ELECTRONICS

AND
ROBOTICS
KRISHNA MARIE V. TAGAILO
SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
What is the definition of sources of Electricity?
A source from which useful energy can be extracted or recovered either directly or by means of a conversion or
transformation process.

Examples of Sources of Electricity

1. Hydropower Energy Hydropower or hydroelectric power, is one of the oldest and largest sources of
renewable energy, which uses the natural flow of moving water to generate electricity.

Impoundment Facility Water released from the reservoir flows through a turbine, spinning it, which in turn
activates a generator to produce electricity.

2. Wind Power It is the process by which the wind is used to generate mechanical power of electricity.

Wind Pump wind turns the propeller-like blades of a turbine around a rotor, which spins a generaator, which
creates electricity.

3.Solar energy is any type of energy generated by the sun.

Solar Power Tower

A heat-transfer fluid is heated and circulated in the receiver and used to produce steam. The steam is converted
into mechanical energy in a turbine, which powers a generator to produce electricity.

4.Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is heat that is generated within the Earth. Geothermal Power Plant Geothermal power plants
draw fluids from underground reservoirs to the surface to produce steam. This steam then drives turbines that
generatend electricity.

5. Coal Energy coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock with a high amount of carbon
and hydrocarbons. Coal Power Plants The heat produced by the combustible of the coal is used to convert water
into high-pressure steam, which drives a turbine, which produces electricity.
ELECTRONIC DIAGRAM
What is an electronic diagram?
A circuit diagram, also known as an electrical diagram, elementary diagram, or electronic schematic, is a
graphical representation that simplifies an electrical circuit. It serves as a visual tool for the design,
construction, and maintenance of electrical and electronic equipment.

Why are diagrams important in electronics?

Electrical drawings can be used to convey information about a wide range of details such as Electrical wiring,
pneumatic or hydraulic layouts, location of the equipment, and details of the equipment. By using electrical
drawings we would be able to locate the equipment.

What are the 4 types of electronic diagram?

Schematic Diagrams.
Wiring diagrams.
Block diagrams.
Pictorial diagrams.

Schematic Diagrams
The schematic diagram often called a ladder diagram, is intended to be the simplest form of an electrical circuit.
This diagram shows the circuit components on horizontal lines without regard to their physical location. It is
used for troubleshooting because it is easy to understand the operation of the circuit. The loads are located on
the far right of the diagram, and the controls for each load are located to the left. To understand the sequence of
operation, the drawing is read from the upper left corner and then from left to right, and from top to bottom.

Schematic Diagram example:

Purpose of a Schematic Diagram
The main purpose of a schematic diagram is to emphasize circuit elements and how their functions relate to
each other. Schematics are an extremely valuable troubleshooting tool that identify which components are in
series or parallel and how they connect to one another.

Wiring diagrams
The wiring diagram shows the relative layout of the circuit components using the appropriate symbols and the
wire connections. Although a wiring diagram is the easiest to use for wiring an installation, it is sometimes
difficult to understand circuit operation and is not as applicable for troubleshooting.

Wiring diagrams example

Wiring diagrams
The block diagram, also called a functional block diagram, is used to describe the sequence of circuit
operations. This diagram indicates by functional descriptions, showing which components must operate first in
order to get a final outcome. They do not refer to specifics like device symbols or related wire connections.
Wiring diagrams example
Electric circuits: Series Parallel and Series Parallel Combinations
What are electric circuits?
In electronics, an electric circuit is a complete circular path that electricity flows through.E

Examples of circuit configurations:

1. SERIES CIRCUITS
With simple series circuits, all components are connected end-to-end to form only one path for the current to
flow through the circuit:

2. PARALLEL CIRCUITS
With simple parallel circuits, all components are connected between the same two sets of electrically common
points, creating multiple paths for the current to flow from one end of the battery to the other:
Examples Of Series Circuits
The series circuit examples are as follows:
Water heater
Freezers
Refrigerators
Lamps
Bulb
Flashlights

The disadvantages of a series circuit: since there is only a single path for the flow of current, if the circuit
breaks, the appliance will be cut out of the current.

EXAMPLES OF PARALLEL CIRCUITS

The parallel circuit examples are:
Outlets in our home
Home wiring
Wiring in toys
Industrial installation

A parallel circuit is a type of circuit that includes more than two separate paths, allowing the flow of current
from the negative terminal of the component to the positive terminal of the component.

3. SERIES - PARALLEL CIRCUITS

 However, if circuit components are series-connected in some parts and parallel in others, we won’t be
able to apply a single set of rules to every part of that circuit. Instead, we will have to identify which parts of
that circuit are series and which parts are parallel, then selectively apply series and parallel rules as necessary to
determine what is happening. Take the following circuit, for instance:

A Series-Parallel Combination

Rules regarding Series and Parallel Circuits

With each of these two basic circuit configurations, we have specific sets of rules describing voltage, current,
and resistance relationships.

Series Circuits:
Voltage drops add to equal total voltage.
All components share the same (equal) current.
Resistances add to equal total resistance.
Parallel Circuits:
All components share the same (equal) voltage.
Branch currents add to equal total current.
Resistances diminish to equal total resistance.
ELECTRONIC THEORY

ELECTRON THEORY Result of groundbreaking work by scientists J.J Thomson and many more.

All matter is composed of tiny invisible units called atoms.

An atom consists of the nucleus and revolving electrons.

The protons and neutrons make up the central core, or nucleus,

Electrons spin around this central core in orbits.
Gr
Neutrons are neutral, with neither a positive or negative charge.

