The term "Poultry" indicates all domesticated species of birds like chicken, ducks, turkeys, Japanese

quail, guinea fowls, geese, pigeons, ostrich, emu etc., However, Chicken are the most numerous and
popular among the domesticated poultry species and account for 92 per cent of the total poultry.
Chicken has also received more attention in India's planning, research and developmental process. As a
result, India's chicken industry of today is not only vibrant and self reliant but is one of the best in the
world. Ducks account for 9 per cent of poultry population (FAO, 2008) and are mostly found in coastal
states of the country and in states with more lakes and rivers like West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Assam, Jammu & Kashmir and Tripura. Duck raising is still in a primitive stage and
indigenous ducks outnumber exotic ducks in spite of their inferior performance. Important indigenous
ducks are chara and chemballi (Kuttanad ducks) of Kerala, Sythetmete and Nageswari of Eastern Region,
Aarani ducks of Tamilnadu, Pati, Deo, Cinahanh and Raj Hanh varieties of Assam. The duck population in
Asia is 101 million (FAO 2008) India has a population of 36 million ducks (FAO 2008). Quail eggs and
meat have become popular. Growth of quail farming however has been hampered due to insistence on
wild life licensing, high cost of production and non-availability of superior quail germplasm. Turkey,
Guinea fowl farming, Emu and Ostrich farming are in their infancy and there are miles to go for their
commercial exploitation.

Commercial poultry production in India is barely 40 years old although poultry raising dates back to pre-
historic times. Hybrid egger strains were introduced into India in 1955 and broiler strains in 1961.
Among the two, the egg production/layer industry took wings early and registered a spectacular growth
between 1970 and 1985. The efficiency of modern poultry rearing was demonstrated in Government
farms and the State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) in the country took the lead through their extension
network in popularizing modern poultry production in rural areas. The Indian poultry sector has
undergone tremendous growth during the last two decades with a poultry population of 559.75 million
and an anticipated egg production of 56 billion.

Scientific Poultry keeping in India was first advocated by Christian Missionaries towards the beginning of
the 20th Century A.D. However, the organized effort to develop poultry in India was first started in 1957
when second five year plan (1956-61) was launched.

An All India Poultry development Project was initiated by setting up of regional poultry farms at
Bangalore, Mumbai, Bhuvaneswar, Delhi and Simla to acclimatize imported good quality stock under
their respective agro-climatic conditions to propagate them extensively in these regions. Almost all
poultry farm equipment were also imported and supplied to regional poultry farms.

Besides 269 poultry extension cum development centres each with a unit of 100 layers of improved
breeds were set up at different parts of the country. The period between II and IV Five-Year plan was
actually the turning point in the history of poultry industry in India.

Central Poultry Breeding Farms at Mumbai, Bhuvaneswar and Hasserghatta have produced high egg
producing strains and Chandigarh farm has evolved fast growing broiler strains.
Central Training Institute for poultry production and management at Hasserghata and also Central Avian
Research Institute (CARI) at Izatnagar are imparting training to the officers of the State Agricultural and
Veterinary Universities engaged in various aspects of poultry farming.

Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has sponsored All India coordinated research projects on
poultry breeding and poultry nutrition in number of research institutes including Agricultural and
Veterinary Universities of the country.

National Agricultural Co-operative Marketing Federation of India (NAFED) handles marketing of egg and
poultry meat at national and regional levels.

The development of poultry industry in India is brought about by the following ways:

1) Developing new more productive layer and broiler strains.

2) Development of vaccines.

3) Giving freedom to the poultry farmers for fixing prices for egg through organizations like National Egg
Co-ordination Committee (NECC).

4) Broiler Co-ordination Committee (BCC).

5) Financing of poultry schemes.

Strength / Achievements of Poultry Industry

 Improved Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR), quality control, upgraded management.

 New feed milling technologies.

 Purchase of feed raw materials and supply of better quality materials.

 Better breeding stocks.

 Rationalised pricing of breeder and commercial stocks.

 Pellet feeds will gain increasing market share.

 Availability of feed additives viz. enzyme, probiotics.

 Positive role of Integrators and corporates in industry.

 Distribution of feed units in all regions.

 Increase in percentage of processed foods.

 Marketing of branded eggs.

 Tapping of export potentials.

 Advancement in disease diagnosis and screening procedures.

Improvement in genetic potentiality and productivity of hybrid layers and broilers accounted for 60 per
cent of the increase in production of egg and meat. Hybrid layers of today lay on an average of 310 eggs
per year compared to 240-250 eggs 30 years back. Similar genetic improvement has also been reported
in broilers. Broilers which achieved mean body weight of 1500 g at 8 weeks of age with FCR of around
3.0 during early eighties of 20th century attain 1.8-2.0 kg mean body weight with a FCR of 1.6-1.8 at
present in about 35 days of age.

The Indian poultry industry is presently a 45,000 crore industry providing direct and indirect
employment to over 4 million persons. Inda captures 4.2% of global market share in eggs.

India is the third largest producer of eggs in the world next only to China, USA and Japan. Andhra
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Haryana and Tamil Nadu are the major egg producing states that account for
more than 60 per cent of the eggs produced in the country. Among the regions, higher per capita
production of 72 eggs was recorded for northern region followed by southern region with 50 eggs and
eastern and western regions with 20 eggs each. The lowest per capita production of eggs was recorded
for central region.

India ranks 4th in the world in respect of poultry meat production during 2003 with the highest
production recorded for USA followed by China, Brazil and India in that order. Poultry meat production
in the country increased from 8.12 million metric tones in 1981 to 7.85 million metric tone in (2008-09).
Andhra Pradesh is the leading state in broiler production; other major broiler producing states are Tamil
Nadu, Maharashtra, Punjab, West Bengal and Karnataka. More than 65 per cent of the broilers
produced in India are raised in these states.

Egg Production

During the past four decades, annual egg production in India (Table 1.1) has gone up by over 15 times to
register about 44,000 million eggs in 2005 (estimated) and per capita availability of eggs has also
increased from a mere seven eggs per annum to 47 in spite of population explosion witnessed in India.
As the focus in Indian families is shifting from quantity to quality in their diet, the egg production
industry in India is bound to grow at appreciable rates of 6-7% every year.

Broiler Production

India contributes 3.39% to the total Worlds Poultry Meat Production. Although hybrid broiler strains
were brought into India in the year 1961, the highly tender and juicy broiler meat was not readily
accepted by the Indian public. Sustained propagation by the Government, State Agricultural Universities
and the industry has resulted in growing awareness on the nutritive aspects and cost advantage of
broiler meat over other red meats like mutton, chevon etc. An initial, slow and steady growth was
witnessed in broiler population during 70's and the broiler industry during 1985 had made an impressive
growth. The low fat, low calorie, high protein, cost effective broiler meat now finds ready acceptance
not only among urban consumers, but also in rural households. Broiler production is growing at 10-15%
every year.

Poultry farming holds a prominent place in development plans, for a variety of reasons/Various factors
responsible for commercialization of poultry are:

1. It is highly prolific in nature (i.e.) one hen produces at least 240 chicks in an year.

2. Shorter generation interval (i.e.) in chicken, about 2 generations are obtained in a year. Hence,
genetic improvement per unit time can be achieved much faster than any other species.

3. It is adaptable to various agro-climatic conditions, i.e. chicken can be reared at temperatures as low as
0oC and as high as 40oC. Chicken can be economically reared in arid, semi-arid conditions as well as in
high humid zones.

4. Chicken can be reared under high stocking density (number of birds/unit area). In one acre of land,
about 10,000 layers under deep litter system of rearing and 25,000 layers in cage system can be reared;
in case of broilers, about 20000 birds can be reared whereas only limited heads of cattle or sheep can be
reared in the same holding. Poultry farming requires a modest initial capital outlay and its returns are
achieved much earlier.

5. Land required for poultry need not be fertile, further the water requirement is also less when
compared to other species of livestock. Cattle production and small ruminant production are dependent
mostly on the availability of land, which is a limiting factor for improving such activities.

6. Poultry can be managed under varied systems and also it easily adapts to automation, enabling large
numbers to be reared in one farm. Poultry farming and production techniques are simple and needs less
skill which means that even the uneducated or poorly educated rural population can run a poultry
farming business quite successfully if the necessary facilities are made available at a reasonable cost.

7. Among the various species of livestock, the dressing yield and edible yield of poultry is the highest.
Poultry: 72-75%; Beef: 50-55%; Pig: 68-72%; and Sheep & Goat: 40-48%.

8. Once the skin is removed, poultry meat is the best lean meat suitable for sick and convalescing
patients. It provides more than 20% protein and less than 3% fat; mutton, beef and pork contain more
than 10% fat and less than 20% protein. Further, the egg protein has the highest biological value and is
easily digestible and 100% assimilable. The egg has a very well balanced amino acid profile with the
required minerals and vitamins.

9. Poultry meat and egg are universally acceptable food materials without being forbidden by any
religious taboos.

10. The poultry industry has helped in uplifting the allied industries like manufacturing of equipment,
feed, pharmaceuticals, vaccines etc. Credit facilities are available from various nationalised banks,
scheduled banks, rural co-operative banks etc., with refinancing facility from National Bank for
Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD). In other words, poultry farming provides the
employment for rural and urban population with scope for diversification, increases revenue, and
enhances the value of certain agro and industrial products and by-products by transforming them into
quality products like poultry meat and eggs.

11. Poultry meat and eggs are considered to be the cheapest food sources of animal protein. There is a
higher consumer preference for poultry products because of low value of eggs and young broiler meat
available at low cost.

12. Unlike other animal fats, egg and chicken lipids are not fats; but oils good for health; they contain
more omega-9 fatty acid-MUFA which increases the good HDL-cholesterol in the serum. Moreover, they
contain considerable amounts of omega-3 fatty acids (N-3 PUFA) which reduce the serum bad LDL-
cholesterol. Hence, egg and chicken lipids are good for health.

13. Chicken are the most efficient converters of feed into meat and egg. It hardly requires 1.6 kg of feed
to produce 1 kg of body weight and in case of eggs it requires 1.4 kg of feed to produce 12 eggs or 2.0 kg
of feed to produce 1 kg of eggs.

Increase in production of egg and meat has also increased their per capita availability. Per capita
availability was 41 eggs or 1.5 kg of egg mass and 1400 g of poultry meat in 2005 compared to 7 eggs
and 188 g of poultry meat in 1961. Consumption of egg and meat is 4.8 times more by urban people
because of high purchasing power. It has been estimated that 25% of country's total population which
live in urban areas consume 75% of egg and meat produced in the country. Poultry and poultry products
cost more in rural areas. Poultry meat and egg above contribute to 50% of the percapita consumption of
animal protein. As per FAO’s predictions India’s demand for and supply of poultry products will grow by
4.8 and 5.2 per cent/year between 2007 to 2012. The eleventh five year plan was set a target growth
rate of 10% per year.

Indigenous domestic fowl or their crosses with exotic breeds raised in the rural and tribal areas under
backyard system of poultry keeping account for 30 per cent of the poultry population. Under backyard
poultry production system, birds scavenge most of their feed available freely in nature that are no
longer directly useful to humans. Because of minimal needs, the system is self-sustaining and can be
afforded by even the poorest of the poor.

Value of poultry and poultry products in India was estimated to be 102.34 billion rupees in the year 2000
compared to 7.95 billion rupees in 1981. In terms of GDP, poultry and poultry products accounted for 10
per cent of livestock output and 0.57 per cent from all sectors. Poultry meat accounted for two third of
the value of output and one third by eggs. With a turn over of more than 130 billion rupees, the industry
has generated about 5 million jobs in different facets of poultry production and allied activities.

