TRANSPORT SYSTEM

NO. QUESTI0N

1 What are the leading causes of stroke? (4m)

● The leading cause of stroke is high blood pressure.

● It occurs when the blood pressure in the arteries and other blood vessels is too
high.
● Other than that, the blood clot that blocks blood flow to the brain.
● Sudden bleeding can cause a stroke when an artery in or on top of the brain
breaks open.

2 What is the symptom of peripheral artery disease?

● Leg numbness or weakness

● Slower growth of the toenails
● Hair Loss or slower hair growth on the leg
● No pulse or a weak pulse in the legs or feet

3 What is deep vein thrombosis disease? (4m)

● Deep vein thrombosis occurs when there is blood clot (thrombus) formed in one
or more of the deep veins in the body, usually in the legs.
● Deep vein thrombosis can cause leg pain or swelling.
● A blood clot in the legs can also develop if you don't move for a long time.
● Under certain medical conditions it will affect the blood clots.

4 What is the effect of aortic aneurysm? (3m)

● Tears in one or more of the layers of the wall of the aorta.

● The aneurysm can burst completely causing bleeding inside the body.
● It can lead to death without immediate treatment
5 What is cardiac ischemia disease and symptoms? (5m)

● Myocardial ischemia is a lack of blood flow getting to your heart muscle.

● The heart muscle is not getting enough blood to do what it needs to do.
● The cause is a collection of fat and cholesterol that doesn’t let enough blood go
through your coronary arteries.
● Chest discomfortness
● Burning
● Aching

6 What is arrhythmia and dysrhythmia and the causes of the disease? (5m)

● A condition in which the heart beats with an irregular or abnormal rhythm.

● The causes of this disease are the return of blood flow following a heart attack.
● Stress, anger, pain, or other events can cause the heart to beat irregularly.
● Disruption of electrical signals to the heart.
● Deficiencies or excessive amount of electrolytes, hormones, or fluids in the
blood.

7 How is angina different from a heart attack? (5m)

● Both angina and a heart attack are consequences of coronary artery disease.
● Angina doesn’t cause permanent damage to your heart while heart attack does.
● That’s because angina signals a temporary reduction in blood flow to your heart
while heart attack causes a longer reduction in blood flow.
● Rest or medication (nitroglycerin) causes stable angina to go away within a few
minutes. However, if you’re having a heart attack, rest or medication won’t ease
your symptoms.
● Stable angina doesn’t require emergency care unless your pain suddenly gets
worse or doesn’t go away with rest or medication. A heart attack is a
life-threatening emergency that needs immediate medical attention.

8 What should you avoid when diagnosed with Mitral Valve Prolapse disease?
(3m)
 ● Smoking
● Unhealthy diet and weight
● Sedentary lifestyle (no exercise)

9 Discuss causes of rheumatic heart disease (6m)

● Heart valve inflammation from rheumatic fever causes rheumatic heart disease.
● The damage may occur right away or it can develop over time from repeated
strep infections.
● Continuing inflammation leads to heart valve scarring and narrowing.
● The disease tends to affect the mitral and aortic heart valves.
● These valves control blood flow.
● If the valves don’t work, blood leaks backward into the heart instead of flowing
out of the heart.

10 Discuss the symptoms of Cardiac arrest. (5m)

● Chest pain or discomfort.

● Feeling of a pounding heartbeat.
● Rapid or irregular heartbeats.
● Unexplained wheezing.
● Shortness of breath.

11 What are heart failure and conditions it led to? (6m)

● Heart failure is a condition that develops when your heart doesn’t pump enough
blood.
● This can happen if your heart can’t fill up with enough blood.
● Heart failure can develop suddenly or over time as your heart gets weaker.
● Most often, heart failure is caused by another medical condition that damages
your heart.
● Heart failure can damage your liver or kidneys.
● Other conditions it can lead to include pulmonary hypertension or other heart
conditions, such as an irregular heartbeat and sudden cardiac arrest.
12 What are the causes of high cholesterol ? (5m)

● Smoking and tobacco use: Smoking lowers your “good cholesterol” (HDL) and
raises your “bad cholesterol” (LDL).
● Being under a lot of stress: Stress triggers hormonal changes that cause your
body to produce cholesterol.
● Drinking alcohol: Too much alcohol in your body can raise your total cholesterol.
● Not moving around enough: Physical activity like aerobic exercise improves
your cholesterol numbers.
● Diet: Some foods may raise or lower your cholesterol.

13 Can you explain about arteriosclerosis? (3m)

● Arteriosclerosis is a type of vascular disease where the blood vessels carry

oxygen away from the heart.
● It becomes damaged from factors such as high cholesterol, high blood pressure
and diabetes.
● The arteries thicken and become stiff which can sometimes restrict blood flow to
other organs and tissue.

14 What are the symptoms of cystic fibrosis? (5m)

● recurring chest infections

● difficulty putting on weight and growing.
● yellowing of the skin and the whites of the eyes (jaundice)
● difficulty putting on weight and growing
● wheezing, coughing, shortness of breath and damage to the airways

15 What causes pulmonary embolism? (3m)

● Pulmonary embolism is caused by a blocked artery in the lungs.

● The most common cause of such a blockage is a blood clot that forms in a deep
vein in the leg travels to the lungs, where it gets lodged in a smaller lung artery.
● Clots also can form in the deep veins of the arms or pelvis.
URINARY SYSTEM

NO. QUESTI0N

1 Discuss the cause and effect of kidney stones.(6m)

● Kidney Stone (renal calculi) is a urinary system disease that are hard deposits
made of minerals and salts that form inside your kidneys.

Causes:
● Family history, dehydration, obesity, and a diet with high levels of protein, salt,
or glucose.
● Inflammatory bowel diseases that its calcium absorption has increased.
● Taking medications like calcium-based antacids.
Effect:
● Feel severe pain in lower back.
● Having blood in the urine.
● Block the flow of urine which will cause an infection, kidney damage or even
kidney failure.

2. Discuss cause and effect of Hematuria. (6m)

● Hematuria is a disease where the kidneys or other parts of the urinary tract let
blood cells leak into urine.
Causes:
● Urinary tract infections (UTIs): cause bleeding that makes urine look red, pink or
brown.
● A bladder/ kidney stone: the minerals in urine can form crystals on the walls of
the kidneys or bladder and cause a blockage which then can cause blood in
urine.
● Kidney injury: A blow or other injury to the kidneys from an accident or contact
sports can cause blood to show up in urine.
Effect:
● Have bladder or back pain if there are blood clots link in your urine.
● Blood clots can be painful to pass during urination or can cause pain if the clots
block the flow of urine.
● Unable to urinate.