Semiconductors lie between conductors and insulators, can be

manipulated to control the flow of electrons crucial components
in modern electronics.
Electron Theory uses or purposes

Quantum Mechanics:
Electron theory is closely linked to quantum mechanics
Explaining the quantum states and energy levels of electrons in
atoms and molecules.
Solving Practical Problems:
Electron theory is used to solve real-world
problems, such as;
-optimizing power distribution networks,
-improving electronic devices' efficiency,
-and developing new materials with specific
electronic properties.

Magnetic Properties:
Electrons are also responsible for the magnetic properties of materials
Electron theory explains how magnetic domains align and influence the
behavior of magnets.
Innovation and Technology:
Electron theory continues to drive innovation in electronics and technology
It's the foundation of advancements in areas like:
microelectronics, nanotechnology, and quantum computing
ELECTRON THEORY HISTORY

EARLY NOTIONS OF
ELECTRICITY:
The exploration of electricity
began in ancient Greece.
The term "electricity" itself
derives from the Greek word
"elektron, " which means amber.
Thales of Miletus observed that
amber could attract small objects
when rubbed.

-Ben Franklin and the

Two Electricities:
In the 18th century, Benjamin Franklin conducted
experiments with electricity and introduced the
concept of positive and negative
charges.
-He proposed that objects possessed
two types of electricity.
-That like charges repel while
opposite charges attract.
J.J. Thomson's Discovery
of the Electron: up
-In the late 19th and early 20th centuries,
J.J. Thomson conducted experiments with
cathode rays.
-Discovery of the electron, a subatomic
particle with a negative charge, in 1897.
-Thomson's model of the atom, known as
the "plum pudding" model
-Proposed that electrons were embedded
in a positively charged sphere.

Rutherford's Nuclear
Model:
-In 1911, Ernest Rutherford performed
the famous gold foil experiment.
-Revealed that atoms had a small,
dense nucleus at their center.
-This discovery contradicted
Thomson's model and suggested
that electrons orbited the nucleus.
Quantum Mechanics:
In the early 20th century, a
new framework for
understanding the behavior
of electrons emerged.
Pioneers like Max Planck
and Niels Bohr made
significant contributions to
this field, developing
models that explained
electron behavior in
discrete energy levels.

Modern Electron Theory:

-Electron theory is an integral part of
quantum mechanics and quantum
physics.
-Electrons are understood to exist in
energy levels or orbitals around an atomic
nucleus, and their behavior is described by
wave functions and probability
distributions.
Uses of different tools and equipment in electronics

To solder the components, you need a soldering iron tool. To connect various components on the
board, wires are utilized. To cut and strip the wires, you
mayneed hand tools such as a wire cutter or wire stripper. Once the circuit is wired up, you can
ensure the continuity in the circuit using a multimeter.

Different Kinds of Tools

Soldering iron
Used to melt solder and create connections between components
on a circuit board.

Multimeter
Measures voltage, current, and resistance in circuits, helping
troubleshoot and test components.

Oscilloscope
Displays waveforms of electronic signals, aiding in analyzing
signals ' frequency, amplitude, and timing.

Fucntion Generator
Produces various waveforms like sine, square, or triangle, used for testing and calibrating circuits.
BreadBoard
Allows temporary circuit prototyping without soldering,
enabling easy testing and modification.

Power Supply
Provides controlled voltage/current to power electronic
circuits

Logic Analyzer
Captures and analyzes digital signals in a circuit,
useful for debugging complex digital
systems.

Hot Air Work Station

Used for desoldering and soldering SMD components,
like microcips.

Wire Strippers/Cutters
Tools to strip insulation from wires and cut them to
desired lengths.

Desoldering Pump/Braid
Used to remove solder from components and circuit
boards.
Digital Calipers
Precise measurement of components ' dimensions.

Printed Circuit Board (PCB) Etching Kit

Used to create custom circuit boards by etching
copper-clad boards.

Wire Crimper
Used for attaching connectors to wires securely.

Tweezers
Helps handle and place small components accurately

Antistatic Mat/Wrist Strap

Prevents electrostatic discharge that could damage sensitive
components.
Component Tester
Identifies and tests various electronic components like
resistors, capacitors, diodes, etc.

Soldering Station
A more advanced tool with adjustable temperature
control for precise solderin.

INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC GATES A

WHAT ARE LOGIC GATES?
Logic gates are the building blocks of digital
electronics. They are electronic circuits that operate
on one or more input signals to produce an output
signal based on a set of logical rules. These logical
rules are based on Boolean algebra, which was
developed by mathematician George Boole in the
Mid-19th century

HISTORYOFLOGICGATES
The history of logic gates dates back to the early 19th century, when mathematicians began to
develop Boolean algebra. This algebraic system, developed by George Boole in the mid-1800s,
provided a way to represent logical statements and operations using mathematic symbols and
equations.

The first practical application of Boolean algebra came in the form of vacuum tube circuitry, which
was used in early computers and other electronic devices. In the 1930s, Clauder Shannon, a
mathematician and electrical engineer, applied Boolean algebra to the design of switching circuits,
laying the foundation for modern
digital electronics.
Today, logic gates are used in a wide range of applications, from
simple calculators and digital clocks to complex computer
systems and telecommunicatons network.

INVENTOR/FOUNDER OF LOGICGATES

Claude Shannon is widely considered to be the founder of digital circuit design theory and the
inventor of the first electronic digital circuit. Born in Petoskey, Michigan in 1916, Shannon studied
electrical engineering and mathematics at the University of Michigan and MIT. In 1937, he wrote his
master’s thesis, which introduced the concept of Boolean algebra and laid the foundation for modern
digital circuit design. Shannon’s work revolutionized the field of electrical engineering and paved the
way for the development of modern computers.
BASIC LOGIC GATES
There are seven basic logic gates:
AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and XNOR.