Export of poultry products from India is not even one per cent of the value of poultry products produced
in the country. Indian poultry industry hence has been producing so far only to meet the local demand
for poultry products and has failed to take advantage of export prospects in a big way. The major
identified markets for Indian poultry products are Japan, Hong Kong, Poland, Belgium, Singapore, CIS,
Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Bahrain, Kuwait etc. There is a vast potential for
export of poultry products from India because of a favourable agro-climatic and demographic
conditions, cheap labour and proximity to major international markets like Middle and Far East.

The factors which will promote and accelerate the growth of Indian poultry sector during next two
decades include:

 Increase in human population of the country as well as that of the world.

 Change in the life style of people with more people becoming non-vegetarian.

 Strict enforcement of Animal Welfare Laws in industrially developed countries resulting in shifting of
production centres to developing countries like China, India, Brazil and Mexico.

 Increase in demand for poultry and poultry products in world market.

 Competitiveness of poultry egg and meat compared to the other foods of animal origin.

 Poultry's contribution to food production and food security and its special role in alleviation of
poverty, employment generation and empowerment of rural women.

Organic egg and meat is gaining popularity in western countries even though they cost more. Small
holder backyard systems of poultry production existing in our country provide ample opportunity for
production of organic poultry egg and meat. This will help in expansion of small holder system and also
in obtaining foreign exchange.

Future appears to be very bright for poultry egg and meat processing industry. Rapid growth of this
sector will help to provide wholesome poultry products to the consumers. The demand for ready-to-
cook chicken and value added poultry products although very small at present, is likely to grow several
folds very soon as has happened in western countries through appropriate consumer education and if
necessary through suitable legislation. The ability of the Indian poultry sector to fulfill its targeted
growth in productivity and output will depend upon the quality, availability and accessibility of services.
Development of human resources and upgrading the skill and capability of existing human resources will
be necessary.

BREEDS OF POULTRY

History of Evolution

In the process of evolution, cold blooded (Poikilotherms) reptiles are the ancestors of birds. The birds
are warm blooded, (Homeotherms) feathered and flying reptiles, adapted for hot and dry climate of
their terrestrial habitat. Now birds are classified into the class Aves, Subclass Neornithes, super order
Ratitae (flat breast bone- Ostrich, Emu and Kiwi) and Carinatae (Keel breast bone- all flying birds). The
genus and species of domesticated fowls, Chromosome number, and nomenclature based on age and
sex are detailed below.
Evaluation of Breeds

9.2.2 Chicken

Two scientific names are in use for chicken, namely Gallus gallus and Gallus domesticus. The first implies
that chickens were domesticated exclusively from the Red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus) and the second
that more than one of the wild jungle fowl species namely grey jungle fowl (Gallus sonnerati), Ceylon
jungle fowl (Gallus lafayettei) and green jungle fowl (Gallus varius) contributed to the evolution of
domestic fowl. However the red jungle fowl is the species that most closely resembles chicken so that
there is no doubt that it was the main ancestor, although it may have been the only one.

Historical and scientific documentation suggest that domestication of chicken originated from the Asian
continent only. China, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and other
South East Asian countries were the home of the ancient jungle fowls from which the modern day
breeds and commercial strains of chicken were evolved.
1. Class

This term “class” used to designate a group of birds, which are developed in certain regions or
geographical areas such as American, Asiatic, Mediterranean, English etc.

2. Breed

The breed refers to an established group of birds related by breeding, possessing a distinctive shape ,
conformation, plumage colour, comb type and general body weight etc., and birds which are true to
breed. (Eg.) Aseel, Rhode Island Red, Leghorn, Cornish.

3. Variety

It is the term used to sub-classify breeds. There may be many varieties within a breed differentiated by
plumage colour, pattern and comb type (Eg.) White Leghorn, Black Leghorn, Brown Leghorn, Barred
Plymouth Rock etc.

4. Strain

Strains of birds are sub classification of a breed. Normally a strain is named after the person who has
evolved them or it can also be named after the research station. They are developed duly giving
importance to certain specific traits like egg production, early maturity, better feed efficiency, egg
weight etc. (Eg.) Meyer strain of White Leghorn, Forsgate strain of White Leghorn.

5. Lines

These are sub classes of strains which are engaged for production of commercial hybrids.

Classification of chicken

1. Standard or official classification based on the place of origin.

2. Classification based on utility, economics or commercial value.

1. Classification based on the place of origin

1. Asiatic - Eg. Brahma, Langshan, Cochin

2. American - Eg. Plymouth Rock, Rhode Island Red, Wyandotte

3. Mediterranean - Eg. Leghorn, Minorca, Ancona

4. English - Eg. Orpington, Sussex, Cornish

5. Continental - Eg. Houdans, Hamburg, Polish, Campines, Lackvelders

6. Oriental - Eg. Malays, Yokohama, Sumatra, Cubalayas

7. French, South American (or) Latin American - Eg. Araucana

8. African: Eg. Negro, Jago

9. Miscellaneous - Eg. Bantams

2. Classification based on utility

This classification is based on utility or commercial value; such as

1. Egg-type: Eg. Leghorn.

2. Meat-type: Eg. Cornish

3. Dual purpose: Eg. Rhode Island Red

4. Game type: Eg. Aseel

5. Fancy variety or Exhibition - type: Eg. Silky, Frizzled, Bantams

6. Desi type: Eg. Kadaknath, Naked neck, Chittagong

General characteristics of various standard classes of chicken

1. American: Medium to heavy size birds, mostly meant for meat or brown egg production, having clean
yellow shanks and yellow skin (except Jersey Black giant, where the shanks are black) with red ear lobes,
rose or single combs. Eg. Plymouth rock, Wyandotte, Rhode Island Red, Jersey Black giant, New
Hampshire.

2. Asiatic: Asiatic breeds are heavy in size, poor layers, lay brown eggs, broody with motherly instinct,
have red ear lobes, mostly with feathered yellow shanks, yellow skin (except Langshan). Eg: Brahma,
Cochin, Langshan.

3. English: Medium to large sized birds, single comb (except Cornish with pea comb), red ear lobes,
white skin (except Cornish where it is yellow), clean and white shank (except Australorp, where it is dark
slate and in Cornish where it is yellow), lay brown shelled eggs (except Dorking which lays white shelled
eggs). Examples: Australorp, Cornish, Dorking, Orpington and Sussex.

4. Mediterranean Breeds: Small size, egg-type, non-broody, have white earlobes, yellow or white skin,
clean and yellow/slate coloured shanks and lay white shelled eggs.

Examples: Leghorn, Minorca, Ancona, Andalusian.

5. Indian Breeds: A number of fowl of different sizes and shape with various plumage patterns are
commonly found in India. However the four recognized breeds are Aseel, Chittagong, Busra and
Kadaknath.

6. Aseel : It is famous for its high body weight, stamina, majestic gait and fighting qualities and it forms
the male line for developing the most famous meat type breed Cornish (formerly Indian game). Now the
best specimens are found in Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan.
7. Chittagong: It is also known as Malay and is found in Eastern India.

8. Kadaknath: This breed is otherwise known as “Kalamasi” which means “fowl with black flesh” and is
native of Madhya Pradesh.

9. Busra: Small to medium sized bird found in Gujarat.

10. Hybrids of Chicken: These are incrossbreds of poultry, produced by 2-way, 3-way or 4-way crossing
of inbred pure lines. They are the actual commercial-type of poultry used for egg or meat production;
since they are high laying/fast growing. However, they will not breed-true and are unfit for further
breeding. These birds possess high degree of heterosis and hybrid vigour.

1. Common egg-type hybrid chicken

BV-300, ISA, Babcock, Bovans, Euribrid, Hyline, HH-260, Dekalb, Keystone, Lohmann and H & N Nick
chick.

2. Common Meat-type hybrid chicken

Cobb, Ross, Steggles, Arbor acres, Hub chicks, Hybro, Hubbard, Lohmann, Pilch, Starbro, Tegel, Anak-
2000, Marshall, Peterson, Samrat-2000 and Avian-34.

Ducks

The domesticated breeds of ducks can be classified based on three purposes,

 For egg production

 For meat production

 For ornamental purpose

1. Egg laying breeds

A. Campbell

Campbell ducks were developed by Mrs. Campbell during the beginning of the 19th century by crossing
Rouen (male line) with Indian Runner (female line) later with wild mallards. Khaki Campbell is variety
resulting from colour selection of the Campbell breed. The base color is Khaki and the drake is having
lustrous green bronze colour in head, neck up to sternum and the remainder body is of shades of Khaki
and the duck is having uniform shades of khaki throughout the body which makes it useful for sex
differentiation. The bill is dark and legs and feet are orange. The other varieties of Campbell like white
and dark are less popular.

B. Indian Runner

The Indian Runner or Runner ducks derives its name from its place of introduction- East India. It is
having perpendicular carriage which is the out standing feature of this breed. It does not have
pronounced shoulders and the body shape and carriage resemble the penguins. The three standard
varieties are Fawn, White and White penciled. They are excellent layers and formed the female line
developing the Campbell ducks.

2. Meat type ducks

A. Pekin

These ducks originated in China and White Pekin is the most popular duck. The plumage is creamy
white, the flesh is yellow and the bill and legs are deep orange. The adult body weight of drake and duck
will be 4 kg and 3 kg. Early maturity, fleshing and good laying capacity are the special features of this
breed.

B. Aylesbury

This breed is native of England. The plumage colour is spotless white in both the sexes. The legs and feet
are orange. It is larger than pekin and the adult drake and duck weighs around 4.5 kg and 4 kg
respectively.

C. Rouen ducks

These birds originated in France. Once upon a time this forms the basis (male line) for developing
Campbell ducks.

D. White ducks

These are mainly through the crossing of White pekins and Aylesbury ducks.

E. Muscovy

Originated in South America. The males have no drake feathers and have a knob on the head like a crest.
Because of its size and grazing behaviour, there is still a doubt whether Muscovy should be included in
ducks and goose. If Muscovy is crossed with other ducks, the progeny will be “sterile” called Mule ducks
having high growth rate and lean meat meant for meat purpose. The incubation period is 35 days.

3. Ornamental type: Buff Orpington, Mandarin, Crested white etc.

A. Indigenous breeds

Sythetmet, Nageswari ducks of North Eastern states, Kuttanad ducks of Kerala (Chara and Chemballi)
and Aarani ducks of Tamil Nadu. In India, 90-95 percent of ducks are indigenous or non-descript types,
which are hardy, with mediocre egg production and highly suitable for extensive system of rearing.

B. Chara

Drakes are squat in posture. Head is lustrous greenish black and neck is brownish black plumage with
full or half white band on the front. Bill and feet are orange. Body weight at 20 weeks is 1.6 kg. Ducks
are erect in gait and squat in posture. Head is brownish black , back and tail is brownish black and breast
is brownish black. Bill is yellowish black and feet is orange. Body weight at 20 weeks is 1.5 kg.

C. Chembally

Drakes are squat in posture and gait. Head is dull greenish black, neck is brown with full or half white
bands and back is brownish black. Bill is yellow with black spot and feet is bright orange. Body weight at
20 weeks is 1.6 kg. Ducks are erect in gait and squat in posture. Head is primarily brownish black, neck is
brown with or without white bands and back is brownish grey. Breast is light brown or brownish black.
Body weight at 20 weeks is 1.5 kg.

D. Hybrid Ducks

Cherry valley (Meat type and Egg type), Hytop (Mule duck), Legarth (Meat-type).