3. Discuss cause and effect of Bladder Infection (Cystitis). (6m)

● Cystitis is the medical term for inflammation of the bladder where a part of your
body is swollen, hot and painful.
Causes:
● Infection caused by bacteria: bacteria that are from the outside of the body enter
the urinary tract through the urethra and begin to multiply.
● Wiping your bottom from back to front after going to the toilet.
● Having a weakened immune system.
Effect:
● Lead to pyelonephritis.
 ● Permanently damage the kidneys.
● Blood in the urine where it can cause pain, burning or stinging sensation during
urination.

4. Discuss cause and effect of chronic kidney disease (CDK). (6m)

● Chronic kidney disease (CKD) involves a gradual loss of kidney function where
the kidneys filter wastes and excess fluids from the blood, which are then
removed in the urine.
Causes:
● Chronic kidney disease occurs when a disease or condition impairs kidney
function.
● The diseases and conditions that can cause chronic kidney diseases are high
blood pressure, glomerulonephritis, type 1 or 2 of diabetes, and interstitial
nephritis.
● Can cause kidney damage to worsen over several months or years.
Effects:
● Decreased sex drive, erectile dysfunction or reduced fertility
● Decreased immune response which makes you more vulnerable to infection
● Damage to the central nervous system, which can cause difficulty concentrating
and seizures.

5. Discuss cause and effect of urinary incontinence. (6m)

● Urinary incontinence refers to the unintentional leakage of urine.

Causes:
● Ages: aging of bladder muscle can decrease the bladder’s capacity to store
urine. Plus, involuntary bladder contraction become more frequent as we getting
older.
● Overweight: extra weight increases pressure on the bladder and surrounding
muscles, which weakens them and allows urine to leak out when coughing or
sneezing.
● Pregnancy: due to the hormonal changes and the increased weight of the fetus
can lead to stress incontinence.
Effects:
● Skin problems: skin breakdown, rash and redness can develop from constantly
wet skin.
● Urinary tract infection: urine contain various kind of microorganisms which can
lead to various infection.
● Urinate often: intense urge to urinate followed by an involuntary loss of urine.

6. Discuss cause and effect of kidney infection (pyelonephritis). (6m)

● Kidney infection (pyelonephritis) is a severe type of urinary tract infection (UTI)

that affects the kidneys.
Causes:
● Bacteria and viruses: which moves from the bladder to the kidneys.
● The bacteria can enter the urinary tract through urethra, multiply and then travel
to the kidneys.
● In some circumstances, bacteria from an infection in another part of the body
 also can spread through the bloodstream to the kidneys to cause the infection.
Effects:
● Kidney scarring: lead to chronic kidney disease, high blood pressure and kidney
failure.
● Blood poisoning: kidneys filter waste from blood and return the filtered blood to
the rest of the body.
● Pregnancy complications: increase the risk of having a baby with a low birth
weight.

7. Discuss cause and effect of glomerulonephritis. (6m)

● Glomerulonephritis is damage to the tiny filters inside your kidneys (the

glomeruli).
Causes:
● Autoimmune diseases such as lupus and diabetes: can attack healthy tissues.
● Vasculitis such polyarteritis: inflammation of blood vessels which affects medium
and small blood vessels in many parts of the body including kidney.
● High blood pressure: Long-term, poorly managed high blood pressure can
cause scarring and inflammation of the glomeruli.
Effects:
● Affects the ability of nephrons to filter the bloodstream.
● Accumulation of wastes or toxins in the bloodstream.
● Loss of red blood cells and blood proteins.

8. Discuss cause and effect of bladder prolapse. (6m)

● Bladder prolapse, also known as cystocele, is a condition where the bladder

descends or bulges into the vagina.
Causes:
● Aging: supportive tissues and muscles that hold the bladder in place become
weakened or stretched allowing the bladder to drop from its normal position.
● Prior pelvic surgery: weakening of the pelvic floor muscles and ligaments that
support the bladder and other pelvic organs.
● Menopause: the drop in estrogen production can lead to this issue because
estrogen is a hormone that helps keep the muscles around the vagina strong.
Effects:
● Bladder prolapse can push the urethra and prevent the bladder from completely
emptying during urination.
● Twist the ureters which then can cause the kidney damage.
● Urinary tract infection.

9. Discuss cause and effect of Ureteral Obstruction. 6m)

● A ureteral obstruction is a blockage in one or both of the ureters.

Causes:
● Kidney stones
● Scarring: When the tube that transfers urine from the kidney to the bladder is
scarred on the inside, you can experience a blockage.
 ● Pressure from outside structures: You can also have a blockage when
something outside of the ureter presses on it.
Effects:
● Urine can back up and damage the kidneys.
● Loss of kidney function and sepsis.
● Death

10. Discuss cause and effect of Renal Tubular Acidosis. (6m)

● Renal tubular acidosis (RTA) is acidosis and electrolyte disturbances.

Causes:
● Renal hydrogen ion excretion (type 1) which is resulting in a persistently high
urine pH (> 5.5) and systemic acidosis.
● impaired bicarbonate resorption (type 2) in the proximal tubules which
producing a urine pH > 7 if plasma bicarbonate concentration is normal.
● Abnormal aldosterone production or response (type 4). Urine pH is usually
appropriate for serum pH (usually < 5.5 when there is serum acidosis).
Effects:
● Patients type 1 renal tubular acidosis that untreated will get the effect which
kidney disease and bone disease.
● Patient type 2 that do not get treated will get effect too which is a bone disease:
rickets.
● Type 4 of renal tubular acidosis patients get effect which is muscle weakness.
Muscle weakness happen because high level of potassium in the blood.

11. Discuss cause and effect of Renal Artery Stenosis. (6m)

● Renal artery stenosis is narrowing of the one or both of renal arteries, is a

blockage of the kidney artery
Causes:
● Buildup on kidney (renal) arteries. Fats, cholesterol and other substances
(plaque) can build up in and on your kidney, artery walls (atherosclerosis).
● As these deposits get larger, they can harden, reduce blood flow, cause kidney
scarring and eventually narrow the artery.
● Atherosclerosis occurs in many areas of the body and is the most common
cause of renal artery stenosis.
Effects:
● The effect of renal artery stenosis is diabetes, high blood pressure, high
cholesterol which can lead obesity.
● Fluid retention in your legs, causing swollen ankles or feet
● Kidney failure which is requiring treatment with dialysis or a kidney transplant.

