geographers include urban morphology - internal
structure and functional zones, functional classification of towns and cities, basic
non-basic concept (urban economic base), suburbs, urban problems and urban
planning etc.
"The Law of Primate City' was divised by Mark Jefferson in 1939. G.K. Zipf
propounded his 'Rank-size Rule' in 1941. The book of R.E. Murphy entitled "The
American City : An Urban Geography is a standard and popular book of urban
geography. C.D. Harris (1941) and H.J. Nelson (1955) presented functional
classification of American cities on the basis of statistical methods which provided a
new technique to researchers. Three significant models of urban expansion and urban
internal suructure (morphology) were developed by American geographers : (1)
'Concentric Zone Theory' by E.W. Burgess (1923), "The Sector Theory' by Homer
Hoyt (1939) and 'Multiple Nuclei Theory' by C.D. Harris and E.L. UIlman (1945).
In the development of 'Urban Economic Base', contributions of F.L. Olmstead,
M. Aurousseau, Homer Hoyt, John Alexander, Victor Roterus, J.M. Mattila and W.P.
Thompson, E.L. Ullman, J.W. Alexander are especially remarkable. The concept of
'Rural-Urban Fringe' was described by G.S. Wehrwein.
(9) Population Geography : The foundation of population geography as an
independent branch of geography was laid down by G.T. Trewartha in 1953
Working as a Professor of Geography at Wisconsin University, Trewartha was the
most important personality to elevate population studies to the status of a systematic
branch of geography. His book entitled 'A Geography of Population : World
 234
History of Geographical Though
Patterns' was first published in 1969. According to him,
concerned with understanding the regional population geography is
people. differences in the earth's covering of
John I. Clarke, former chairman,
Population
Geographical Union is credited with bringing out Commission of International
the first text on population
geography in 1965. Wilbur Zelinsky's book 'A Prologue to Population
(1966) is an introductory text on this newly emerging sub-field of Geography'
4. RECENT TREND IN
geography.
AMERICAN GEOGRAPHY
Recent trend in the American geography is
approaches :positivist approach, behavioural approach,characterised
radical
by some new
or Marxist approach,
humanistic approach and welfare approach. Anglo-American geography
revolutionary transformation of spirit and purpose in the 1950s and 1960sunderwent
in the form
a
of positivist approach which was
associated with
quantitative revolution in
geography. It was largely concerned with giving geography a scientific approach
with the application of statistical
methodology geographical research. W.L.
Garrison, Edward Ullman, B.J.L. Berry,
to
W. Bunge, R.L. Morrill,
the main contributors in the development of locational analysisJ.Q. Stewart were
and quantitative
revolution in American geography during 1950s and 1960s.
In the end of 1960s geography
behavioural revolution which was expectedexperienced
a
second revolution - the
to bring about a major
the discipline but any expectations of a transformation in
asserted the role of the individual in 'revolution' were at least premature. It
the methodological approaches to geography
and led to a thorough reappraisal of
man-environment relations.
In 1970s humanistic geography shared
with behavioural geography a general
concern for interpreting observable behaviour in terms of what
Humanistic geography is an approach to human geography which isgoes on in mind.by
the central and active role in accords to distinguished
human awareness, human agency and human
creativity. Behavioural geography sees geography as one of the
Contributions of E. Relph, M.S. Samuels, D. Ley, W. Kirk, Yi - Fu social sciences.
Tuan etc. in the
development of humanistic geography are of much significance.
The rise of radical (Marxist) thinking in
1960s and early 1970s. geography was developed in the late
William Bunge was pioneer to radical thinking in human
geography. Radical movement was a natural reaction on the part of
geographers to the intellectual, social and political environment of theprofessional
social (radical) relevance movement had taken a number of different forms,time. The
tothe inevitable division between liberals and radicals. leading
R.D. Dikshit (2006) states : Weltare geography corresponded to the
generai
shift in societal perspective trom the narrow economic criteria of development and
progress to the broader aspects of quality of life, so that distributional issues assumed
great itaportance ... Welfare geography addresses the question of redistribution in a
spatial context, and is invitably concerned with issues of equality and social justice in
the distribution of public goods and bads." Welfare geography is also concerned witn
the problems of environmental degradation, resource conservation and management.
wersityPress, New Geographlca
History of
sA comparative
Study in
-Folk : A 29,226
Review, Vol.
Pgraphlcal
Problemsand
Geography
wstic UniversityPress,
Michigan
astern MacGraw-HiltlBook
Geography, Economic
un American Cities
A MethodologicalExamination,