Turkeys

Turkeys originated from Northern and Central America and were domesticated about 300 years ago by
the Europeans colonized in North America. There are no breeds in turkeys, but only varieties are
available. They are Bronze, White Holland, Bourbon Red, Narragansett, Black, Slate, and Beltsville Small
White. The common varieties of turkeys are as follows:

i) Broad Breasted Bronze

It is the most popular and heaviest variety of turkey. As the name indicates, it is having a broad and
prominent chest region and bronze coloured feathers. The males and females at maturity weigh 15-18
kg and 12-13 kg. respectively. Most of the present day hybrid turkeys are crosses of different strains of
Broad Breasted Bronze or Belts Ville White. One of the common hybrid turkeys popular in North
America is Nicholas Turkey. It is the cross of the above two.

ii) Belts Ville White

It is a medium sized turkey having white feathers. They produce more eggs compared to Broad Breasted
Bronze and therefore included in breeding programmes. The toms will be weighing 10-12 kg. at maturity
and hens 7-8 kg.

iii) White Holland

It is a popular variety of turkey most commonly found in European countries. It is bred and developed in
Holland after importing several varieties from North America. They are also used as crosses with the
local basic turkey to improve their growth rate and reproductive ability. The toms will be weighing 10-12
kg. and the hens 6-8 kg. at maturity.

iv) Narragansett

This is a popular variety in Europe next to White Holland. It is mostly reared in Germany, Italy etc. Most
of the hybrid turkeys available in Europe are crosses of White Holland or Narragansett.
Hybrid Turkey

(All meat-types)

Nicholas turkey

British United Turkey.

Geese

i) Toulouse

Toulouse is one of the heavy breeds that originated in France. Some strains are non-broody and the
goose is a fair layer among the heavy breeds.

Gooslings tend to grow slowly and have to be kept to an older age before being ready for market.
Because of their size, they are not good foragers but do well under confinement. The flesh is coarser
than the Emden and the proportion of bone and offal is high. The progeny of a Toulouse goose crossed
with an Emden gander grows rapidly and has good fleshing qualities.

Bill, legs and feet are orange. The plumage varies through different shades of grey with each feather
laced with a white edging. The stern, paunch and tail are white.

Gander-14 kg; Goose-9 kg.

ii) Emden

The Emden (sometimes spelt Embden) originated from Hanover in Germany. It is a heavy breed, a
prolific breeder with a quiet disposition and currently the most popular in New South Wales.

The breed is most suitable for crossing with other breeds. Emdens are good egg producers (upto 40 eggs
per season), they are good sitters, early maturing and good foragers. Because feathers from Emdens are
white, they are of greater value than feathers from other geese.

Gooslings can be sexed at day old with a reasonable degree of accuracy as females have a darker down
than males. After a few days however, there is no difference in feather colour. Bill, legs and feet are
bright orange, and the hard tight plumage is pure glossy white.

Other goose breeds are African, Chinese, Egyptian, Canada etc.

Quails

The domesticated quails are the Japanese quails and the Bobwhite quails. In India, the Japanese quail,
scientifically known as Coturnix coturnix japonica is very popular. These birds do well in laboratory cages
and are used for many studies. The males weigh less than the females. The colour of the feathers in the
breast region in the male is a plain rust colour while in the female it is speckled. They are very easy to
raise and can be maintained in minimum space. The eggs are mosaic patterned. The known breeds of
Japanese quails are Manchurian Golden, British Range, English White and Tuxedo.

Guinea Fowl

These birds derive their name from Guinea, a part of the West Coast of Africa. The domestic guinea
fowls descended from one of the wild species of Africa and they have been domesticated for centuries,
the ancient Greeks and Romans were known raised them as table birds. There are three important
varieties of domesticated guinea fowl namely,

 Pearl

 White and Lavender.

Pigeons

Pigeons are reared throughout the world for the following purposes:

 For racing

 Flyers and performers

 Meat production.

 Most popular breeds of pigeons are Homer,

 White King Swiss Mondaines.

 It is difficult to differentiate the sex of the pigeon by casual observation.

 Good pigeons for breeding have a white or pinkish white skin and light-

 coloured legs.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF MALE AND FEMALE BIRDS

Reproductive structures are paired in either sex. But in the female, only the left reproductive tract
functions.

Male reproductive system

The male reproductive structures include paired testes, their respective vas deferens, cloaca and the
rudimentary copulatory organ. The male reproductive system produces male reproductive cells
(spermatozoa).
Testes are paired, small ovoid structures lying on the dorsal body wall, on either side of the vertebral
column and anterior to the kidneys. The testes are reddish-yellow in colour. The left kidney is slightly
larger than the right one. The testis is formed of numerous slender seminiferous tubules, inside which
spermatogenesis takes place. From each tubule arises the vas deferens, which joins together to form the
long coiled epididymis. The epididymis of each side continues down as the vas deferens and terminates
in the cloaca.

Sperms undergo maturation in the epididymis and they attain the power of motility here. The sperms
are carried down with the seminal secretion into the cloaca from where they are discharged during
copulation. On the median ventral portion of the cloaca is a small button-like structure called copulatory
papilla, which is the rudimentary copulatory organ. During copulation the papilla of male and female are
everted and pressed together so that sperms are ejected directly into the female urodeum, from where
they are squeezed into the oviduct by the contraction of the urodeum. A temperature, lower than that
of the body at the nodule, probably hastens maturity of the sperms.

The reproductive system of female

1. Ovary

At the time of embryonic development, two ovaries and two oviducts exists, but out of two ovaries and
oviducts, only the left ovary and oviduct is functional at hatching, the right atrophies. The left ovary is
situated in dorsal part of abdominal cavity at the fore end of kidneys. The ovary is responsible for the
formation of yolk and remaining portions of egg originate in the oviduct.

2. Oviduct

The oviduct is a long zig zag tube consisting of glandular and muscular parts. Oviduct extends from the
ovary to the cloaca. It has 5 distinct parts, viz. infundibulum (9cm), magnum (33cm), isthmus (10cm),
uterus (10-12cm) and vagina (12cm). Infundibulum is the funnel-shaped, anterior portion of the oviduct,
and measures about 9 cm in the laying hens. The mature ovum immediately after release from the
Graffian follicle, is engulfed by the Infundibulum, and remains there for about 18 minutes before moving
to the magnum. Magnum, about 33 cm in the laying hens is the largest portion of the oviduct. The ovum
remains in the magnum for about 2 hrs and 54 min. The ovum stays in isthmus for about 1 hour and 14
minutes. The uterus, also known as shell gland, is a pouch-like structure and the ovum stays here for
about 20 hours and 40 minutes in the uterus. The vagina is the terminal portion of the oviduct having a
muscular sphincter at the utero-vaginal junction which helps in expelling the egg during ovulation.

FORMATION AND STRUCTURE OF EGGS

Formation of egg

The yolk is not the true reproductive cell, but a source of food material from which the live cell
(Blastoderm) and its resultant embryo partially receives its nutrients for growth. When the female
attains sexual maturity, the mature ovum inside the Graffian follicle grows rapidly and reaches its full
size in about 9 to 10 days due to the action of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) produced by the
Anterior Pituitary. The yolk weight also increases 7 days prior to ovulation due to the deposition of yolk
material over the ovum in concentric and alternate layers of white and yellow of which, white layer of
yolk is deposited during the night and the yellow layer during the day. As the ovum increases in size, due
to the deposition of yolk, the nucleus migrates from the centre of the ovum to the periphery and lies
underneath the vitelline membrane. The nucleus of the infertile egg is called 'germ spot' and that of
fertile egg 'germ disc'. The anterior pituitary releases Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) that regulates
the growth and maturity of Graffian follicle and Luteinising hormone (LH) that helps to release the ovum
by rupture of Graffian follicle. The liberation of ovum from Graffian follicle is called Ovulation.

Ovulation occurs usually 14 to 75 minutes after oviposition (Act of laying) of egg. Most of the albumen is
formed in the magnum, so it is known as the albumen-secreting region of the oviduct. Peristaltic
movement of the magnum pushes the ovum to the isthmus. Chalazae, the egg protein formed in the
magnum, becomes visible only in the uterus and not before, probably because of change in colloidal
structure of albumen adjacent to the yolk and rotation of this albumen around the yolk in the uterus.
The inner and outer shell membranes of the egg are formed in the isthmus. Probably some amount of
water is also added to albumen in the isthmus. The uterus is responsible for the formation of egg shell
and hence is also known as shell gland. Calcium required for the formation of the egg shell is mobilized
from long medullary bones and feed. The tubular and unicellular glands present

Egg consists of 4 major parts namely Shell, Shell membranes, Albumen and Yolk.

1. The egg shell consists of Cuticle, Spongy or calcarious layer, Mammillary layer or matrix and Pores.
The pores are funnel shaped, distributed at right angles to the shell surface and form connecting
passages between the shell membrane and cuticle. The average number of pores will be about 8,000 per
egg, which are distributed unevenly over the shell surface with more number of pores towards the
broad end than at the narrow end.

2. The shell membrane consists of Air cell, Outer shell membrane and Inner shell membrane. The inner
and outer shell membranes, measure 40-70μ and 10-20μ in thickness respectively and the air cell is
situated in between the two membranes, usually on the broader end. Air cell is formed as a result of
contraction of the egg contents, soon after oviposition, due to differences in the temperatures exposed
to by the egg prior to and after oviposition. The outer shell membrane is attached firmly to the shell by
numerous cones on the shell surface extending into the membrane. The inner shell membrane closely
surrounds the albumen.

3. The albumen consists of 4 layers, namely, Chalaziferous or inner thick white, which forms (3%) Inner
thin albumen, (17%) Outer thick firm or dense albumen (57%) and Outer thin albumen (23%) of total
albumen.The chalaziferous layer is very close to the yolk immediately surrounding the vitelline
membrane of the yolk. This is very firm (thick) albumen; it twists into two chords on either sides of the
yolk called chalazae, which are formed due to rotational movement of the egg in the oviduct.

Functions of chalazae Chalazae will hold the yolk firmly in its central position and thus serves as an
anchor for yolk. The chalazae are believed to contain a protein called lysozyme, which is possessing
antimicrobial properties and helps to prevent the microbial spoilage of the egg. Ageing, improper
storage and microbial spoilage makes thick albumen watery.

4. The yolk consists of

1. Concentric layers of dark and light yolk material, due to differences in their chemical composition.

2. Latebra is the centre of the yolk, which is a small, nearly circular core of light coloured fluid, which
does not completely harden on boiling.

3. Neck of latebra is a thin column of light coloured material connecting the latebra to the nucleus of
Pander and germinal disc.

4. Nucleus of Pander is a cup-shaped structure, which is an extension of the neck of latebra, connecting
the base of the germinal disc.

5. The "germinal disc" or "germ spot" is the reproductive cell. It is a light coloured spot located on the
surface of the yolk, just under the Vitelline membrane. In an infertile egg it is unicellular (ovum) and
contains haploid number of chromosomes, called "Blastodisc." It is circular in shape, with a diameter of
about 3.5 mm and with vacuoles in it. Where as in a fertile egg, it is a multicellular structure having
diploid number of chromosomes, called "Blastoderm." It is oval in shape, with an average diameter of
about 4.5 mm and with no vacuoles in it.

6. The "Vitelline membrane" is a semi-permeable elastic membrane, surrounding the yolk, separating
the yolk material from the albumen.
Physical and chemical composition of chicken egg

Egg is the most nutritious, natural, unadulterated and easily digestible food on earth; with highest
biological value, chemical score, net protein value and net protein utilization. The physical and chemical
composition of egg as well as its nutritional value are as follows.
ECONOMIC TRAITS OF POULTRY

The economic traits of birds are those parameters or performance characteristics that determine
profitability in any kind of poultry farming enterprise like broiler production, egg production, Japanese
quail/turkey production, broiler/layer chick production etc.