12. Discuss cause and effect of Hydronephrosis. (6m)

● Hydronephrosis is swelling of one or both kidneys because urine cannot drain

from a kidney and build up in the kidney as a result.
Causes:
● Kidney stones: Stones that may become lodged in the kidneys or urinary tract.
● Having blood clots: Blood clots can develop in the kidney or ureter.
 ● Urinary retention: Urine may be held inside the body due to an inability to empty
the bladder.
Effects:
● Urinary tract infection
● Permanent kidney damaged
● Hypertension and sepsis.

13. What are the causes and effects of Diabetic Nephropathy?

● Diabetic nephropathy affects the kidneys' ability to do their usual work of

removing waste products and extra fluid from your body.
Causes:
● Type 1 and type 2 diabetes.
● Poorly controlled diabetes can cause damage to blood vessel clusters in
kidneys. This led to kidney damage and cause high blood pressure.
● High blood pressure can cause further kidney damage by increasing the
pressure in the delicate filtering system of the kidneys.
Effects:
● Fluid retention, which could lead to swelling in your arms and legs, high blood
pressure, or fluid in your lungs (pulmonary edema).
● A rise in potassium levels in your blood (hyperkalemia).
● Heart and blood vessel disease (cardiovascular disease), which could lead to
stroke.

14 What are the causes and effects of polycystic kidney disease?

● Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) is an inherited disorder in which the disease

runs in families. Clusters of cysts develop primarily within kidneys, causing
kidneys to enlarge and lose function over time.
Causes:
● Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD). Only one parent
needs to have the disease for it to pass to the children. If one parent has
ADPKD, each child has a 50% chance of getting the disease.
● Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD). Both parents must
have abnormal genes to pass on this form of the disease. If both parents carry a
gene for this disorder, each child has a 25% chance of getting the disease.
● A genetic mutation occurs on its own (spontaneous), so that neither parent has
a copy of the mutated gene.
Effects:
● High blood pressure. Untreated, high blood pressure can cause further damage
to your kidneys and increase your risk of heart disease and strokes.
● Loss of kidney function. Nearly half of those with the disease have kidney failure
by age 60.
● Pregnancy complications. It may develop a life-threatening disorder called
preeclampsia.

15. What are the causes and effects of kidney failure?

 ● Kidney failure is a condition in which one or both of your kidneys no longer work
on their own.
Causes:
● Unmanaged diabetes can lead to high blood sugar levels (hyperglycemia).
Consistently high blood sugar can damage your kidneys as well as other
organs.
● Glomerular diseases. Glomerular diseases affect how well your kidneys filters
waste.
● Lupus. Lupus is an autoimmune disease that can cause organ damage, joint
pain, fever and skin rashes.
Effects:
● Permanent kidney damage. Occasionally, acute kidney failure causes
permanent loss of kidney function, or end-stage renal disease.
● Death. Acute kidney failure can lead to loss of kidney function and, ultimately,
death.
● Chest pain. If the lining that covers your heart (pericardium) becomes inflamed,
you may experience chest pain.

16. What are the causes and effects of urinary retention?

● Urinary retention is a condition where your bladder doesn’t empty all the way or
at all when you urinate.
Causes:
● A blockage to the way urine leaves your body
● Medications you’re taking for other conditions.
● Nerve issues that interrupt the way your brain and urinary system communicate.
Effects:
● Urinary tract infection. With urinary retention, urine doesn't completely flow out,
which allows the normally harmless bacteria a chance to multiply and infect
urinary tract.
● Bladder damage. If urinary retention is not treated, bladder may become
streched too far or for long periods which then cause the muscles in bladder
may become damaged and no longer work correctly.
● Kidney damage. When someone have urinary retention, they won't be able to
empty the urine from the bladder and the uring may back up into kidneys. The
kidneys can become so full of urine that they swell and press on nearby organs
which cause damage to the kidneys and may lead to chronic kidney disease
and kidney failure.
MUSCLE SYSTEM

NO. QUESTI0N

1 What are the causes and effects of rhabdomyolysis?

CAUSES:
· Muscle injury: Trauma, crush injuries, or severe muscle damage can lead to
rhabdomyolysis.
· Intense physical activity: Vigorous exercise, especially if it is new or excessive,
can cause rhabdomyolysis, particularly when accompanied by dehydration or
heat stroke.
· Medications and drugs: Certain medications, such as statins
(cholesterol-lowering drugs), antipsychotics, and illicit substances like cocaine
or amphetamines, can contribute to rhabdomyolysis.

EFFECTS:
· Release of myoglobin: The breakdown of muscle tissue in rhabdomyolysis leads
to the release of myoglobin, a muscle protein, into the bloodstream.
· Kidney damage: The accumulation of myoglobin in the kidneys can result in
kidney damage or even kidney failure if not promptly treated.
· Electrolyte imbalances: Imbalances in these electrolytes can cause cardiac
arrhythmias, muscle cramps, and other systemic disturbances.

2 What are the causes and effects of myasthenia gravis?

CAUSES:
· Autoimmune dysfunction: the immune system mistakenly targets and attacks
the receptors for acetylcholine, a chemical messenger involved in nerve-muscle
communication.
· Thymus gland abnormalities: The thymus gland is often abnormal in individuals
with MG. It can be enlarged, contain tumors (thymomas)
· Genetic factors: There is evidence of a genetic predisposition to MG, as it can
sometimes occur in multiple family members.
 EFFECTS:
· Muscle weakness and fatigue: It can affect various muscles, leading to difficulty
with tasks such as walking, lifting objects, speaking, swallowing, and breathing.
· Ocular symptoms: Drooping eyelids (ptosis) and double vision (diplopia).
Weakness in the muscles that control eye movements can cause misalignment
of the eyes.
· Bulbar symptoms: Weakness in the muscles responsible for swallowing and
speaking (bulbar muscles) can result in difficulties swallowing (dysphagia),
chewing, and articulating words (dysarthria).

3 What are the causes and effects of dilated cardiomyopathy?

CAUSES:
· Alcohol-use disorder.
· Cardiotoxic.
· Congenital heart disease.
· Diabetes.

EFFECTS:
· Legs, ankles, and feet swelling.
· Bloating of the abdomen caused by fluid accumulation.
· Fatigue.
· Sleeping flat is difficult.
· Rapid, hammering, or fluttering heartbeats.
· While laying down, cough.

4 What are the causes and effects of muscle cramps?

CAUSES:

· Muscle Fatigue: Prolonged or repetitive muscle use, particular during intense

 exercise or physical activity,
· Dehydration: Excessive sweating without proper hydration can result in an
electrolyte imbalance, specifically low levels of sodium, potassium, magnesium,
or calcium.
· Poor Blood Circulation: Inadequate blood supply to the muscles due to factors
like peripheral artery disease or sitting or standing in one position for prolonged
periods can lead to muscle cramps.