AND G A T E
The AND gate is so named because, if 0 is called “false” and 1 is called “true” , the gate acts in the
same way as the logical “and” operator. The following illustration and table show the circuit symbol
and logic combinations for an AND gate. (In
the symbol, the input terminals are at left and the output terminal is at right.) The output is “true”
when both input are “true”. Otherwise, the output is “false”. In other words, the output is only 1 when
both inputs one AND two are 1.

OR GATE
The OR gate gets its name from the fact that it behaves after the fashion of the logical inclusive “or”.
The output is “true” if both inputs are “true”. If both inputs are “false” , then the output is “false”. In
other words, for the output to be 1, at least input one OR two must be 1.

XOR GATE
The XOR (exclusive-OR) gate acts in the same way as the logical “either/or”. The output is “true” if
either, but not both, of the inputs are “true”. The output is “false” if both inputs are “false” or if both
inputs are “true”. Another way of looking at this
circuit is to observe that the output is 1 if the inputs are different, but 0 if the inputs are the same.

NOTGATE
A logical inverter, sometimes called a NOT gate to differentiate it from other types of electronic
inverter devices, has only one input. It reverses the logic state. If the input is 1, then the output is 0. If
the input is 0, then the output is 1.

N A N D GATE
The NAND gate operates as an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. It acts in the manner of the logical
operation “and” followed by negation. The output is “false” if both inputs are “true”. Otherwise, the
output.
NOR GATE
The NOR gate is a combination of OR gate followed by an inverter. Its output
is “true” if both inputs are “false”. Otherwise, the output is “false”.

XNORGATE
The XNOR (exclusive-NOR) gate is a combination XOR gate followed by an
inverter. Its output is “true” if the inputs are the same, and “false” if the inputs are
different.

COMPOSITION OF LOGIC GATES

High or low binary conditions are represented by different voltage levels. The logic state of a terminal
can, and generally does, often change as the circuit processes data. In most logic gates, the low state
is approximately zero volts (0 V ), while the high state is approximately five volts positive (+5 V).

Logic gates can be made of resistors and transistors or diodes. A resistor can commonly be usede as
a pull-up or pull-down resistors are used when there are any unused logic gate inputs to connect to a
logic level 1 or 0. This prevents any false switching of the gate. Pull-up resistors are connected to Vcc
(+5 V), and pulldown resistors are connected to ground (0 V) .

Commonly used logic gates are TTL and CMOS. TTL, or Transistor-Transistor Logic, ICs will use NPN
and PNP type Bipolar Junction Transistors. CMOS, or Complementary Metal-Oxide-Silicon, ICs are
constructed from MOSFET or JFET type
Field Effect Transistors. TTL ICs may commonly be labeled as the 7400 series of chips, while CMOS ICs
may often be marked as a 400 series of
chips.

INTERGRATED CIRCUIT (IC) LOGIC

What are integrated circuits?
An integrated circuit (IC), sometimes called a chip, microchip or microelectronic circuit, is
a semiconductor wafer on which thousands or millions of
tiny resistors, capacitors, diodes and transistors are fabricated. An IC can function as
an amplifier, oscillator, timer, counter, logic gate, computer memory, microcontroller
or microprocessor.

An IC is the fundamental building block of all modern electronic devices. As the name suggests, it's
an integrated system of multiple miniaturized and interconnected components embedded into a thin
substrate of semiconductor material (usually silicon crystal).

An IC is the fundamental building block of all modern electronic devices. As the name suggests, it's
an integrated system of multiple miniaturized and interconnected components embedded into a thin
substrate of semiconductor material (usually silicon crystal).

History and evolution of integrated circuits

-In 1958 Jack Kilby an engineer of Texas instruments demonstrated successfully the first working
integrated circuit device. The first costumer to this new invention was the US Air Force. In the year
2000, Jack Kilby won the Nobel Prize in Physics for miniaturized electronic circuits.

Jack St. Clair Kilby (November 8, 1923- June 20, 2005)

-Was an American electrical engineer who took part (along with Robert Noyce) in the realization of
the first integrated circuit while working at Texas Instruments (TI) in 1958.
-In the late 1950s, inventors Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments, Inc., and Robert Noyce of Fairchild
Semiconductor Corporation found ways to lay thin paths of metal on devices and have them function
as wires. Their solution to the problem of wiring between small electrical devices was the beginning
of the development of the modern IC.

The First Integrated Circuit

EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

1.SSI (Small Scale Integration)
-Circuits consisted of few tens of components on the chip.

Example: Philips TAA320

2.MSI (Medium Small Integration )

-Devices came into existence which had 100’s of transistors on the chip. MSI devices were less
expensive and allowed more complex systems in very less space.

3. LSI (Large Scale Integration)

 -Devices which had thousands of transistor per chip.
Example:
1KB RAM is an example of a LSI device

4.VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration)

-is the process of creating an integrated circuit (IC) by combining thousands of transistors into a single
chip. VLSI began in the 1970s when complex semiconductor and communication technologies were being
developed. The microprocessor is a VLSI device. Before the introduction of VLSI technology most ICs had a
limited set of functions they could perform. An electronic circuit might consist of a CPU, ROM, RAM and other
glue logic. VLSI lets IC designers add all of these into one chip.
5. ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration)
-is an IC with more than one million components per chip.