LAYERS

1. Age at sexual maturity (days)/Age at start of lay:

For a flock of layer pullets, age in days at which 5 % egg production level is reached is considered as the
age at maturity. It usually falls within 21st week of age. Sometimes the level may be reached even at
19th or 20th week which is not desirable. It happens when additional night lighting is given to growers
indiscriminately even after six weeks of age. If laying starts early, the eggs laid are smaller in size which
continue to be so for long time, thus affecting the egg price and in turn, the profitability. Adopt lighting
schedule for growers as advised. Strain of the bird and quality of feed are two other factors influencing
age at start of lay of eggs.

2. Body weight at maturity:

This character decides feed efficiency, egg number and egg weight. The body weight of layers at start of
lay has to be optimal; it should neither be low nor high. Low body weight indicates poor growth of egg
forming female reproductive tract, which in turn will result in poor egg production and egg weight.
Higher body weight at maturity will lead to higher feed consumption and poor feed efficiency. If higher
body weight is due to high abdominal fat, the same will obstruct infundibulum and affect egg
production. Strain and feed quality also affect this character.

3. Egg number:

Commercial hybrid layers produce around 300-310 eggs in one year from 21-72 weeks of age. Strain of
the bird, age and body weight at start of lay, lighting schedule during growing and laying, feed quality
(protein, energy, vitamins, mineral and trace mineral content and toxin free feed), culling procedure,
climate, managemental factors like space allowances, system of feeding, water quality, vaccination and
other disease control measures all influence egg number.

4. Egg weight:

It varies from 52-56 g on an average. Egg weight is mainly dependent on body weight of the birds. Birds
at later stage of production are comparatively older, heavier and lay larger sized eggs. First egg in a
clutch (series of eggs laid daily without a break) is always heavier than other eggs in the series. If total
number of eggs laid in a laying cycle of one year is comparatively less, individual egg size by such strain
of birds is normally larger and if the egg number is more egg size will be comparatively less. To
overcome this and to decide as to which strain is preferable, another character known as “egg mass” is
considered. It is the total weight of eggs laid by a bird in a laying cycle. It depends both on egg number
and average weight of an egg. All other factors such as quality of feed, managemental factor, age, strain
etc., which influence body weight also have an influence on egg weight.

5. Feed efficiency:

It denotes the efficiency of conversion of feed into egg. Feed efficiency of layers is calculated in terms of
conversion into number of eggs (per dozen eggs) or weight of eggs (per kg egg mass).

i. Feed efficiency (per dozen eggs) = Average quantity of feed consumed (kg) by a bird in a laying cycle

Average number of eggs in dozens, produced by a bird

ii. Feed efficiency

(per kg egg mass) = Quantity of feed consumed (kg)

Total weight of eggs (kg) produced

Feed efficiency of a layer depends on the strain of the bird, average egg number, egg weight (in the
latter case). Quality of feed (energy, protein and contents of other vital nutrients, presence of toxins, if
any, inclusion of performance promoters etc.), managemental care (space allowances, system of
feeding, feed wastage, proper debeaking, deworming, insect and rodent control), climate, disease
control measures etc., Average feed efficiency values by (i) method vary from 1.7-1.8 and by (ii) method
from 2.3-2.4 under average Indian conditions.

6. Livability:

Per cent livability is worked out separately for each of the three stages of layer management viz. in
brooder (0-8 weeks), grower (9-20 weeks) and layer (21-72 weeks) stages. Permissible levels of mortality
during these stages are 4%, 2-3% and 6-8% respectively. Accordingly, livability levels of 96%, 96-97% and
92-94% are prescribed as optimal for these stages independently of each other. Strain, feed quality,
litter management, vaccination schedule and other disease control measures, disease outbreaks, lay out
and design of poultry houses, climate, biosecurity measures adopted, dead bird and manure disposal,
parent breeder management and hatchery sanitation etc. all influence livability levels in layers.

7. Egg production or egg number percentage (No.)

(a) Hen-housed egg production percentage

No. of eggs laid on that day X 100

No. of birds at start

Number for a period = Total no. of eggs laid during that period

No. of birds at start

(b) Hen-day egg production percentage

No. of eggs laid on a given day X 100

No. of live birds available on that day

Number for a period = Total no. of eggs laid during that period

Average hen days during the period

Average hen days = Sum of living birds on each day during the period

Total no. of days during that period

BROILERS
1. Body weight at market age

It is the average live weight of a broiler when sold to market. It is obtained by dividing the total weight
of birds sold by the number of broilers. Since the broilers fetch price based on their body weight, it is
advantageous to get heavy birds at an early market age (fast growing).

The body weight at market age depends on so many factors, the knowledge of which will help the
farmer to make their birds grow faster viz. Strain, disinfection, downtime, system of rearing, water
sanitation, feeding, night lighting, watering, floor space, growth promoters, housing design etc.

2. Feed efficiency

The term indicates the quantity of feed required to put up a unit live body weight. Since feed involves 70
% of the cost of production, feed efficiency or efficiency of feed conversion by the broilers determines
profit margin also. It is calculated as:

Feed efficiency = Quantity of feed consumed by a batch (kg)

Total live weight of broilers marketed (kg)

For broilers, a feed efficiency of 1.8-2.0 kg feed to put one kg live body weight is considered as optimal.
Lower the feed efficiency value, the better for the farmer.

The factors influencing feed efficiency are strain, quality and energy level of feed, feeding, growth
promoters, climate, floor space, role of microbes, mortality etc.

3. Livability at market age

Livability = Number of birds alive at market age X 100

Number of chicks purchased

Under standard rearing conditions, 94 to 96 % livability is anticipated at market age since the death rate
(mortality) should not exceed 4 to 6 %. The factors influencing livability are strain, housing design,
disinfection and other disease control measures, medication, vaccination, standard of management like
brooding, extremes of climate, downtime between batches, system of rearing, Quality of feed, litter
material etc.

4. Dressing yield (%)

It is the proportion of edible meat to total live weight which varies from 72 to 76 %. Strain of the bird,
energy content of the diet, feeding and watering before slaughter, length and time of transport etc. are
some of the factors that influence dressing yield.

EGG PRODUCTION, EGG WEIGHT, EGG QUALITY

External Characteristics and Grading of Shell Eggs

A normal chicken egg is ovate in shape. Wide variation in shape may lead to breakages during handling
and transport. For easy transportation and merchandising of egg, they should possess normal external
characteristics. If shape and size are abnormal, the eggs are liable to break. Similarly, thin shell and weak
shell egg or shell less eggs are liable to break and are unfit for transportation. Moreover, eggs with thin
shells loose their quality quickly. Shell colour and other external characteristics will determine the
market acceptability. Clean eggs will be sold at premium price, than dirty eggs.

The external characteristics of the egg will be assessed by the following methods:

1. Egg size/ weight

2. Shape

3. Shell colour & Texture

4. Cleanliness

5. Volume

6. Specific gravity

7. Surface area

1. Egg Size or Weight

Each species of bird has its own standard egg weight. Similarly the egg weight vary between breed and
age of the bird. Heavier birds produce heavier egg. A normal chicken egg weighs 55-60gm depending
upon the breed and age. The chicken egg will be about 1/30th of the hen's body weight. In case of
ducks, the egg weight ranges from 65-70gm, depending upon the breed, which will weigh 1/25th of its
body weight. Goose lay eggs weighing 130-200gm, depending upon the breed. Japanese quail eggs will
weigh around 10gm, which will be about 1/15th of its adult body weight. When compared to body size,
Japanese quail lay heavier egg than other species. Turkey egg will weigh 65-70g, and it is only about
1/60th of its body weight. In all species of birds, older birds lay heavier eggs than younger birds. Record
the weight of egg provided to 0.1gm accuracy using triple beam balance. Sometimes the egg size will be
extremely small or large as in the case of yolk less/ double yolked eggs which are difficult to transport
because they will break during transit. They are sold in the farm itself.

2. Shape

The usual egg shape is "ovate". The shape of the egg plays a major role in packing and transport. The
normal shape of an egg can be marred due to diseases like Ranikhet and Infectious Bronchitis. Too small
or too large eggs are discarded in the farm itself. Egg shape is expressed as "Shape index'. Here the
process is to measure the maximum length of the egg using a vernier caliper and also the average width
of the egg measured in two places. It is measured to an accuracy of 1mm and the shape index is arrived
at by using the formula.
Shape Index = Average width X 100

Average length

A normal egg will have a shape index of 72 (Range 70-74). Egg which is spherical in shape will have a
shape index of 75 and above; such of those eggs which are elongated/ elliptical will have lesser shape
index of 70. These eggs which do not fall into the normal range of the shape index cannot be used for
hatching.

3. Shell Colour and Texture

It indicates smoothness and roughness of shell surface and also indicates shell quality. Shell colour is due
to the presence of pigments. Ooporphyrin gives brownish colour to the egg shell, which is normally seen
in eggs laid by the Asian, the English and the American Class of birds. The pigments Oocyan causes other
blue colour in eggs laid by the Aracauna breed.

4. Cleanliness

This is essential for consumer satisfaction and also to improve and maintain the keeping quality. A dirty
egg may harbour harmful microbes which will spoil the egg and render it unfit for consumption. Eggs
collected from deep litter will be more dirty than caged eggs, obviously due to dirty wet litter and
delayed collection of eggs.

5. Volume

Volume is also one of the indicators of egg size. Egg volume is directly proportional to the egg size. Since
the specific gravity of egg is more than one, the volume of a fresh egg will always be less than the egg
weight. However a small egg will have greater volume by weight ratio. The egg volume of different
species will be around 90-95% of their fresh egg weight. To measure the volume of the egg, fill a
measuring cylinder of 500 ml/ 1 litre capacity with a known quantity of water. After noting the lower
meniscus of the water, gently slant the measuring cylinder and slide the egg carefully into the measuring
cylinder and note the final reading of the water, the difference in value will give the volume of egg in
cm3.

6. Specific Gravity

This gives an indication of the egg shell quality, as well as its freshness. Fresh eggs will have higher
specific gravity than old and long stored eggs, because there will be a loss of moisture in the old eggs
which inturn replaced by air. So the air cell will become bigger as the egg is stored for a longer time.
Similarly, eggs having stronger shell will have higher specific gravity than thin shelled eggs. The measure
of specific gravity can be made by several methods.

(i) By measuring the egg weight and then weighing the egg in water, to find the weight loss in water.

(ii) By dipping the eggs in a salt solution having several concentration of salt dissolved in it; having a
specific gravity ranging from 1.0-1.1 with an interval of 0.02. A normal egg will have a specific gravity of
1.06. Any value less than this may indicate that the egg is old or the eggs are thin shelled; irrespective of
other criteria, smaller eggs will have high specific gravity due to more uniform shell.

(iii) By knowing the egg weight and volume.

Specific gravity = Weight of the egg in gram

Volume in cc

7. Surface Area

Surface area of an egg is directly proportional to egg size. The surface area will be more for elongated
eggs than for spherical eggs.

Candling and Grading of Table Eggs

While grading an egg, the external quality factors like shell and structure, soundness of the shell and
shell cleanliness are the factors to be considered. The normal egg is oval in shape and the shell surface is
expected to be sound, smooth and free from thin spots, strong and clean.

EXTERIOR EGG QUALITY FACTORS

1. Shell Shape And Texture

a. Practically Normal

A shell that is approximately the usual shape and that is sound and free from thin spots. Ridge and rough
areas that do not materially affect the shape and strength of the shell are permitted (AA or A quality).

b. Abnormal

A shell that may be somewhat unusual or seriously misshapen, faulty in soundness or strength and
showing pronounced ridges and thin spots will be down graded.