EFFECTS:

· Pain and Discomfort: Cause sudden, intense pain in the affected muscle or
muscle group, leading to discomfort and distress.
· Muscle Tightness and Stiffness: Resulting in a sensation of stiffness and limited
range of motion.
· Disturbed Sleep: Nocturnal leg cramps, which occur during sleep, can disrupt
sleep patterns and lead to sleep disturbances, impacting overall sleep quality.

5 What are the causes and effects of osteoarthritis?

CAUSES:
· Osteoarthritis occurs when the cartilage that cushions the ends of bones in
joints gradually deteriorates.
· When the cartilage and other tissues have changed their structure, it leads to
osteoarthritis.
· Cartilage is a firm, slippery tissue that enables nearly frictionless joint motion.
· Another cause is joints that do not form correctly and become damaged.

EFFECTS:

· In the knees, osteoarthritis causes stiffness, swelling, and pain, which makes it
hard to walk and climb, causing the knee to buckle.
· Hips: osteoarthritis causes stiffness of the joint and pain in the groyne, inner
thigh, buttocks, or knees and may limit the ability to move and bend.
 · In the spine, numbness of the arms and legs may develop from pressure on the
nerves as they leave the spinal column as a result of abnormalities in the spine.

6 What are the causes and effects of the polymyositis?

CAUSES:
· The body’s immune system turns against its own muscles.
· It damages muscle tissue in an autoimmune process.
· The inflammatory cells of the immune system directly attack muscle fibers.

EFFECTS:
· Difficulty swallowing. Problems of swallowing (dysphagia), which in turn may
cause weight loss and malnutrition.
· Aspiration pneumonia. Difficulty swallowing may also cause you to breathe food
or liquids, including saliva, into lungs (aspiration), which can lead to pneumonia.
· Breathing problems: Such as shortness of breath or, in severe cases,
respiratory failure.

7 What are the causes and effects of sarcopenia?

CAUSES:
· Obesity.
· Insulin resistance.
· Reduction in hormone levels.
· Malnutrition or inadequate protein intake.
· Decrease the ability to convert protein to energy.

EFFECTS:
· Increased obesity.
· Osteoporosis.
· Metabolic health: Due to reduced locomotion economy and ease.
8 What are the causes and effects of Hyperthyroid myopathy?

CAUSES:
· Overproduction of thyroid hormones, known as thyroxine.
· Autoimmunity, immune system turns against part of body.
· A genetic predisposition to autoimmune diseases

EFFECTS:
· Weakness and wasting of muscles around the shoulders and sometimes the
hips.
· Weakness in muscles of the face and throat, and in the respiratory muscles.
· Life-threatening cases can cause rhabdomyolysis (acute muscle breakdown).
· Damage to muscles that control movement of the eye and eyelids, which can
lead to vision loss.

9 What are the causes and effects of Hypothyroid myopathy?

CAUSES:
· Underproduction of thyroid hormones, known as thyroxine.
· Autoimmunity, the immune system turns against part of the body
· A genetic predisposition to autoimmune diseases.

EFFECTS:
· Weakness around the hips and sometimes the shoulders.
· A slowing of reflexes.
· Muscle stiffness and painful muscle cramps.
· LIfe-threatening cases can cause rhabdomyolysis (acute muscle breakdown).
· Muscle enlargement along with muscle weakness.

10 What are the causes and effects of Muscular dystrophy?

CAUSES:
· Certain genes have a role in the production of proteins that protect muscle
 fibres.
· Muscular dystrophy develops when one of these genes fails.
· Each type of muscular dystrophy is caused by a genetic mutation unique to that
illness.
· The vast majority of these mutations are inherited.

EFFECTS:
· Having difficulty walking. Some persons with muscular dystrophy will need to
use a wheelchair at some point.
· Arms are difficult to use. When the muscles in the arms and shoulders are
compromised, daily activities might become more difficult.
· Contractures are shortenings of muscles or tendons surrounding joints.
Contractures can impede movement even further.

11 What are the causes and effects of fibromyalgia?

CAUSES:
· Genetic Factors: There may be a genetic predisposition to fibromyalgia, Certain
genetic variations may affect how the body processes pain signals and
regulates pain sensitivity.
· Environmental Triggers: Such as infections, trauma, or significant psychological
stress, may trigger the onset of fibromyalgia or exacerbate symptoms in
susceptible individuals.
· Central Nervous System Abnormalities: Abnormal processing of pain signals in
the central nervous system, resulting in amplified pain response.

EFFECTS:
· Widespread Pain: The primary symptom of fibromyalgia is chronic, widespread
pain that affects multiple areas of the body.
· Sleep Disturbances: Sleep disorders, including insomnia, restless legs
syndrome, and sleep apnea. These sleep disturbances can contribute to
increased fatigue and worsen other fibromyalgia symptoms.
· Reduced Physical Functioning: Fibromyalgia can significantly impact physical
 functioning and limit participation in daily activities, work, and exercise.

12 What are the causes and effects of dislocation?

CAUSES:
· Most common dislocations occur as a result of trauma and injury, such as a fall
or sport-related injury, which cause bones to be forced out of their normal
position.
· Joint hypermobility also causes dislocation, the excessive looseness or flexibility
of the joints makes them susceptible to dislocation.
· Muscle weakness and imbalance occur when muscles fail to provide adequate
support and joints become exposed to dislocation.

EFFECTS:

· The dislocation can lead to pain and swelling around the affected area, resulting
in inflammation due to the injury.
· The misalignment of the bones leads to visual changes in the affected area and
makes it difficult to perform everyday activities.
· The numbness and loss of sensation in the affected area are due to damage to
nearby nerves and blood vessels.

13 What are the causes and effects of arthritis?

CAUSES:
· The most common form of arthritis is caused by a fault in the immune system,
which mistakenly attacks its own healthy tissue in the joint.
· Obesity can lead to arthritis, and the excess load can accelerate joint
degeneration.
· Some infections, such as Lyme disease or bacterial infections, can trigger an
inflammatory response in the joint, which leads to arthritis.

EFFECTS:
 · The affected joint usually leads to pain and stiffness, which can make it difficult
to perform daily activities such as walking.
· It can also cause swelling and redness in the affected joint, which contributes to
limited mobility.
· The damaged joint can lead to joint deformities and loss of joint function.