6. SOC (System ON Chip)

-is an integrated circuit (IC) that integrates all components of a computer or other electronic system
into a single chip. It may contain digital, analog, mixed-signal, and often radio-frequency functions all on a
single chip substrate. SoCs are very common in the mobile electronics market because of their low power
consumption. A typical application is in the area of embedded systems.

7. WSI (Wafer Scale Integration)

 -is a rarely used system of building very-large integrated circuit networks that use an entire silicon
wafer to produce a single "super-chip". Through a combination of large size and reduced packaging, WSI could
lead to dramatically reduced costs for some systems, notably massively parallel supercomputers. The name is
taken from the term very-large-scale integration, the current state of the art when WSI was being developed.

8.3D-IC (Three dimensional Integrated Circuits)

-is an integrated circuit manufactured by stacking silicon wafers and/or dies and interconnecting them
vertically using through-silicon vias (TSVs) so that they behave as a single device to achieve performance
improvements at reduced power and smaller footprint than conventional two dimensional processes. 3D IC is
just one of a host of 3D integration schemes that exploit the z-direction to achieve electrical performance
benefits.
 Types of integrated Circuits
A. Digital integrated Circuit
-Digital IC's are the one's which work only on two defined levels 1's and 0's. They work on binary mathematics.
They can contain millions of logic gates, flip-flops etc integrated on a -single chip.
-Microprocessors and microcontrollers are examples of digital IC's.

B. Analog Integrated Circuits

-They work by processing continuous signals. They perform functions such as filtering, amplification,
modulation, demodulation, etc.
-Sensors, OP-AMP's are analog IC's.

C.Mixed Signal Integrated Circuits

- combination of Digital Integrated Circuit and Analog Integrated Circuit.

D. Microprocessor Integrated Circuits

-composed of millions of transistors that have been configured as thousands of individual digital circuits, each
of which performs some specific logic function.

D. Memory Integrated Circuits

- memory is composed of dense arrays of parallel circuits that use their voltage states to store information.
Memory also stores the temporary sequence of instructions, or program, for the microprocessor.

F.Application-specific Integrated Circuits

-An application-specific IC (ASIC) can be either a digital or an analog circuit. As their name implies, ASICs are
not reconfigurable; they perform only one specific function. For example, a speed controller IC for a remote
control car is hard-wired to do one job and could never become a microprocessor. An ASIC does not contain
any ability to follow alternate instructions.

G.Radio-frequency Integrated Circuits

-Radio-frequency ICs (RFIC) are rapidly gaining importance n cellular telephones and pagers. RFIC are analog
circuits that isually run in the frequency range of 900 MHz to 2.4 GHz (900 million hertz to 2.4 billion hertz).
They are usually thought of as ASICs even though some may be configurable for several similar applications.

H. Microwave monolithic Integrated Circuits

 -A special type of RFIC is known as a microwave monolithic IC (MMIC). These circuits run in the 2.4- to 20-GHz
range, or microwave frequencies, and are used in radar systems, in satellite communications, and as power
amplifiers for cellular telephones.

Advantages of Integrated Circuits

1. Since the soldering joints are not used in integrated circuits, this means that they are more reliable than
discrete circuits. This is due to the reduction in number of interconnections between components.

2. Due to fabrication of the various components on the integrated circuits, the components became much
smaller. This makes integrated circuits much lighter than discrete circuits. The integrated circuits thus
consume much less space than discrete circuits.

3. Integrated circuits are encapsulated with a silicon oxide layer during manufacture. This layer is tough and
resistant and thus gives the integrated an ability to operate at extremes of temperatures and other extreme
environmental conditions.

4. Integrated circuits are constrained to minimize the number of external connection. This has greatly
simplified the layout of these circuits and makes them easier to use.

5. Integrated circuits have been notice to use less power for operations.
Disadvantages of Integrated Circuits
1.If one component in an integrated fails, that means the whole circuit has to be replaced.

2. Integrated circuits have limited capacitances. This calls for external components if the capacitance needs an
extension.

3. It is impossible to fabricate transformers or any other kind of inductor onto the integrated circuits and
again calling for a discrete circuit.

4. Power that integrated circuits can produce is limited and calls for extension.

5. Integrated circuits are not flexible. Their components cannot be modified and neither can the parameters
of operation.

Importance of Integrated Circuits (IC) in todays Industry

First, the fact that they contain multiple components that are designed and tested to perform a specific task
means that the electronic designer can use them as building blocks within a circuit instead of designing many
separate components.

Second, and the more significant advantage is that they can reduce the size of components to allow a far
higher component density. Processor and memory chips contain millions of components in a package that is
only an inch or two across. The same circuit in discrete components would fill a room. We benefit by seeing
tiny products such as cell phones or laptop computers that simply wouldn't exist without integrated circuits.
Digital Circuit

Definition of Digital Circuit

digital circuit is a, electric circuit where the signal is either of the two discrete levels – ON / OFF or
0 / 1 or True / False.
Transistors are used to create logic gates perform Boolean logic.
Software like Electronic Design Automation (EDA / ECDA) are used to design digital
circuits. Both Paid and Free EDA Software are available online for Download

How Digtal circuit works?

digital electronic circuits, electric signals take on discrete values, which are not dependent upon time,
to represent logical and numeric values. These values represent the information that is being
processed.

The transistor is one of the primary electronic components used in discrete circuits, and combinations
of these can be used to create logic gates. These logic gates may then be used in combination to
create a desired output from an input.
Larger circuits may contain several complex components, such as FPGAs (Field-programmable gate
array) or Microprocessors. These along with several other components may be interconnected to
create a large circuit that operates
on large amount of data.