2. Soundness of Shell

a. Sound

An egg whose shell is unbroken.

b. Check Or Crack

An egg that has a broken shell or crack in the shell but with its shell membranes intact and the contents
do not leak. Checks may range from a very fine hair like crack (blind or body check) that is discernable
only by candling. Eggs with blind checks will not keep well nor can stand even moderate rough handling
and so should be used immediately.

c. Smashed
An egg whose shell is smashed or shattered.

d. Leaker

An egg that has a crack with a break in the shell and shell membrane to the extent that the egg contents
leak out.

3. Shell Cleanliness

a. Clean

A shell that is free from foreign material and from stains. An egg may be considered clean if it has only
very small specs of stains and dirt.

b. Moderately Stained

A shell which is free from prominent stain and adhering dirt, but which has moderate stains.

c. Dirty

A shell which is stained prominently beyond 1/4th of its total surface area. A dirty egg will be
downgraded.

d. Adhered Dirt

Shell which have foreign dirty material stuck on it like faeces etc. This will be totally down graded or
discarded.

CANDLED OUT EGG QUALITY

The interior quality of an egg without breaking it can be detected by candling the egg. For this we need a
candler. The egg is held gently before the light that emanates from the candler and a gentle twist or
twirl is given to the egg to observe the air cell and the yolk shadow. The air cell depth is measured using
this candler and a cell depth gauge. The air cell is measured in mm at the broad end of the egg.

1. Air Cell

a. Practically Regular

In this, the air cell maintains a fixed position seen at the broad end of the egg. The outline of the air cell
is clear in a white shelled egg.

b. Aircell Depth:

A fresh egg will have an air cell depth of less than 3mm (0.3cm). As the egg ages, the depth of the air cell
increases.

c. Aircell Depth For Different Usda Grades

USDA Grade Maximum depth

AA 0.3cm (1/8th inch)

A 0.5cm (3/16th inch)

B 0.8cm (3/8th inch or less)

C Over 0.8cm (3/8th inch)

b. Free Air Cell

An air cell which moves freely between the intact membranes towards the uppermost point of the egg.
This will downgrade the egg.

c. Bubbly Air Cell

A ruptured air cell inner shell membrane resulting in one or more small separate air bubbles usually
floating in the albumen (B quality).

2. Yolk

The yolk outline from egg candling is defined as:

a. Outline Indistinct Or Slightly Defined

The yolk outline is indistinctly visible and appear to blend with the surrounding white as the fresh egg is
twirled (AA grading).

b. Outline Fairly Well Defined

The yolk outline is visible but not clearly out lined as the egg is twirled (A quality).

c. Outline Plainly Visible

The yolk outline is clearly visible as a dark shadow when the egg is twirled (B quality).

d. The yolk size and shape determined by grading egg candling is defined as (i) enlarged and flattened - A
yolk in which the yolk membranes and tissue have weakened and/ or moisture has been absorbed from
the white to such an extent that the yolk appear definitely enlarged and flat (B quality).

The term used to describe yolk defects are

a. Practically Free From Defects

The yolk shows no blastoderm development but may show other very slight defects on its surface (AA
and A quality).

b. Serious Defects
The yolk may show well developed germ spots and other serious defects (B quality).

c. Clearly Visible Germ Development

Development of the blastoderm in the yolk that has progressed to the point where it is plainly visible, as
a circular spot on the yolk with no blood (B quality).

d. Blood Due To Germ Development

Blood carried by development of the blastoderm in a fertile egg to a point where it is visible as a definite
line or a blood ring. These eggs are discarded.

3. Albumen

The condition of the albumen is determined by candling as follows:

a. Clear

The albumen is free from discolouration of foreign bodies floating in it. Prominent chalazae should not
be confused with meat spots (AA quality).

b. Thickness

Fresh egg will have a firm thick albumen which keep the yolk in central position. As egg becomes old, the
albumen will become thin and watery and the yolk will be freely moving.

c. Meat Spots And Blood Spots

May be on the surface of the yolk or floating; it is greater than 0.3cm (1/8 inch) diameter (B quality) or if
it is greater than 0.3cm (1/8th) diameter, the egg is discarded.

d. Bloody White

Blood has diffused through the white. This egg cannot be consumed hence discarded.

Table 11.2 Ag-Mark (Agricultural Marketing act - 1937) weight specification for different Ag-mark Grade
gm

Grade designation Minimum weight of an egg

Hen egg Duck egg

Extra large White

Large Red

Medium Blue

Small Yellow
A. Extra large 60 and above Clear unbroken and sound

Shape is Normal Uniform upto 4 mm depth.

Perfectly Regular Clean reasonably

Firm Fairly well centered

A. Large 53-59 Practically free from defects

A. Medium 45-52 -do-

A. Small 38-44 Outline indistinct

B. Extra large 60 and above Clean moderately stained. Shape is slightly abnormal 8 mm depth May be
free from and slightly bubbly Clear may by slightly weak May be slightly off centered outline slight over

B. Large 53-59

B. Medium 45-52 - do -

B. Small 38-44 - do -

Quality factor

Class A Class B Class C

White Normal, clean, undamaged Dirty, damaged, tinted Dirty, damaged, tainted

Air space Normal, clean, undamaged Normal, damaged Cracked, misshaped, rough texture on any other
abnormality

Air space Height not exceeding 6mm, stationary Height not exceeding 9mm, mobile Height exceeding
9mm damaged

Albumen Clean, firm or a gelatin like consistency, free on all foreign bodies of any kind Clear, firm, free

Yolk Visible on candling as a shadow only without clean out dry hot many appreciably away from the
centre of the egg on rotation, free from foreign bodies of any kind Visible on candling as a shadow only,
free from all foreign bodies of any kind, small foreign bodies permissible Distinct on candling 'siled' or
stun, not discoloured

Germ cell Imperceptible development Imperceptible development Imperceptible development

Smell Free from foreign smell Free from foreign smell Free from foreign smell

Wet or dry cleaning Not permitted Permitted Permitted

(The statement shows minimum permissible standards for each class)

Quality factor AA quality A quality B quality C quality

Shell Clean, unbroken practically normal Clean, unbroken practically normal Clean to slightly stained,
unbroken may be abnormal in texture and shape Clean to moderately stained unbroken. May be
abnormal Air cell 1/8 inch or less in depth 3/16 inch depth 3/8 inch or less in depth. May have unlimited
movement and be free or bubbly May be over 3/8 inch in depth.

May be free or bubbly

Albumen Firm, clear Less firm, may have minute spots Water with small meat and blood spots May be
weak and watery. May have small blood spots (less than 31 Haugh units)

Yolk Outlines slightly defined. Practically free from defects Outline fairly well defined. Practically free
from defects Outline purely visible. May be enlarged and flattened. May show definite defects. Clearly
visible germ plasm development but not blood associated with development Outline plainly visible

May be enlarged and flattened.

May show clearly visible germ development but no blood.

May show other serious defects.

Sizes of weight class Egg wt. g/ egg Minimum weight per. Dozen 0Z Minimum net at/ 30 dozen (Ib)
Minimum for individual eggs or wt. rate/ dozen 0Z

Jumbo 70 30 56 29

Extra large 53 27 501/2 26

Large 56 24 45 23

Medium 49 21 391/2 20

Small 42 18 34 17

Peewee 35 15 28 14

A lot of average tolerance of 3.3% for individual eggs in the next lower weight class is permitted as long
as no individual case within the lot exceeds 5%.

Egg no. Egg wt. Shell colourWt. grades Clean linessChecks/ Cracks Air cell depth Air cell movement, if any
Yolk position Albumen firmness Germ develop-ment, if any Foreign bodies, if any Quality grade

Measures of Internal Egg Quality

The quality of egg can be best ascertained by breaking open the egg and studying the various
parameters of the shell, albumen, yolk and also by objective evaluation. The equipment required are:
1. Egg

2. Egg breaking stand

3. Vernier calipers

4. Tripod stand Micrometer or Spherometer

5. Screw gauge or shell thickness gauge

6. Empty beakers

7. Balance, kitchen knife, scoop etc.

8. Roche yolk colour fan

The measurements to be taken are

1. Shell per cent

2. Shell thickness

3. Albumen index

4. Haugh unit

5. Yolk index

6. Yolk colour

7. Other abnormalities like blood spots, meat spots, germ spots and any other foreign bodies like worms
etc.

1. Shell Per Cent

This constitutes about 11-12% of the egg. The shell is dried with the membranes intact in a hot air oven
at 105 ± 5oC overnight, cooled and weighed. The result is expressed as per cent of total egg weight.
Smaller egg will have a greater per cent than larger ones.

2. Shell Thickness

After breaking the shell, cut the membranes and peel. Take three pieces of shell, each piece is taken
from three representative areas, namely from the narrow and broad ends and third piece at the
equatorial region. A good quality chicken egg will have a thickness of 0.33mm, Japanese quail egg
0.13mm, Turkey egg 0.4mm and duck egg 0.3mm.

3. Albumen Index
The firmness of the egg white is correlated with the albumen quality. After breaking open the egg the
height of the thick albumen is measured using a tripod stand micrometer or a spherometer, while the
width and the diameter of the thick albumen is measured by using the vernier caliper. The height of the
albumen increases in a fresh egg and slowly lowers as the egg ages. A fresh egg will have an albumen
index of 0.1.

The proportion of the thick and thin albumen can also be measured in percentage on total weight of the
egg. A good quality egg will have 55% thick and 45% thin albumen. A sieve of 1/16th inch size is made
use of to separate the thick and thin albumen. The quality can also be evaluated objectively using the
USDA score chart or otherwise known as Van Wagenan chart, this has 12 pictures of break open eggs
ranging from high, medium to low, each ranging from AA to C grades.

Albumen index = Height of albumen in (mm)

Average width of albumen in (mm)

4. Haugh Unit

It is the most widely used value to measure the albumen quality. It is a modified version of albumen
index, with the height of thick albumen adjusted to the egg weight.

Haugh unit = 100 log (H+7.57-1.7 W0.37)

Where W = weight of egg in grams and H = Height of thick albumen in mm

A fresh egg will have a haugh unit score of 105 and above.

HU of 60 - 72 is A grade, 30 - 60 = B grade and less than 30 = C grade.

For Japanese quail eggs the Haugh Unit formula is

HU = 100 log (H+4.16-0.19 W0.67).

5. Yolk Index

This is an expression of the spherical nature of the yolk. The height of the yolk is measured by
micrometer and diameter is measured by using vernier calipers. The yolk index is a measure of the
standing-up quality of the yolk.

Yolk index = Height of yolk in mm

Average diameter of yolk in mm

The average value for a fresh egg is 0.40 and above. As the egg becomes aged, it get flattened and the
yolk index is lowered.

6. Yolk Colour
Even though the yolk colour is not an indication of its absolute quality, it may some times indicate the
development of objectionable colours due to chemicals or microbial growth. The normal yolk colour is
yellow to orange. Diets which are rich in carotenoid pigments especially Xanthophill, Cryptoxanthine,
Leutein will impart dark yellowish/ orange colour in the egg-yolk. Birds fed with diets rich in yellow
maize, alfalfa meal, groundnut leaf meal will have a deep orange colour yolk. A rich yolk colour is
preferred by consumers. Olive green discolouration is objectionable. This is due to feeding layers with
cotton seed oil cake. Sometimes there could be germ development, which is an indication of a fertilized
egg. The colour of yolk is measured by various colour charts, colour disc, serially diluting solution of
potassium-di-chromate or by using the Roche yolk colour fan.

7. Other Abnormalities

Many albumen and yolk defects like blood spots, meat spots, germ development, mottled yolks are
noticed which may be due to infection, metabolic or nutritional defects.