14 What are the causes and effects of Muscle Atrophy?

CAUSES:
· Not getting enough exercise.
· Have a hereditary condition like muscular dystrophy or Charcot-Marie-Tooth
disease.
· Unable to move limbs as a result of a stroke or another illness such as
dermatomyositis.
· Have sarcopenia (age-related atrophy).
· Are undernourished.
· Lead a sedentary lifestyle.

EFFECTS:
· Having difficulties speaking and swallowing.
· More likely suffer from depression as a result of these health issues.
· Paralysis and abrupt weakness on one side of the body due to diminished
muscle mass.

15 What are the causes and effects of Tenosynovitis?

CAUSES:
· Autoimmune diseases: Any condition in which the body's defenses attack itself
can cause synovial membrane damage. Tenosynovitis can be caused by
arthritis (such as rheumatoid arthritis and gout) and diabetes.
· Overuse: occurs when a single action or motion is repeatedly performed over a
long period of time. Tenosynovitis is a common complication of overuse
syndrome.
 · Infections: Many common diseases can extend to the synovial membrane and
cause infectious tenosynovitis.
· Injury: Tenosynovitis can be caused by any injury or accident that destroys your
tendons or the area around them.

EFFECTS:
· The tendon may become permanently limited or rupture (tear).
· The afflicted joint may stiffen.
· Infection in the tendon has the potential to spread and endanger the affected
limb.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

NO. QUESTI0N

Discuss the causes and effects of COVID 19.

1

Answer

● Coronaviruses are a type of virus that causes respiratory disease in

humans. The virus is called a "corona" because it has crown-like spikes on
its surface.

Causes
● COVID-19 is caused by a virus called SARS-CoV-2.
● The virus primarily spreads through respiratory droplets when an infected
person coughs, sneezes, talks, or breathes.
● It can also spread by touching surfaces contaminated with the virus and
then touching the face, especially the mouth, nose, or eyes.

Effects

● Respiratory Symptoms: Common symptoms include fever, cough,

shortness of breath, and fatigue.
● Long COVID: Some individuals experience lingering symptoms long after
the acute phase of the infection has passed, which is known as "long
COVID" or "post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection" (PASC).
● Mortality: COVID-19 has resulted in a significant number of deaths
worldwide.
 Discuss the causes and effects of pneumonia.
2

Answer

Causes

● Pneumonia is caused by bacterial infections, such as Streptococcus

pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Legionella pneumophila.
● Pneumonia also caused by viral infections, including respiratory syncytial
virus (RSV), influenza viruses (such as H1N1), and the coronavirus
responsible for COVID-19.
● Fungal infections such as those caused by the fungi Cryptococcus and
Pneumocystis jirovecii, can result in pneumonia, particularly in individuals
with weakened immune systems.

Effects

● The common effect of pneumonia is fever, chills and sweating, particularly

in cases caused by bacterial or viral infections.
● Pneumonia can increase heart rate and lead to rapid and shallow
breathing.
● The symptoms of pneumonia are coughing, often producing phlegm or
mucus, chest pain and difficulty breathing.
 Discuss the causes and effects of bronchitis.
3

Answer

Causes

● Acute bronchitis can lead to inflammation of the bronchial tubes that is

commonly caused by viral infections, such as the influenza virus or
rhinovirus.
● Individuals who already have respiratory diseases like cystic fibrosis or
asthma may be more susceptible to developing bronchitis.
● Long-term exposure to irritants such as dust, pollen, and mold can lead to
chronic bronchitis.

Effects

● A common symptom of bronchitis is persistent coughing that frequently

produces mucus or phlegm.
● Breathing difficulties or wheezing may cause by bronchial tube
inflammation and constricted airways.
● Chest discomfort or tightness is the result of bronchial inflammation and
the effort of body to clear the airways.
 Discuss the causes and effects of cystic fibrosis.
4

Answer

Causes

● Cystic fibrosis is caused by a defective gene that makes the body produce
abnormally thick and sticky fluid, called mucus.
● Cystic fibrosis is an autosomal recessive disorder, that requires inheriting
two copies of the mutated cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance
regulator (CFTR) gene (one from each parent) to develop the condition.
● The mutated gene of protein especially in the lungs and digestive system
can disrupt the normal movement of salt and fluids across cell
membranes, leading to the production of thick, sticky mucus in various
organs.

Effects

● Cystic fibrosis can effect the respiratory system causing thick mucus to
accumulate in the airways that lead to frequent lung infections, persistent
coughing, wheezing, and shortness of breath.
● Individuals with cystic fibrosis may have difficulties in digesting fats and
proteins, resulting in oily or bulky stools, nutrient deficiencies, and poor
growth in children.
● Cystic fibrosis can cause salt imbalances in the body, leading to
dehydration and electrolyte abnormalities that can increase the risk of
heat-related illnesses.
5 Discuss the causes and effects of pulmonary hypertension.

Answer

Causes

● Pulmonary hypertension happens when blood vessels in the lungs

become thickened, narrowed, blocked or destroyed, it's harder for blood to
flow through the lungs.
● Certain medical conditions can lead to pulmonary hypertension such as
connective tissue diseases like scleroderma, HIV infection, liver disease
(cirrhosis), and congenital heart defects,
● Chronic lung diseases also can cause pulmonary hypertension due to
long-term damage to the lung tissue.

Effects

● Symptoms of pulmonary hypertension are shortness of breath, especially

during physical activity, fatigue, chest pain, dizziness, and fainting spells.
● The blood vessels in the lungs will narrow and stiffen, increasing the
resistance to blood flow and raising the pressure within the pulmonary
arteries.
● It also can lead to reduced exercise tolerance and limitations in daily
activities due to the decreased ability of the heart to pump blood
effectively.
 Discuss the causes and effects of pulmonary fibrosis.
6

Answer

Causes

● Pulmonary fibrosis is a lung disease that occurs when lung tissue

becomes damaged and scarred that makes it more difficult for lungs to
work properly.
● Connective tissue disorders, including rheumatoid arthritis, systemic
sclerosis (scleroderma), and sarcoidosis, can be associated with
pulmonary fibrosis.
● The risk of developing pulmonary fibrosis can increase by other medical
conditions, such as gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), viral
infections like hepatitis C and radiation therapy to the chest.