TYPES OF DIGITAL CIRCUIT

For ease of designing and understanding, Digital Circuits are divided into following 2 Types:

1. Combinational Circuits
A Circuit that gives the same output when given the same inputs. It is represents a set of logic
functions.

Examples:
Multiplexers, De-multiplexers, Encoders, Decoders, Full and Half Adders etc.

2. Sequential Circuits
A sequential circuit is a combinational circuit with some
of the outputs fed back as inputs. These circuits perform a sequence of operations.

Examples:
Shift Registers, Counter, Flip-Flop
PS: Both Combinational Circuits and Sequential Circuits can further be classified into smaller
types. But for ease of understanding I am not mentioning them here or things will get
confusing.

for ease of designing and understanding, Digital Circuits are divided

into following 2 Types:

PS: Both Combinational Circuits and Sequential Circuits can further be classified into smaller types.
But for ease of understanding I am not mentioning them here or things will get confusing.

Example of electronic equipment using digital circuit

Wristwatches Calculators PDAs (Personal Digital Assistant) Microprocessors

FAQS:DIGITAL CIRCUIT

What is a digital circuirt?

A digital circuit is an electronic circuit that processes and manipulates digital signals, which are
discrete voltage levels representing binary values (0 and 1). These circuits are the foundation of
modern electronic devices, performing functions like arithmetic, logic operations, and data storage.

How do digital circuit works?

Digital circuits work by using logic gates, which are fundamental building blocks that perform logical
operations. These gates process input signals and produce output signals based on predefined logic
rules. Complex circuits are created by connecting these gates in various configurations.

What are flip-flops in digital circuits?

Flip-flops are bistable multivibrator circuits used to store a single binary bit of memory. They are the
basis for sequential logic, storing information until it' s changed by an external signal. Common types
include D-type, JK, and T flip-flops, crucial for building memory elements in processors and registers.

What is a decorder in digital circuits?

A decoder is a combinational circuit that takes a binary input and activates one of several output
lines, typically in response to a specific pattern in the input. It' s often used to convert binary
information into a more human-readable or usable format, like driving a display or selecting a specific
device in memory
How do digital circuits differ from analog circuit?
Digital circuits process discrete signals (binary) that represent data as 0s and 1s, while analog circuits
deal with continuous signals representing a range of values.

Digital circuits are less susceptible to noise, easier to manipulate, and offer greater precision, making
them suitable for computation and communication tasks, whereas analog circuits are used for tasks
like amplification and signal processing.

Conversion of Binary to Decimal Vice Versa

Introduction:
The binary numbering system, is the basis for storage, transfer and manipulation of data in computer
systems and digital electronic devices.

Understanding Binary & Decimal

You may have heard that computer work on ones and zeros, but almost nobody today actually deals
directly with ones and zeros but ones and zeros do play a big role in how computers work on the
inside. Inside the computer are electric wires and circuit that carry all information in a computer.
How do you store information using electricity?
Well if you have a single wire with electricity flowing through it, the signal can be seen On or OFF but
that’s not a lot of choices, but it’s really important start. With one wire we can represent YES or NO,
TRUE or FALSE, 1 or 0, or anything else with only two options. This
On/Off state of a single wire is called a bit and it’s the smallest piece of
information a computer can store.
With more bits you can represent more complex INFORMATION. But to understand that, we need to
learn about binary number system.

In the decimal number system, we have ten digits from zero to nine, and that’s how we all learn to
count. In the binary number system, we only have two digits: zero and one. With these two digits, we
can count up to any number.
Decimal Number System
In a decimal number system, we’re all used to, each position in a decimal number has different value.
There’s a 1 position, the 10 positions, the 100 positions, and so on.

For example, a 9 in the 100 position is a 900.

Binary Number System
In a binary, each position also carries a value. But instead by multiplying 10 each time, we multiply by
2. So, there’s 1 position, 2 position, 4 position, 8 position, and so on.

For example, the number in binary is 1001. To calculate the value, we add 1 times 8, plus 0 times 4,
plus 0 times 2, plus 1 times 1. Almost no body does this math because computer do it for us.

Whats important is that any number can be represented with only ones and zeros or by a bunch of
wire that are on or off. The more wire you use the larger the numbers you can store.
With 8 wires, you can store between 0 and 255.

With just 32 wires, you can store all the way from 0 to over 4 billion. Using the
binary number system, you can represent any number you like.
STEPS IN CONVERTING BINARY TO DECIMAL

Method 1: Positional Notation

1. Write down the binary number and list the powers of 2 from right to left.
Let's say we want to convert the binary number 100110112 to decimal. First, write it
down. Then, write down the powers of two from right to left. Start at 20, evaluating it as "1".
Increment the exponent by one for each power. Stop when the amount of elements in the list is equal
to the amount of digits in the binary number. The example number, 10011011, has eight digits, so the
list, with eight elements, would look like this: 128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1

2. Write the digits of the binary number below their corresponding powers of
two.
Now, just write 10011011 below the numbers 128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, and 1 so that each binary digit
corresponds with its power of two. The "1" to the right of the binary number should correspond with
the "1" on the right of the listed powers of two, and so on. You can also write the binary digits above
the powers of two, if you prefer it that way. What's important is that they match up.

3. Connect the digits in the binary number with their corresponding powers of
two.
Draw lines, starting from the right, connecting each consecutive digit of the binary
number to the power of two that is next in the list above it. Begin by drawing a line from the first digit
of the binary number to the first power of two in the list above it. Then, draw a line from the second
digit of the binary number to the second power of two in the list. Continue connecting each digit with
its corresponding power of two. This will help you visually see the relationship between the two sets
of numbers.