I. ALBUMEN DEFECTS

1. Watery Albumin: This is seen in diseases like IB, ND (RD) or due to hormonal imbalance.

2. Verminous Eggs: Usually a worm may migrate through the cloaca into the upper portion of the
oviduct and be enclosed in the egg.

3. Addled Egg: Here yolk and albumen are mixed together, due to rupture of the vitelline membrane.

II. YOLK DEFECTS

a. Double Blastodisc/ Blastoderm

b. Yolk Mottling

Results from a known uniform distribution of water due to separation of the vitelline membrane, water
and the chalaziferous layer of the albumen. Nicarbazine, a coccidiostat will cause yolk mottling.

c. Blood Spots

This is very common in egg and this could be due to internal haemorrhage, genetic factors and due to
lower levels of Vitamin A and K.

d. Meat Spots

These are degenerated blood spots that appear as meat spots in an egg and most of these are from
sources other than blood or tissue debris.

e. Germ Development

Normally seen in fertilized egg. Due to this a blood ring will be seen on the yolk.

f. Yolk Discolouration
Olive brown mottled yolks are produced due to excessive amounts of gossypol, found in cotton seed oil
cake. It reacts with iron in the yolk to give a mottled appearance. Cotton seed also contains
cyclopropenoid fatty acids which produce a pinkish discolouration of the albumen.

g. Yolkless Egg

These eggs are usually small in size, without the yolk and contain tissue debris or worm, in the place of
yolk.

11.2.6 Stepwise Procedure For Measuring Internal Qualities

1. Record the egg number and egg weight (gm).

2. Candle the egg and record the air cell depth (mm).

3. Break open the egg gently over the glass plate and record albumen and yolk height and width as in
the Table 1 (do not disturb the egg contents).

4. Record the shell weight separately. Remove the shell membrane and measure the shell thickness
measured at 3 places. Broad, narrow and equatorial region.

5. Record the defects if any such as blood and meat spots.

6. Now transfer the yolk into a pre-weighed petridish and record its weight by difference, after removing
excess albumen by rolling on a filter paper.

7. Find out the weight of albumen by difference.

8. Record the HU using HU micrometer or spherometer.

9. Calculate the albumen index, yolk index and H.U. using the formula.

10. Record the yolk colour using Roche yolk colour fan.

11. Give your comments about the egg quality.

FERTILITY AND HATCHABILITY

Fertility and hatchability are two major parameters that highly influence the supply of day-old chicks.
Fertility refers to the percentage of incubated eggs that are fertile while hatchability is the percentage of
fertile eggs that hatch. It is, therefore, important to understand the factors that influence fertility and
hatchability of eggs.

The ability of a breeder hen to produce fertile eggs is referred to as fertility. Hatchability may be
measured in terms of (a) fertility on total egg set is the number of chicks hatched as a percentage of all
eggs set and (b) fertility on fertile egg set is the number of chicks hatched as a percentage of fertile eggs
set. The factors affecting fertility are preoviposital in nature and the factors influencing hatchability are
postoviposital.
The fertility of eggs is determined before oviposition as the fertilization takes place at infundibulum of
the reproductive tract. Therefore, good viable breeding males and healthy normal breeding females can
produce fertile eggs. The fertility of an egg before incubation cannot be determined without opening the
egg. To ascertain the fertility of a flock, a sample of eggs need to be break-opened after keeping them in
room temperature for two days. The fertile eggs will have wider and light coloured germinal disc
compared infertile eggs.

The Factors Affecting Fertility

1. Genetics: Breeds, varieties and strains of chicken differ in fertility. For eg. Cornish and other heavier
breeds of chicken are less fertile compared to layer type breeds.

2. Environment factors: Adverse environment conditions, especially hot climate reduce fertility. This is
caused mainly due to environmental stress that act as deterrent for normal mating. Heat stress reduces
the external and internal egg qualities. Heat stress also affects all phases of semen production in breeder
cocks.

3. Photoperiod: The photoperiod of 16 hours is necessary for optimum semen production in cocks and
high rate of egg production in females. Deviation from this will affect the fertility, especially in cocks.

4. The age of breeders: The male and female breeders during their young and old age have poor fertility.
This due to smaller size of eggs during early production life and poor egg shell quality during late
production cycle in female breeders; while, poor semen attributes especially of sperm motility during
both young and old age of roosters is the major reason for infertility of males.

5. Sex ratio: To obtain good fertility, one male to eight broiler breeder females or ten layer breeder
females is required. 6. Nutrition of parents: The feed of both male and female parents should be
fortified with minerals and vitamins. Deficiency of certain micro nutrients such as vitamin A, pantothenic
acid, vitamin E, biotin andtrace minerals like Ca, P, Na, Mn, Zn and iodine lowers fertility.

7. Rate of lay: The fertility of eggs is high when the female is in high rate of production or peak
production.

8. Artificial insemination factors: For good fertility the following are the prerequisites.

a. Time of insemination: afternoon after completion egg laying

b. Number of sperms: Atleast 50 million sperms per insemination is required for good fertility

c. Frequency of insemination: For optimum fertility, the females should be inseminated once in atleast 5
days

d. Motility of sperms: To get optimum fertility, semen with more than 60% motility need to be used.

Selection and Care of Hatching

The term ‘quality’ refers to the condition outside the shell, the condition of the shell itself and that of
the contents. All the eggs produced do not hatch well; therefore selection of good ones for hatching
purpose is necessary to get good hatchability. Further, storage conditions and handling of hatching eggs
before incubation are also of vital importance to get good hatchability.

12.1.3 The factors affecting the quality of the egg and its hatching

ability are as follows

a) Collection of hatching eggs

Fertilization occurs within 15 to 20 minutes after ovulation. When the egg is laid the embryo inside has a
chronological age of 24 to 26 hours. The first cleavage division in the germinal disc is observed nearly 4
hour after ovulation when the egg is in magnum. Additional cell divisions take place every 20 minutes;
so, by the time of lay, several thousand cells form two layers of cells called a "gastrula".

The interval between ovulation and egg collection is called as ‘laying house period’. During this time
ovulation, fertilization, egg formation, oviposition and egg collection occur. The length of this period will
vary between approximately 24 and 32 hours, depending mainly on time between oviposition and egg
collection. When the laying house period is long the embryo will lose its viability. Therefore the eggs
should be collected frequently and stored in egg cold storage room. During morning hours, the hatching
eggs should be collected at hourly intervals and in the afternoon once in two hours.

b) Selection of hatching eggs:

1. Egg size: Eggs weighing 50 – 55 g hatch better and hence smaller and larger eggs are rejected from
hatching. Smaller eggs have less yolk reserve for a healthier chick to develop. The optimum yolk to
albumen ratio is 1:2. In larger eggs the ratio is wider due to higher proportion of albumen.

2. Egg shape: The shape should be normal ovoid with broad and narrow ends. Elongated and spherical
shaped eggs are also not suitable for setting. Apart from this, all deviations of shape from the normal
ovoid shape is to be considered as a defect.

3. External egg defects: Visible defects include double yolked eggs, leathery and thin shelled eggs. There
are a lot of shell defects which makes the eggs unsuitable for setting. They are ridges on the shell,
calcareous deposits (pimply shell), body checks, pinhole and flat sided eggs. By candling, defects that are
not visible to the naked eye like hairline fractures, mottled shell and thin shell can be identified.

4. Internal defects: Misplaced or bubbly or tremulous air cell and blood and meat spots affect
hatchability. Eggs with higher Haugh unit score (>80) will hatch well.

5. Egg shell colour: Dark brown eggs hatch well compared to that of lighter shade.

6. Egg shell thickness: Eggs with good quality shell hatch well compared to that of tinted and mottled
shelled eggs.The high specific gravity of the egg indicates good quality of egg shells.
7. Cleanliness of egg shell: Eggs with mild staining can be used for incubation after cleaning with dry
clean cloth. On the other hand, dirty eggs should be avoided as this will infect the eggs during incubation
results in rotting. This will lead to popping inside the incubator that will lead to infection of other eggs
inside the incubator. Dirty eggs can be reduced if the eggs are gathered four or five times daily from
nests. To produce clean eggs, nest management is very important. Provision of good quality nest
materials in the nest box, adequate number of nest boxes (one nest for five hens) and proper nest
management are necessary to avoid floor eggs. The eggs should be collected with clean hands in clean
flats. The eggs should be transported to the hatchery in new or clean cases which have been fumigated
or sanitized with liquid disinfectants. The cleaning and disinfection of vehicles must be a regular part of
the hatchery routine. The sanitized eggs should be stored in a clean, dust free room.

c) Cleaning of hatching eggs

Soiled eggs are avoided for incubation; since it may develop into a rot and explode thereby contaminate
the eggs inside the incubator. Slightly soiled eggs can be used for incubation after cleaning them by dry-
clean method. Clean gauze or sand paper can be used for this purpose. Cleaning of dirty egg using a
disinfectant solution is not desirable as this will introduce bacteria in to the egg through its pores.

d )Pre-incubation storage of hatching eggs

Normally eggs are stored at the farm, transported to the hatchery, stored at the hatchery and then set.
Orientation of the egg during storage is broad end up. Hatchability decreases when eggs are stored,
dependent on length of the storage period and environmental conditions during storage. The decrease
in viability of the embryo may be caused by changes in the embryo and/or by changes in other egg
contents. Fertile eggs can be stored without much reduction in hatchability up to 7 days. Hatchability
starts to decline drastically after 7 days of storage. Fertile eggs should be stored at a temperature below
‘Physiological zero’ to maintain dormancy of the embryo. The storage temperature should be decreased
with increasing storage time. In general, suggested temperatures are 20-250C when storing eggs of
domestic fowl for less than 4 days, 16-170C when storing for 4-7 days, and 10-120C for storage of more
than 7 days. During storage water is lost through evaporation, with the amount of loss being influenced
by relative humidity, temperature and shell porosity. The rate of moisture loss can be controlled to
some extent by relative humidity of the air surrounding the egg. Relative humidity in the egg storage
rooms should be maintained between 75 and 80%.

e) Pre-incubation warming

Before setting, the hatching eggs should be removed from the cool room 6 hours in advance and placed
in room temperature. This is necessary to bring the eggs to room temperature and also to subject the
eggs to pass through the sweating. Sweating is the accumulation of water droplets on the surface of egg
when removed from cool room. Keeping the eggs for 6 hours in the room temperature enables the eggs
to evaporate the sweat before they are handled for setting. Eggs should not be handled when they are
wet.
Egg defects

PLUMAGE CHARACTERISTICS AND COMB TYPE

Nomenclature of Poultry

Gallus Domesticus

4 Wild Species

Gallus Gallus : Red Jungle Fowl

Gallus Lafayetti : Ceylonese Jungle Fowl

Gallus Sonnerati : Grey Jungle Fowl

Gallus Varius : Javan Jungle Fowl or Black/ Green Jungle Fowl

Head Parts and Comb Pattern

Notice the variation in the head region of the fowl, the duck and the turkey. The beak portion of the
duck is known as the 'bill' and it is more flat unlike the beak of the fowl and turkey. The wattle in the
fowl is not seen in ducks or geese but in turkey it is more elongated. The comb patterns vary in the fowl
which is not noticed in ducks or geese. In turkey the fleshy protuberance which falls onto one side of the
head is known as the 'snood'.

Comb patterns help in identifying the various breeds and varieties of chicken. The common comb
pattern noticed in chicken is the 'single comb'. This comb is very prominent in the White Leghorn breed.
A typical comb has a base, blade, serrations, points and spikes.

The comb is an indicator of the reproductive ability of the bird as the growth of the comb is controlled
by oestrogen and androgen hormones. An experienced farmer will distinguish a healthy bird from a sick
bird by observing the comb alone.