Effects
● The common symptoms of pulmonary fibrosis is shortness of breath,
especially during physical exertion, dry cough, fatigue, unexplained weight
loss, and chest discomfort.
● Pulmonary fibrosis can lead to stiffening and reduced elasticity of the lungs
because it involves the progressive scarring and thickening of lung tissue.
● This can result in impaired lung function, making it difficult for oxygen to
pass into the bloodstream and for carbon dioxide to be eliminated
effectively.
 Discuss the cause and effect for Pulmonary embolism
7

Answer

Causes
● A pulmonary embolism occurs when a clump of substance
● Blood clot becomes lodged in a pulmonary artery.
● Blood flow is being blocked.
● Deep vein thrombosis is a condition in which blood clots form in the deep
veins of the legs.
● The regions of the lung supplied by each blocked artery lack blood and
might die.
● It is difficult for the lungs to supply oxygen to the rest of the body.

Effects
● Pulmonary embosis include unexpected trouble breathing.
● When take a breath, the chest discomfort worsens
● Cough up blood.
 Discuss the cause and effect for Sleep Apnea
8

Answer

Causes
● When the muscles in the back of the throat relax, this type of sleep apnea
occurs.
● The soft palate, the triangular portion of tissue hanging from the soft palate
called the uvula, the tonsils, the side walls of the throat, and the tongue
are all supported by these muscles.
● When the brain detects a person’s inability to breathe, it causes them to
take the place of and reopen their airway.
● Snorting, choking, or gasping will occur. This pattern can occur 5 to 30
times or more each hour, all night. This makes it difficult to enter the deep,
restorative phases of sleep.
● When the brain fails to deliver instructions to the breathing muscles, this
less common type of sleep apnea occurs.

Effects
● This could cause a person to wake up with shortness of breath
● People have difficulty falling or staying asleep.
 Discuss the cause and effect for SARS
9

Answer

Causes

● SARS is caused by a coronavirus strain, the same virus family that causes
the common cold.
● The SARS virus may have spread from animals to people.
● The virus appears to have evolved from one or more animal viruses into
an unfamiliar strain.
● Most respiratory infections, including SARS, are conveyed by droplets that
enter the air when a person with the disease coughs, sneezes, or speaks.
● SARS is primarily transmitted through intimate human contact, such as
caring for someone who has SARS.
● The virus can also spread through contaminated objects including
doorknobs, phones, and lift buttons.

Effect
● Many SARS patients get pneumonia.
● Breathing issues can progress to the point where a physical respirator is
required.
● This can result in respiratory, cardiac, and liver failure.

Discuss the cause and effect for ARDS

10
Answer

Causes
● The smallest blood arteries in the lungs leak fluid into the smallest air sacs
where the blood is oxygenated, which is the mechanical cause of ARDS.
● This fluid remains inside the vessels due to a barrier membrane.
● However, severe disease or injury can harm the membrane, resulting in
fluid leakage and ARDS.
● Sepsis, a dangerous and widespread bloodstream infection, is the most
typical cause of ARDS.
● ARDS can be brought on by breathing toxic compounds that are present
in high concentrations in smoke or chemical vapours.
● Severe COVID-19 patients may experience ARDS.
● If a clot develops in the leg, a piece of it may separate and move to one or
both lungs.lungs, where it prevents blood flow.
● A respirator called a ventilator is used to increase oxygen in the body and
force fluid out of the lungs in cases of collapsed lung, leading to for almost
all of ARDS cases.
● By forcing gas through a tiny hole in the very outer layer of a lung, the
ventilator’s pressure and air volume can induce the lung to collapse.

Effects
● While many ARDS patients regain the majority of their lung function within
a few months to two years, some may continue to struggle with breathing
issues for the remainder of their lives.
● Pancreatic inflammation, severe blood loss, and burns.
● The majority of ARDS patients experience a period of feasible depression.
● Remembering and thinking clearly issues. Memory loss may result from
sedatives and low blood oxygen levels.
● Long-term cognitive impairment.
● Neuromuscular weakness.
 Discuss the causes and effect for Pleural effusion
11

Answer

Causes
● Pleural effusion occurs when fluid builds up in the chest cavity outside of
the lung.
● It might be exudative or transudative.
● Transudative pleural effusion occurs when increasing pressure on various
organs’ tiny and big capillaries leads them to leak, resulting in protein-filled
fluid collections. It happens as a result of coronary heart disease or
cirrhosis.
● Exudative pleural effusion occurs as a result of irritation, inflammation, or
infection. These can lead to increased fluid production, decreased
drainage, or both.
● Pleural effusions can arise when cancer cells spread to the pleura or when
normal fluid movement inside the pleura is blocked.

Effects
● It changes the lung and chest wall’s elastic equilibrium volumes.
● As a result of the restricted ventilatory impact, chest wall enlargement
● Inspiratory muscle efficiency is reduced.
 Discuss the causes and effects of asthma.
12

Answer

● Asthma is a long-term lung illness that affects people of all ages. It is

caused by inflammation and tightness of muscles around the airways,
making breathing difficult.

Causes

● Asthma is more likely if other family members, particularly a close relative

such as a parent or sibling, have asthma.
● Early life events have an impact on the developing lungs and can raise the
risk of asthma. Low birth weight, preterm, tobacco smoke and other
causes of air pollution, as well as viral respiratory infections, are examples
of these.
● Exposure to a variety of environmental allergens and irritants, such as
indoor and outdoor air pollution, house dust mites, molds, and
occupational exposure to chemicals, fumes, or dust, is also thought to
raise the risk of asthma.

Effects

● Respiratory Symptoms: These symptoms may include wheezing,

coughing, shortness of breath, and chest tightness. These symptoms can
vary in frequency and intensity between individuals and may be triggered
by certain factors.
● Limited Physical Activity: Asthma can limit a person's ability to engage in
physical activities. Exercise-induced asthma refers to asthma symptoms
triggered by physical exertion.
● Sleep Disturbances: Asthma symptoms, particularly coughing and
wheezing, can disrupt sleep patterns. This can lead to sleep disturbances,
daytime fatigue, and impaired concentration and performance in daily
activities.
 Discuss the causes and effects of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
13

Answer

● Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a common lung disease

causing restricted airflow and breathing problems. In people with COPD,
the lungs can get damaged or clogged with phlegm.

Causes

● Smoking: The most common cause of COPD is long-term exposure to

cigarette smoke, either through active smoking or second-hand smoke.
Smoking damages the lungs and causes chronic inflammation, leading to
the development of COPD.
● Environmental Factors: Exposure to certain pollutants and occupational
hazards can contribute to the development of COPD.
● Genetic Factors: A small percentage of COPD cases may have a genetic
component.