3. Write down the final value of each power of two.

Move through each digit of the binary number. If the digit is a 1, write its corresponding power of
two below the line, under the digit. If the digit is a 0, write a 0 below the line, under the digit. Since
"1" corresponds with "1", it becomes a "1." Since "2" corresponds with "1," it becomes a "2." Since "4"
corresponds with "0," it becomes "0." Since "8" corresponds with "1", it becomes "8," and since "16"
corresponds with "1" it becomes "16." "32" corresponds with "0" and becomes "0" and "64"
corresponds with "0" and therefore becomes "0" while "128" corresponds with "1" and becomes 128.
4. Add the final values.
Now, add up the numbers written below the line. Here's what you do: 128 + 0 + 0 + 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 +
1 = 155. This is the decimal equivalent of the binary number 10011011.
5. Write the answer along with its base subscript.
Now, all you have to do is write 15510, to show that you are working with a decimal answer, which
must be operating in powers of 10. The more you get used to converting from binary to decimal, the
easier it will be for you to memorize the powers of two, and you'll be able to complete the task more
quickly.

7. Use this method to convert a binary number with a decimal point to decimal
form.
You can use this method even when you want to covert a binary number such as 1.12 to decimal. All
you have to do is know that the number on the left side of the decimal is in the unit’s position, like
normal, while the number on the right side of the decimal is in the "halves" position, or 1 x (1/2).The
"1" to the left of the decimal point is equal to 20, or 1. The 1 to the right of the decimal is equal to 2-
1, or .5. Add up 1 and .5 and you get 1.5, which is 1.12 in decimal notation.
Method 2: Doubling

1. Write down the binary number.

This method does not use powers. As such, it is simpler for converting large numbers in your head
because you only need to keep track of a subtotal. The first thing you need to do is to write down the
binary number you'll be converting using the doubling method. Let's say the number you're working
with is 10110012. Write it down.
2. Starting from the left, double your previous total and add the current digit. Since you're
working with the binary number 10110012, your first digit all the way on the left is 1. Your previous
total is 0 since you haven't started yet. You'll have to double the previous total, 0, and add 1, the
current digit. 0 x 2 + 1 = 1, so your new current total is 1.
3. Double your current total and add the next leftmost digit.
Your current total is now 1 and the new current digit is 0. So, double 1 and add 0. 1 x 2 + 0 = 2. Your
new current total is 2.
6. Repeat the previous step.
Just keep going. Next, double your current total, and add 1, your next digit. 2 x 2 + 1 = 5. Your
current total is now 5.
 7. Repeat the previous step again.
Next, double your current total, 5, and add the next digit, 1. 5 x 2 + 1 = 11. Your new total is 11.
8. Repeat the previous step again.
Double your current total, 11, and add the next digit, 0. 2 x 11 + 0 = 22.
9. Repeat the previous step again.
Now, double your current total, 22, and add 0, the next digit. 22 x 2 + 0 = 44.
10. Continue doubling your current total and adding the next digit until you've run out
of digits.
Now, you're down to your last number and are almost done! All you have to do is take your current
total, 44, and double it along with adding 1, the last digit. 2 x 44 + 1 = 89. You're all done! You've
converted 100110112 to decimal notation to its decimal form, 89.

9. Write the answer along with its base subscript.

Write your final answer as 8910 to show that you're working with a decimal, which
has a base of 10.
 Steps in Converting Decimal to
Binary
Performing Short Division by Two
with Remainder

1. Set up the problem.

For this example, let's convert the decimal number 15610 to binary. Write the decimal number as the
dividend inside an upside-down "long division" symbol. Write the base of the destination system (in
our case, "2" for binary) as the divisor outside the curve of the division symbol.
• This method is much easier to understand when visualized on paper, and is much
easier for beginners, as it relies only on division by two.
• To avoid confusion before and after conversion, write the number of the base
system that you are working with as a subscript of each number. In this case, the
decimal number will have a subscript of 10 and the binary equivalent will have a
subscript of 2.
2. Divide.
Write the integer answer (quotient) under the long division symbol, and write the
remainder (0 or 1) to the right of the dividend.
• Since we are dividing by 2, when the dividend is even the binary remainder will be 0, and when the
dividend is odd the binary remainder will be 1.
3. Continue to divide until you reach 0.
Continue downwards, dividing each new quotient by two and writing the remainders to the right of
each dividend. Stop when the quotient is 0.
4. Write out the new, binary number.
Starting with the bottom remainder, read the sequence of remainders upwards to the top. For this
example, you should have 10011100. This is the binary equivalent of the decimal number 156. Or,
written with base subscripts: 15610 = 100111002

 This method can be modified to convert from decimal to any base. The divisor is 2 because the
desired destination is base 2 (binary). If the desired destination is a different base, replace the 2 in
 the method with the desired base. For example, if the desired destination is base 9, replace the 2
with 9. The final result will then be in the desired base.