The comb should be brick red in colour and erect (except in White Leghorn females where it falls on
anyone side) it should be prominent, rigid, velvetty, soft, warm and waxy to touch. Sick birds or a poor
layer will have a dry, shrunken, pale, cold comb, with chalky deposits over the surface. Some of the
diseases can be identified by the colour and condition of the comb.

The varieties of comb are:

1. Single comb

2. Rose comb

3. Pea comb

4. Strawberry comb or Walnut comb

5. Cushion comb

6. Cap comb

7. Cup comb

1. Single Comb

This is a comb when viewed from the front is narrow and has spikes on the top, one behind other. It
consists of a blade which is the lower solid portion. The space between the spikes are known as
serrations. The serrations and spikes are definite in size and shape in different breeds. White Leghorn
has five or six spikes. Rhode Island Red has six spikes. The number of spikes on the comb depends on the
action of the modifying genotype. (e.g.) White Leghorn, White Rock.

2. Rose Comb

This comb is nearly flat on the top and is covered with small irregular points finished with spikes. It
varies in length and the length of carriage varies according to the breed. The modifying genes determine
the size and number of rounded points on the comb as well as the length and direction of the spikes.
(e.g.) Rose combed Leghorn, Wyandotte.

3. Pea Comb

This is a comb resembling three very small single combs joined together at the base and rear.

(e.g.) White Cornish, Dark Cornish.

4. Walnut or Strawberry Comb

This comb resembles one half of a strawberry fruit or a walnut with the round part uppermost. It is small
in size and has irregular grooves on the surface. (e.g.) Malay, Kvaienkoppe.

5. Cushion Comb

This comb is basically noticed in the Silkie breed. (e.g.) Silkie.

6. Cap Comb or V-Shaped Comb

This comb will be in the form of a stylish cap and this is seen in red cap breeds.

(e.g.) Polish.

7. Cup Comb

This comb is cupped between two single combs stretched further apart and fused at the base. This is
seen in butter cup breeds.

(e.g.) Butter cup, Poland.

Feather

1. Parts of Feather

The root is called 'calamus'. The base is known as the 'quill', which gives rise to a structure known as a
shaft which in turn terminates in a structure called 'rachis'.

The structure called barbs arise from the shaft which gives rise to the barbule. This further gives rise to
barbicels. These join together to form the vane.

Feather serves as a protection to the bird from extremes of weather by insulating the body. They are
essential for flight. The feather pattern and colour will assist in identifying the breed and variety and also
help in identifying the sex of the bird, because sexual dimorphism exists in the feather pattern of
poultry.

In the male fowl the tail feathers are sickle shaped. In case of ducks the male has a curved tail feather
(sex curl) known as the 'Drake Feather', which is useful in identifying the sex of the bird. In the Tom
turkey the tail feather is long when compared to that of the female. In the Japanese quail the feathers
on the neck and breast region of the male is golden or rust brown, while in the female it is speckled.
Condition of feathers help in identifying a good layer from a non-layer, an old layer from a young layer
and also to identify the stage of moult in a bird.

Feather colour has light and darkened shades and the feather pattern plays a very important role in
identifying breeds.

2. Feather Types

The various types of feathers are as follows:

1) Contour Feather
This forms the general covering of the body and wings including the large flight feather of the wings.
2) Covert Feather
These are noticed on the base of the wings and do not have barbicels; also called fluff.
3) Down Feather
This is present in newly hatched chicks. Sometimes it is seen below the contour feathers especially in the
abdominal and head regions.
4) Filo Plume
Hair like structures under the contour feathers of the body, which can be seen when the feathers are
plucked. It consists of an axis and very few terminal barbs.
5) Pin Feather
Are very small feathers.
3. Feather Tracts
Even though the body of the bird looks fully covered with feathers, it has originated only from certain
definite feather tracts called ”Pterylae”. There are 10 pairs of feather tracts.
1. Cephalic
2. Alar
3. Humoral
4. Spinal
5. Crural
6. Ventral
7. Femoral
8. Cervical
9. Auxiliary
10. Caudal

During the moulting process, the feathers are shed in a particular pattern starting from the cephalic tract
and finally ending with the crural tract.

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CHICKS /BROODER MANAGEMENT

Egg type female chicks are received as Day old Chicks (DoC) at the farm and they require additional
warmth during early age for at least two to three weeks. The thermoregulatory mechanism of a newly
hatched chick is not well developed and takes about two weeks for this mechanism to be completed and
maintain homeostasis. Therefore chicks cannot maintain the body temperature properly for the first few
weeks of life; and may be subjected to chilling, if not properly taken care off.
Under these circumstances, artificial brooding is mainly aimed at, providing extra heat or warmth during
the first two to three weeks of the chicks life. This is done to prevent cold shock since the environmental
temperature may be lower than the hatcher temperature. A brooder simulates the care and attention of
a mother hen.
Types of Brooding Equipment
Many types of equipment are used in brooding, ordinary incandescent bulbs of 100 watts or 60 watts
can be used. As the normal thumb rule to be followed is one watt/ chick. Some people use hovers with
these bulbs fixed inside, this can cover 200 to 250 chicks and also these hovers can have heating
elements instead of incandescent bulbs. The height of the hover may be adjusted to be at one foot
above the floor level initially.
Infra red bulbs can be used as they get heated quickly. They are self reflecting in nature and can provide
warmth for 200 to 250 chicks, but it is expensive.
Gas brooding is now practiced particularly in semi-environmentally controlled and environmentally
controlled houses. These are costly but can take care of 1500 to 2000 chicks.
Heater coils may also be provided for warmth instead of bulbs. Heater coils of various watts capacities
with thermostats, reflector hoods and hanging chains are available for providing heat to chicks. These
coils are more suitable for cold climates, because they give more heat. Separate tube lights have to be
provided for lighting the house. They have to be hanged above the reach of the chicks.
Centralised heating system of brooding is followed in environmentally controlled poultry houses; where
the room temperature is maintained at an average of 32оC during first week of age.
Battery brooders – Multi-tier cage brooding is practiced here. Bulbs or heaters with thermostats are
used to provide warmth to chicks in the battery cages.
Bio-gas brooders – Certain farms will use the cage droppings and cow dung to generate bio-gas; which
will be used to provide light and heat to the birds.
If kerosene stoves or coal stoves are used, a metal vessel with sand is placed over the stove to dissipate
heat properly.
To provide warmth, canopy brooders (umbrella type with electrical tungsten bulbs), infra-red bulbs, coal
stoves or gas brooders may be employed. The common practice is to use hover with electrical bulbs.
Brooder Operation
About 24 hours before the anticipated time of arrival of the chicks, the brooder arrangements are made
and kept ready. The house is cleaned, white washed and blow lamped. Dry litter material such as saw
dust, wood shavings, paddy husk etc. is spread to a height of 5 cm and newspaper has to be placed over
this to prevent the chicks from consuming litter material. The brooder guards can be made of metal
sheets or even card board. The brooder guards have to be arranged in a circular fashion on litter
material with necessary heating arrangements. The house may be prepared before hand for the purpose
and kept vacant for considerable length of time (minimum two weeks); 225 chicks may be let into
brooder arrangement of 150 cm diameter and 300 chicks in 180 cm size brooder guard circle.
The required number of feeders and waterers are arranged alternate to each other on the newspaper
area. The chick linear feeders and chick waterers should be placed alternatively in a radiating way, to
give a "cart wheel" appearance. Care should be taken to avoid placing them crowded at the centre
under the source of heat. Keep feeders open for five hours and also spread some feed on the
newspaper. Two linear feeders of 60 cm size and two chick waterers may be used for every 100 chicks.
Automatic feeders and waterers may also be used as per manufacturer’s specifications. Allow free
moving space on the sides of waterers and feeders. Switch on the bulbs 1-2 hours before the arrival of
the chicks to keep the environment warm. When chicks are delivered, do not allow the delivery van into
the farm premises. Take delivery at the entrance itself.
Keep boiled and cooled drinking water ready. Add 8 g of glucose, 0.5-1g of mild antibiotic or
antibacterial drug per litre, electrolytes and vitamin mixture at recommended dosage in water for the
first day. Antibiotic and vitamins may be continued for 3-5 days. Keep medicated water in the waterers
before leaving the chicks into the brooder arrangement.
Brooder mash with 22% crude protein and 2700 Kcal/kg of metabolisable energy has to be prepared and
provided. Good quality, potable medicated water has to be provided in the waterers. Look for the health
of the chicks at the time of delivery.
Before receiving the chick, the heat source should be switched on. Temperature during the first week is
90-95oF, later reduced by 5oF every week, to reach a temperature of 75oF. Brooding period is a very
sensitive period particularly during the cold months or rainy seasons.
Lighting for heating (brooding) has to be provided for 23 1/2 hours in a day for first 3 days, switching it
off for only 30 minutes during day time. Later on, lighting for heat may be given during night only up to
the end of 2nd or 3rd week, depending on the season. It may be restricted to one week only during peak
summer and extended to three weeks during winter/ rainy seasons. In such seasons, it is advisable to
close sides of the house with thick curtains during first week.
Behaviour of Chicks
As the chicks arrive, check whether the chicks are healthy, of uniform weight within the suggested range
of 40-48 g each. Count the chicks, and moist the beak of the chick by dipping it in the water containing
vitamins, electrolytes and/or antibiotic and place it gently into the brooder arrangement.
Check that the chicks move actively scratching and taking feed and water. Return weak, inactive,
unhealthy chicks with matted feathers at the back and the dead chicks and ask for replacement.
It is necessary to verify whether the warmth given is sufficient to the chicks. A thermometer kept at the
bird level will indicate the temperature. However, more practical way of assessing the adequacy of
warmth provided is by watching the distribution of the chicks within the brooder guard management. If
they crowd under or near the source of heat, then the warmth given is not sufficient. Then, a bulb may
be added to the hover or the height of the hover may be brought down. If chicks have moved to the
periphery and are reluctant to come to the centre under heat source, then temperature in the
environment is higher than required. The hover may be pushed up or a bulb removed. If the chicks feel
comfortable at the given temperature, they walk actively throughout the area unmindful of the heat
provided and some take rest setting their head down on the side, the posture being given the name as
“Chick comfort”. Thus the heat source should be placed at the right height at the centre and the
temperature has to be checked by observing the chick comfort zone.
The newspaper is removed after 3 or 4 days and must be burnt. The chick or brooder guards are
removed after a week or 10 days. The corners of the rooms have to be rounded off and the litter
material spread out. As age advances the initial chick feeder and waterers may be replaced with bigger
ones to match the growth of the chicks.
Space Requirements
The floor space allowance during brooder stage is 0.75 sq.ft. (675 cm2) per bird. Feeder space allowance
required is 1.0 cm per bird up to four weeks and 2.5 cm up to eight weeks and 0.5 and 1.0 cm are the
space allowances to be given per bird in waterers respectively for those periods.
Accordingly, the brooder house should be constructed with required space for the number of chicks to
be ordered at specified intervals. The required number of feeders and waterers has to be worked out
and provided. Initially, smaller size feeders and waterers with lesser depth will have to be provided
which should be changed to larger size with greater depth after three weeks of age. Adjust the height of
the feeders and waterers to match the height of the growing birds to avoid wastage. Feed and water the
birds twice daily at regular intervals. Watch the growth of the birds and water and feed consumption
regularly. The table gives a guideline even though feed and water consumption may vary depending on
seasonal variations.
To avoid feed wastage, the chicks are to be debeaked. Their beaks have to be cut short by electrical
cauterization. Debeaking if carried out properly may be done only once during fourth week. It may also
be performed at the end of second week and repeated at 12-14th week. The upper beak has to be cut
2/3rd and the lower beak 1/3rd portion. The cut portion has to be cauterized by touching on the hot
plate. The tongue should be carefully held back. Undertake debeaking during cooler parts of the day.
Provide anti-stress B-complex vitamins and vitamin K in drinking water before, during and after the day
of debeaking; adjust the feeder and waterer height to be lower than before to suit the shortened beak.
Engage experienced persons to perform debeaking, to do it properly with lesser stress and to avoid the
necessity for repetition. Since layer chicks are comparatively more active, they tend to peck at each
other’s back (cannibalism), cause injury and death also. Debeaking helps to prevent such instances.
Vaccines to be given to the birds at this brooder stage are given in table. Follow other disinfection
methods and bio-security measures also to avoid disease outbreaks and control the mortality rate.