Effects

● Respiratory Symptoms: COPD is characterized by chronic respiratory

symptoms that progressively worsen over time. The two main symptoms
are chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Chronic bronchitis involves
persistent coughing with mucus production, while emphysema involves the
destruction of the air sacs in the lungs, leading to difficulty in exhaling air.
● Shortness of Breath: One of the primary effects of COPD is shortness of
breath, which tends to worsen with physical activity.
● Frequent Respiratory Infections: COPD affects the lungs' immune system,
making people more vulnerable to respiratory infections like pneumonia
and bronchitis.
 Discuss the causes and effects of tuberculosis.
14

Answer

● Tuberculosis (TB) is a disease caused by germs that are spread from

person to person through the air. TB usually affects the lungs, but it can
also affect other parts of the body, such as the brain, the kidneys, or the
spine.

Causes

● Bacterial Infection: Tuberculosis is caused by an infection with the

bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
● Weakened Immune System: While anyone can become infected with TB,
individuals with weakened immune systems are more susceptible.
● Close Contact: Spending prolonged periods near someone with active TB
increases the likelihood of transmission.

Effects

● Long-term (permanent) lung damage can occur if pulmonary tuberculosis

is not treated early or properly.
● TB can also infect the bones, vertebrae, brain and spinal cord, lymph
glands, and other bodily components. It can induce short-term (temporary)
or permanent symptoms from the damage.
● Uncontrolled TB can result in death. Furthermore, tuberculosis remains
one of the biggest infectious causes of death worldwide.
 Discuss the causes and effects of Influenza.
15

Answer

● The flu (influenza) is an illness of the respiratory system's nose, throat,

and lungs.

Causes

● Influenza Viruses: Influenza is caused by influenza viruses, which belong

to the Orthomyxoviridae family. There are four main types: influenza A, B,
C, and D. Influenza A and B viruses are the most common causes of
seasonal flu outbreaks in humans.
● Influenza A and B viruses are further categorized into strains and subtypes
based on their surface proteins, hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N).
● Person-to-Person Transmission: Influenza spreads primarily through
respiratory droplets when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks.

Effects
Children and adults at high risk may develop complications that may include:

● Pneumonia
● Bronchitis
● Asthma flare-ups
● Heart problem
● Ear infections
● Acute respiratory distress syndrome
 Discuss the causes and effects of lung cancer.
16

Answer

● Lung cancer is a cancer that starts in the lungs. Your lungs are two spongy
organs in your chest that take in oxygen and expel carbon dioxide as you
breathe.

Causes
● Smoking: The primary cause of lung cancer is cigarette smoking, including
both active smoking (smoking cigarettes directly) and passive smoking
(being exposed to secondhand smoke).
● Environmental and Occupational Exposures: Prolonged exposure to
certain substances in the environment or workplace can increase the risk
of developing lung cancer.
● Family History and Genetic Factors: Some people are predisposed to lung
cancer due to inherited genetic mutations or a family history of the
disease.

Effects
● Reduced Lung Function: As lung cancer progresses, it can impair lung
function and reduce the capacity to breathe effectively.
● Coughing up blood: Lung cancer can cause airway bleeding, causing you
to cough up blood (hemoptysis). The bleeding might become severe at
times.
● Metastasis is cancer that spreads to other regions of the body. Lung
cancer frequently spreads to other regions of the body (metastasizes),
such as the brain.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

NO. QUESTI0N

1
Discuss cause and effect of obesity (6m)

Answer:

Causes:

- Obesity is causes by eating high calories food like fast food and beverages.
- Excess glucose undergo glycogenesis in liver to turn into glycogen.
- Glycogen then stored at adipose tissue as fat.

Effects:

- Sedentary lifestyle can lead to increased number of calories than burning it.
- Patient with obesity will most likely to have osteoarthritis due to stress placed on
weight-bearing joints.
- People with obesity also have high blood pressure because cholesterol may
cause plaque on artery wall.

2
Discuss cause and effect of diabetis mellitus (6m)

Answer:

Causes:

- Diabetis mellitus happen when blood glucose is elevated.

- This happens due to patient’s body produce inadequate insulin.
- It also may happen because body’s cells being unable to respond properly to
insulin.
 Effects:

- Insulin helps to maintain normal blood glucose level.

- Without insulin, there will be glucose build up in the blood rather being stored in
cell or distributed.
- It can cause heart problem and kidney problem.

3
Discuss cause and effect of diabetis insipidus (6m)

Answer:

Causes:

- Diabetis insipidus caused by antidiuretic hormone (ADH).

- ADH is produced by hypothalamus.
- ADH is used to regulates the level of water in body.

Effects:

- For diabetis insipidus, ADH fails to properly regulate body’s level water.
- Therefore, allowing production of urine to increase.
- Hence, body loses water that needed.

4
Discuss cause and effect of hypertension (6m)

Answer:

Causes:
 - Renin causes the production of angiotensin.
- Angiotensin stimulates the adrenal gland to produce aldosterone.
- Aldosterone stimulates the reabsorption of water and conservation of sodium
leading to elevation in blood pressure.

Effects:

- Hypertension damages patient’s arteries makes it less elastic.

- It decreases the blood flow of oxygen.
- Oxygen unable to reach heart, therefore leads to heart disease

5
Discuss cause and effect of hemorrhoids (6m)

Answer:

Causes:

- Chronic constipation or diarrhea.

- Lack of fibre in the diet
- Aging: the connective tissue in the rectum and anus becomes weaker,
potentially resulting in bulging haemorrhoids.
- Pregnancy; as the fetus grows and puts pressure on the abdomen, the veins in
the rectum and anus become enlarged. The problem typically goes away after
birth.

Effects:

- Enlarged and swollen (also called varicose) veins around the outside of the
anus or in the lower rectum.
6
Discuss cause and effect of gastroenteritis (6m)

Answer:

- Gastroenteritis is a short-term illness triggered by the infection and inflammation

of the digestive system.
- viruses – such as norovirus, calicivirus, rotavirus, astrovirus and adenovirus.
- Bacteria – such as the Campylobacter bacterium.
- Parasites – such as Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia and
Cryptosporidium.
- Bacterial toxins – the bacteria themselves don’t cause illness, but their
poisonous by-products can contaminate food. Some strains of staphylococcal
bacteria produce toxins that can cause gastroenteritis.

7
Discuss cause and effect of peptic ulcer (6m)

Answer:

Causes:

- Peptic ulcers are open sores that develop on the inside lining of your stomach
and the upper portion of your small intestine.
- Helicobacter pylori (H.pylori) bacteria.
- Pain-relieving
- Injury, blockage, or lack of blood flow that affects the stomach or duodenum.
- Severe chronic diseases, such as cirrhosis.
 Effects:

- Internal bleeding. Bleeding can occur as slow blood loss that leads to anemia or
as severe blood loss that may require hospitalization or a blood transfusion.
- A hole (perforation) in stomach wall. Peptic ulcers can eat a hole through
stomach wall or small intestine and putting a risk of serious infection on
abdominal cavity (peritonitis).
- Obstruction. Peptic ulcers can block passage of food through the digestive tract,
causing to become full easily, to vomit and to lose weight either through swelling
from inflammation or through scarring.
- Gastric cancer. Studies have shown that people infected with H. pylori have an
increased risk of gastric cancer.