Method 2:

Descending Powers of Two and Subtraction

1. Start by making a chart.

List the powers of two in a "base 2 table" from right to left. Start at 20, evaluating it as "1". Increment
the exponent by one for each power. Make the list up until you've reached a number very near the
decimal system number you're starting with. For this
example, let's convert the decimal number 15610 to binary.
2. Look for the greatest power of 2.
Choose the biggest number that will fit into the number you are converting. 128 is the greatest power
of two that will fit into 156, so write a 1 beneath this box in your chart for the leftmost binary digit.
Then, subtract 128 from your initial number. You now have 28.
3. Move to the next lower power of two.
Using your new number (28), move down the chart marking how many times each power of 2 can fit
into your dividend. 64 does not go into 28, so write a 0 beneath that box for the next binary digit to
the right. Continue until you reach a number that can go into 28.
4. Subtract each successive number that can fit, and mark it with a 1.
16 can fit into 28, so you will write a 1 beneath its box and subtract 16 from 28. You now have 12. 8
does go into 12, so write a 1 beneath 8's box and subtract it from 12. You now have 4.
5. Continue until you reach the end of your
chart. Remember to mark a 1 beneath each
number that does go into your new number,
and a 0 beneath those that don't.
6.Write out the binary answer.
The number will be exactly the same from left to right as the 1's and 0's beneath your chart. You
should have 10011100. This is the binary equivalent of the decimal number 156. Or, written with base
subscripts: 15610 = 100111002.
• Repetition of this method will result in memorization of the powers of two, which will allow you to
skip Step 1
INTRODUCTION TO ARDUINO

Note: Most Arduino boards use the Atmel 8-bit AVR microelectronic.

What is Arduino?
 At the heart of the Arduino is the microcontroller. A microcontroller is a standalone, singlechip
integrated circuit that contains a CPU, read-only memory, random access memory and various 1/0
busses. The Arduino UNO R3 which we will be using uses the ATmega328 chip.

 Specs are:
 However do not be too concerned if you do not understand all those specifications because we
will be interacting with the microcontroller using the interface that the Arduino board provides us.
 It is good to know these specifications as you begin to develop more complex applications
because they do put limits on what we can do.

 EEPROM: Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory. Non- volatile

memory. Can be erased and reprogrammed using pulsed voltage

What is Arduino?

 The Arduino is an open source hardware and software platform that is

incredibly powerful yet easy to use.
 You can look at and download the code from any of the Arduino repositories on
GitHub here: https://github.com/arduino
 This platform has captured the imagination of electronic enthusiasts and the
maker community everywhere. It enables people to inexpensively experiment
with electronic prototypes and see their projects come to life.
 Projects can range from simply making an LED blink or recording the
temperature to controlling 3D printers or making robots.
 While there are numerous models of the Arduino, in this course we will
primarily be using the very popular Arduino UNO R3 board.
Arduino Uno's R3 board layout DC supply Input: The DC supply input can be used
with an AC-to-DC power adapter or a battery. The power source can be
connected using a 2.1 mm centerpositive plug. The Arduino Uno operates at 5
volts but can have a maximum input of 20 volts; however, it is recommended to
not use more than 12V.

Voltage Regulator: The Arduino uses a linear regulator to control the voltage going
into the board.

USB Port: The USB port can be used to power and program the board.

RESET button: This button, when pressed, will reset the board.
ICSP for USB: The in-circuit serial programming pins are used to flash the
firmware on the USB interface chip.
ICSP for ATmega328: The in-circuit serial programming pins are used to flash the
firmware on the ATmega microcontroller.
ATmega328: The microcontroller for the Arduino Uno board.

Digital and PWM connectors: These pins, labeled 0 to 13, can be used as either a
digital input or output pins. The pins labeled with the tilde (-) can also be used for
Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) output.

Power and External Reset: These pins in this header, provide ground and power
for external devices and sensors from the Arduino. The Arduino can also be
powered through these pins. There is also a reset pin that can be used to reset
the Arduino.
Analog In Connectors: The pins, labeled A0 to A5, can be used for analog input.
These pins can be used to read the output from analog sensors.

Arduino shields
 An Arduino shield is a modular circuit board that plugs directly into the pin
headers of the Arduino board.
 These shields will add extra functionality to the Arduino board.
 If we are looking to connect to the internet, do speech recognition, control DC
motors or add other functionality to the Arduino, there is probably a shield that
can help us.
 While you don't have to use shields, they do make adding extra functionality to
our Arduino boards very easy.
Arduino looks with two shields attached:

 A shield fits on top of the Arduino by plugging directly into the pin headers.
 We can also stack one shield on top of another if they do not use the same
resources. Here is how an

Arduino pin
 There is a total of 31 pins in the Arduino
Uno pin headers.
 Most of these pins can be configured to
perform different functions.
Digital pins
 Used the most when connecting external sensors.
 These pins can be configured for either input or output.
 These pins default to an input state
 The digital pins will have one of two values: HIGH (1), which is 5V, or LOW (0),
which is OV. PWM ARDUINO 12 DEGETAL ALPH (UNO) PWM ANALOG D 16

Analog input pins

 The Arduino Uno contains a built-in Analog-To-Digital (ADC) converter with six
channels, which gives us six analog input pins. The ADC converts an analog
signal into a digital value.
 While the digital pins have two values, either high or low, the analog input pins
have values from 0 to 1023 relative to the reference value of the Arduino.
 The Arduino Uno has a reference value of 5V.
 Used to read analog sensors such as rangefinders and temperature sensors.
 The six analog pins can also be configured as digital pins if we run out of digital
pins in our project.

PWM pins
 Where the analog input pins are designed to read analog sensors (input), the
PWM pins are designed for output. PWM is a technique for obtaining analog
results with digital output.
 Since a digital output can be either on or off, to obtain the analog output the
digital output is switch between HIGH and LOW rapidly.
 The percentage of the time that the signal is high is called the duty cycle.

Duty cycle
 We have the ability to set the frequency of how fast
the signal can switch between HIGH and LOW.
4 This frequency is measured in Hertz and sets how
many times the signal can switch per second.
 For example, if we set the frequency to 500 Hz, that
would mean that the signal could switch 500 times a
second.
 This will be come clearer as we use the pins.
Arduino Installation
Step 1
− First you must have your Arduino board (you
can choose your favorite board) and a USB
cable. In case you use Arduino UNO, Arduino
Duemilanove, Nano, Arduino Mega 2560, or
Diecimila, you will need a standard USB cable
(A plug to B plug), the kind you would connect
to a USB printer as shown in the following
image.

Download Arduino IDE Software.

Step 2
-You can get different versions of Arduino
IDE from the Download page on the
Arduino Official website. You must select
your software, which is compatible with
your operating system (Windows, IOS, or
Linux). After your file download is
complete, unzip the file.
Power up your board
Step 3
-The Arduino Uno, Mega, Duemilanove and Arduino Nano
automatically draw power from either, the USB
connection to the computer or an external power supply.
If you are using an Arduino Diecimila, you have to make
sure that the board is configured to draw power from the
USB connection. The power source is selected with a
jumper, a small piece of plastic that fits onto two of the
three pins between the USB and power jacks. Check that
it is on the two pins closest to the USB port.

Connect the Arduino

board to your
computer using the
USB cable. The
green power LED
(labeled PWR)
should glow.

Launch Arduino IDE

Step 4
-After your Arduino IDE
software is downloaded,
you need to unzip the
folder. Inside the folder, you
can find the application
icon with an infinity label
(application.exe). Doubleclick
the icon to start the
IDE.

Open your first project

Step 5.
-Create a new project.
Open an existing project example.
To create a new project,
select File → New.

To open an existing project example, select

File → Example → Basics → Blink.

Open Project
Here, we are selecting just one of the examples with the name Blink.
It turns the LED on and off with some time delay.
You can select any other example from the list.

Select your Arduino Board

Step 6
-To avoid any error while uploading your program to the
board, you must select the correct Arduino board name,
which matches with the board connected to your
computer.
Go to Tools → Board and select your board

Here, we have selected Arduino Uno board

according to our tutorial, but you must select the
name matching the board that you are using.
Select your serial port
Step 7
-Select the serial device of the Arduino board. Go to Tools →
Serial Port menu. This is likely to be COM3 or higher (COM1
and COM2 are usually reserved for hardware serial ports). To
find out, you can disconnect your Arduino board and reopen
the menu, the entry that disappears should be of the
Arduino board. Reconnect the board and select that serial
port.

Upload the program to your board

Step 8
-Before explaining how we can upload our program to the board, we must
demonstrate the function of each symbol
appearing in the Arduino IDE toolbar.

A − Used to check if there is any compilation error.

B − Used to upload a program to the Arduino board.
C − Shortcut used to create a new sketch.
D − Used to directly open one of the example sketch.
E − Used to save your sketch.
F − Serial monitor used to receive serial data from the
board and send the serial data to the board
Now, simply click the "Upload" button in the environment. Wait a few seconds; you
will see
the RX and TX LEDs on the board, flashing. If the upload is successful, the message
"Done
uploading" will appear in the status bar.
Note − If you have an Arduino Mini, NG, or other board, you need to press the reset
button
physically on the board, immediately before clicking the upload button on the
Arduino
Software.

Arduino program structure

The Arduino program is divided into three main parts that are structure,
values, and functions.

The Arduino program is divided into three main parts that are structure,
values, and functions.
When writing a code, the important thing is following the syntax of the language
being used because in order to run the code successfully the correct syntax is necessary. So, when writing a
program for Arduino following syntax should be followed:

To complete the statement a semicolon “ ; ”

is used at the end of the statement.

To enclose the block parenthesis “{}” are used. Block in a program contains some statements, declaration of
the variables, functions, or loops.

Comments can be written for each statement in the code to better understand the statement functionality. It can
be done by using double forward slash “//” at the start of the comment if there is only a single line comment.
However, if there are multi line comments in a row, a forward slash asterisk “/*” at the start and asterisk
forward slash “*/” at the end of the comment. Comments can also be used to exclude any statement.

ARDUINO SYNTAX
The figure below given gives a much better understanding of the syntax used for coding in
Arduino software
ARDUINO PROGRAM

Using the variables gives the option of saving, changing, updating and accessing the information when the
program is running. There are different types of variables that can be used including char, int, double, string,
float, unsigned int, long and unsigned long

The following are operators used in the programing of Arduino: For assigning any value to a variable or a
character equal to “ = ” sign is used There are different mathematical operators like percentage, multiply,
subtraction, addition can be used (%, +, * , -, /) For comparison of the different values the operators like less
than equal to, greater than equal to, equal to, less than, greater than are used (==, ,=) Logical operators are used
to define the conditional statements such as AND (&&), NOT(!) and OR (||) operators.

Arduino Program Structure

SETUP() AND LOOP()

The setup() function contains initialization of the libraries, variables used for the code.
Similarly, pin modes of the Arduino are also declared in this function. It also initializes
the communication between the Arduino board and the computer. It only runs once.

To understand the program structure of Arduino an example code is compiled. The

code is about blinking of the LED light with a delay of 1000 milliseconds. The loop()
function keeps on repeating the instructions and actively controls and monitors the
Arduino.

First in the setup function the pin mode is initialized, pin 8 has been set
as OUTPUT. Coming to the loop function, the state (HIGH/LOW) of the
LED changes after the delay of 1000 milliseconds. Similarly, we can say
that the implementation of the setup function is carried out in a loop
function. The Arduino code for blinking of LED is given as:
ARDUINO - DATA
TYPES
Data types in C refers to an extensive system used for declaring variables or functions of different types. The
type of a variable determines how much space it occupies in the storage and how the bit pattern stored is
interpreted.

* void
* Boolean
* Char
* unsigned char
* byte
* int
* Unsigned int
* Word
* Long
* unsigned long
* short
* float
* double