8
Discuss cause and effect of diarrhea (6m)

Answer:

Causes:

- Diarrhea is loose, watery, and possibly more-frequent bowel movements.

- Infection by bacteria.
- Infections by other organisms and pre-formed toxins
- Eating foods that upset the digestive system.
- Dehydration
- Malabsorption of food (poor absorption).

Effect:

- Diarrhea causes you to lose even more fluids. By losing salt, mineral such as
sodium, chloride and potassium also influence water in the body.
9
Discuss cause and effect of Pancreatitis (6m)

Answer:

Causes:

- Gallstones block the pancreatic duct so the enzymes can’t get out of the
pancreas.
- Gallstones enters the common bile duct and gets stuck at that junction, it can
temporarily block the drainage of pancreatic juice from the pancreatic duct.
- Enzymes traps inside pancreas. As pressure builds up behind the obstruction, it
activates the enzymes inside pancreas and they begin digesting the pancreas
itself.
- This gallstone pancreatitis occur.

Effects:

- Inflammation in pancreas can disrupt the pancreatic duct that feeds pancreatic
juices to intestine.
- Pancreatic juices will leak out around the pancreas and cause inflammation of
surrounding tissue. Over time, the inflamed area forms a hardened capsule
around the fluid, called a pseudocyst.
- Pseudocyst can occasionally become infected or become large enough to
cause discomfort.

10
Discuss cause and effect of Gastrointestinal Reflux Disease (GERD) (6m)

Answer:

Causes:

- Frequent acid reflux or reflux of nonacidic content from the stomach.

 - When you swallow, a circular band of muscle around the bottom of your
esophagus (lower esophageal sphincter) relaxes to allow food and liquid to flow
into your stomach. Then, the sphincter closes again.
- If the sphincter does not relax as it should or it weakens, stomach acid can flow
back into your esophagus. This constant backwash of acid irritates the lining of
your esophagus, often causing it to become inflamed

Effects:

- Lower esophagus was damaged because stomach acid causes scar tissue to
form.
- The scar tissue narrows the food pathway, leading to problems with swallowing.
- Esophagus structure become more narrow than normal.

11
Discuss cause and effect of gallstones (6m)

Answer:

Causes:

- Bile contains too much cholesterol.

- Liver excretes more cholesterol than bile can dissolve.
- The excess cholesterol may form into crystals and eventually into stones.

Effects:

- The pancreatic duct is a tube that runs from the pancreas and connects to the
common bile duct just before entering the duodenum.
- Blockage of the pancreatic duct occur.
- Pancreatic juices, which aid in digestion, cannot flow through the pancreatic
duct.
- Pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas) occur will causes intense, constant
 abdominal pain.

12
Discuss cause and effect of colorectal disease (6m)

Answer:

Causes:

- Colorectal or colon and rectal cancer starts in mucosa, the innermost lining of
colon that consists of cells that make and release mucus and other fluids.
- These cells mutate or change and will create a colon polyp.
- Over time, colon polyps will become cancerous.
- In colon cancer, cells lining in colon and rectum keep growing and dividing even
when they’re supposed to die. Tumor is form.

Effects:

- Colorectal disease will spread to other parts of body via lymph nodes or blood
vessels.
- Tumors may grow big enough to be felt from the outside of the body.
- Bleeding will happen inside of colon.
- A person may feel weak or tired because of severe anemia caused by loss of
blood.

13
Discuss cause and effect of Lactose intolerance (6m)

Answer:

Causes:

- Caused by a deficiency or absence of enzyme lactase which is needed to

breakdown lactose into simpler sugar that can be absorbed into the blood
 stream.
- Other causes are viral or bacterial infections that affect the digestive system,
can damage the small intestine, and reduce lactase production.
- Injury, illness or possibly surgery are the causes of lactose intolerance because
any of these can affect the small intestine and can cause a person to make less
lactase.
- Lactose intolerance is also caused by genetics because some people are born
with genetic predisposition to lactose intolerance, and this means they inherit a
gene that causes them to produce less lactase than other people.

Effects:

- People with lactose intolerance are unable to fully digest the sugar (lactose) in
milk.
- Lactose intolerance can effects on the body, particularly digestive system
including bloating gas, abdominal pain, and diarrhea.
- It can lead to malabsorption of nutrients, particularly calcium and vitamin D
which are important for bone health.
- The undigested lactose can draw water into the large intestine which can lead to
diarrhea and reduced absorption of these nutrients

14
Discuss cause and effect of inflammatory bowel disease (6m)

Answer:

Causes:

- Environmental factors such as diet, smoking, and exposure to certain toxins are
the cause of inflammatory bowel factors.
- The changes in the gut of microbiome which is the collection of bacteria and
other organisms that live in digestive tract, may also contribute to the
development of IBD.
- Another cause is immune system dysfunction that lead to abnormal immune
 response in the body and in this case, the immune system mistakenly attacks
the lining of the digestive tract, causing chronic inflammation and damage to the
tissue.

Effects:

- Inflammatory bowel disease can have a range of effects on the body,

particularly the digestive system.
- Another effect is abdominal pain and cramping because inflammation in the
digestive tract can cause pain and discomfort particularly during and after
meals.
- Rectal bleeding is one of the effects because inflammation can cause ulcers
and bleeding in the lining of the digestive tract which can be visible in the stool.

15
Discuss cause and effect of irritable bowel syndrome (6m)

Answer:

Causes:

- Irritable bowel syndrome is caused by abnormalities in the gut-brain axis

because the gut and the brain are connected through a complex system of
nerves and hormones.
- Changes in gut microbiota is the cause of this disease because there may be
alterations in the composition and diversity of the gut microbiota.
- Another cause is gastrointestinal motility. The muscles of the digestive tract
contract and relax in a coordinated manner to move food through the system.

Effects:

- The effect of this disease is abdominal pain and cramping. People with IBS may
experience recurrent abdominal pain and discomfort which can vary in intensity
and location.
- Another effect is changes in bowel habit. IBS can cause changes in bowel
 movements including diarrhea, constipation or alternating between the two.
- Can cause bloating and excess gas which can be uncomfortable and
embrassing.