Take care to buy quality vaccines, kept under proper storage conditions. Ensure proper dosage as per
specifications. Vaccinate the birds with minimum stress to them. Medication for layer chicks include
glucose and electrolytes on the first day and a mild antibiotic/ antibacterial along with vitamin tonics for
the first five days; later on, no medication is required unless warranted. Consult a veterinarian on the
choice of the medicines required. Make a premix of the weighed quantity of medicine in limited quantity
ofwater and then thoroughly mix it in the bulk of water. Medication can also be practiced through feed.

Cage rearing of chicks

Chicks can be reared in cages also from 0-8 weeks. Fix the cages at 75 cm above the floor level. Cages
may be of 180 x 90 cm size (6’ x 3’) and 30 cm (1’) height. About 100 chicks may be reared in it with 160
cm2 space per chick. The floor has to be made of 1.25 x 1.25 cm size welded mash of 16 gauge thickness.
One 100 watt bulb is sufficient on the top of the cage for providing heat for first three weeks. For first
two weeks, small feeders and waterers have to be kept inside the cage and afterwards they may be fixed
outside on the sides of the cage. For first few days, it may be required to keep card boards on the sides
of the cages to prevent small young chicks falling down through the sides.

Cockerel Management

The brooding management is same as for the broiler or layer chicks. The male chicks obtained from the
layer hatchery are usually discarded as unrequited waste. Instead, they can be reared up to 10th week
for meat purpose. The vaccination is also same. All the chicks have to be debeaked either on 6th day or
the 14th day. They may be fed broiler starter and finisher mash and the body weight at 10 weeks
(market age) will be 0.75 to 1 kg.

GROWER AND LAYER MANAGEMENT

Grower management (9 - 20 weeks)

Farmers tend to neglect layer birds at this age mostly. However, it has to be kept in mind that the
reproductive organs of the bird which produce eggs later on undergo proper growth only during this age
and therefore it is necessary to provide appropriate care during the grower phase. Growers may be
reared in separate grower houses or continued to be reared in brooder-cum-grower house.

Space requirements

Floor space has to be increased to 1.4 sq.ft. (1260 cm2) per bird. Feeder space to be given is 6-8 cm per
bird. One linear feeder of 120 cm length and 8 cm depth may be provided for 40 grower birds. Raise the
height of the feeders as age advances. Waterer space allowance during growing phase is 2 cm per bird.
A circular waterer of 36 cm height and 8 cm depth of 6 litre capacity may be provided for 50 growers. At
this age, 100 birds will take about 15-20 litres of water per day.

Feed them with grower mash containing 16% crude protein and 2600 Kcal/kg of M.E. up to 20 weeks of
age. They may take approximately 60 to 80 g of feed per bird per day. It is not advisable to provide ad
libitum feeding at this age as the birds may then tend to put on more fat and their egg laying rate will be
affected later on.

Fresh, cool, potable water may be always made available to the birds. Follow litter management
procedures suggested under broiler management. Take care to avoid spillage of water on the litter. Rake
the litter often to bring down the moisture level. If natural day length remains constant around 10-12
hours per day or decreasing during growing period, no artificial lighting at roof level is necessary. If the
day length is increasing, then start giving additional lighting so as to maintain constant day length during
growing phase. If necessary, repeat debeaking at 12-14 weeks of age following the precautions already
given.

Mostly growers reared on deep litter suffer from round worm infestation of the intestines and
sometimes with tape worms also, especially if the farm is located around wet fields. Hence, as a routine,
the birds may be dewormed at 16th week of age or at 18th week a few days before they are to be
transferred to laying cages. Otherwise, the worms eat upon the feed consumed by the birds, bring down
their health status which may hamper onset of laying of eggs. Piperazine, robendol, levamisole,
thiabendazole, zodex etc. are the drugs used to remove round worms while panacur, taenil, helmonil,
dicestal etc. are used against tape worms at recommended dosage levels. Stop watering for two hours
and then allow limited levels of medicated water to ensure that the required dosage of medicines is
consumed by the birds without any wastage through left-over water.

If necessary, even delicing by dipping in 0.25% sumithion, malathion or sevin solutions may be carried
out, if birds are seen to be affected by external parasites. Perform dipping only on hot, sunny days. Take
care to avoid dipping head into the medicated solution. Leave the birds outside after dipping to facilitate
drying under sunlight. External parasite infestation may be prevented by having solid floor without
cracks, painting the wooden supports with petrol oil mixture or 40% Nicotin sulphate. Cull the poorly
grown, injured and lame bird regularly. Ensure that mortality level during brooding is below 4% and
during growing phase below 3%. Keep proper records on number of chicks received, feed intake,
mortality, day to day culling, medicines and vaccines given etc.

Cage rearing of growers:

Growers can also be reared in cages. The floor may be made up of welded mesh of 1.25 x 5.0 cm size. In
a cage of 180 x 90 cm size, 50 birds can be reared with a space allowance of 325 cm2 per bird. Feeders
and waterers may be fitted lengthwise on the sides one below the other.

Layer management (21-72 weeks)

Grower birds are transferred to layer houses at the end of 18th week itself after deworming and dipping
and protective vaccination against Ranikhet disease. Layers can be reared both on deep litter and in
cages. When reared on litter, litter material has to be provided to 12-15 cm height.

Space requirements:

A floor space allowance of 2 sq.ft. (1800 cm2) per bird has to be given. Circular or linear feeders may be
provided; feeder space of 10-12 cm per bird has to be given. A linear feeder of 180 cm length and 10 cm
depth will suffice for 35 layer birds; Ad libitum feeding at all times has to be ensured. Furnish waterer
space allowance of 2.5 cm per bird. During laying stage 1000 birds will consume 250 litres of water per
day approximately. A circular waterer of 45 cm diameter and 7cm depth will be sufficient for 50 birds.

Circular plastic or aluminium water basins may be used. Use waterer guards on the waterers at all stages
of rearing to avoid birds standing on the edge and tilting the waterers. Provide fresh, cool water twice a
day. Arrange the feeders and waterers alternatively at equal distance; take care to adjust their heights
so as to avoid feed wastage. Fill them only to 2/3rd of their capacity at any time.

Nest boxes made of G.I or aluminium sheets may be provided at 45 cm height-one for every three to five
birds. The layers have to be trained to get into the nest box for laying eggs. Otherwise, eggs laid on the
floor have higher chances of breakage. The mouth of the box should be of 30 cm width with a depth of
20 cm. Some litter material may be spread inside the nest boxes. Some farmers even tend to use pots as
nest boxes as they provide cooler atmosphere to the birds experiencing stress while laying.

Cage rearing of Layers:

Nowadays cage rearing of layers is very popular. Cage rearing facilitates easy management, lesser space
requirement, easy collection of eggs, lesser percentage of broken eggs, better egg weight, clean egg
production, easy culling and reduced mortality levels. Cages of various sizes are to house 3-5 birds in a
cage. Currently, reverse cages are used with their longer side being fitted to remain in the front. Further,
raised platform houses are constructed, of late, to facilitate quicker drying of droppings and their easy
removal.

The cage of following sizes may be made and fitted in rows

45 x 30 cm - for 3 birds

45 x 40 cm - for 4 birds

50 x 35 cm - for 4 birds
55 x 45 cm - for 5 birds

60 x 37.5cm - for 5 birds

These cages are arranged in two or three such rows one above the other on either side. They are termed
as Californian cages. A floor space allowance of 420 – 450 cm2 is allowed within cages. Conventionally,
the bottom of the lower most cage was fitted at 75cm height from the floor. Nowadays, they are fitted
at 120-240 cm height above the floor level with walking platforms constructed on the sides. The layer
cage will be of 40 cm height. The floor is fitted with 2.5 x 5.0 cm size weld mesh of 14 gauge thickness.
On sides, 7.5 x 7.5 cm size mesh of 16 gauge thickness is fitted. The bottom floor is provided with 1/6
slope downwards to the front to facilitate rolling of the eggs to the cage front. The mesh rails on cage
floor should run from back to front and not sideways; otherwise they will block free run of the eggs
downwards to the front. Waterers are fitted above the feeders in the front. Automatic waterer nipples/
buttons and feeders may be provided to the cages.

Cages are fitted in two or three tiers on either side of the row under Californian system of arrangement.
Two to three such rows of cages are arranged in a caged layer house. Depending on the number of rows,
and number of tiers in each row, the breadth of caged layer house ranges from 15-17’ (5-8 m). There is
no stipulation for length of such houses which can be adjusted as per the number of birds to be housed.
No side walls are required for cage houses with the mesh being stretched down to the floor level to
facilitate better ventilation for drying up the moisture in the droppings.

Of late, “Elevated cage houses” or “Raised platform cage houses” are preferred in which cages are
fitted at above 5-6’ height platform. This arrangement widens the gap between birds and their
droppings, facilitates quicker drying and easy removal of droppings.

Artificial lighting has to be provided during laying stage by a minimum of one 60 watt bulb for every 200
sq.ft. area. Start giving 20 minutes additional lighting per week and go on increasing it until a total day
length (natural day length + duration of artificial lighting) of 16 hours per day is reached. It may be
maintained at the level till 72 weeks of age. Day length should never be decreased during laying period.

Egg laying starts at 21st week and the rate of laying (percentage production) increases every week to
reach a level of 90% and above after 28 weeks of age which is maintained well beyond 36 weeks of age
even up to 40-42 weeks. Afterwards, it slumps down slowly to reach 70% or below by 72 weeks of age.
When the egg production goes below 65%, it is uneconomical to retain them unless the egg price is
exceptionally high. Egg production may be calculated as percentage on total number of birds available at
21st week (hen-housed egg production) or on number of birds available on each day (hen day egg
production). Satisfactory egg production levels at different ages during laying stage are given in Table to
serve as a guide to verify whether the birds are producing at the optimal level.

Collection of eggs: The layer type chicken will lay their eggs mostly during forenoon. Eggs may be
collected twice, in the morning and afternoon. The frequency of egg collection has to be increased to
four to five times during peak summer. In large layer farms, it is preferable to have air-cooled room for
storage of eggs. Specially designed plastic/cardboard trays have to be used to collect eggs. Usually 30
egg capacity collecting trays/egg filler flats are used. It is not advisable to collect eggs in baskets.

BROILER MANAGEMENT

Brooding arrangement for straight run (unsexed) day old broiler chicks received at the broiler farms has
to be made similar to layer type chicks described earlier. The diameter for the brooder guard may vary
from 150-240 cm for 175-300 chicks per unit respectively.

Newspaper spread on the litter may be removed after three days and the chicks guard arrangement also
dismantled after eight days.

Space requirements

Floor space allowance for broilers is 450 cm2 (0.5 sq.ft.) per bird upto 18 days and 1000 cm2 (1.1 sq.ft)
per bird after wards upto market age. Feeder space allowance is 3 cm and 6-7 cm per bird and waterer
space allowance is 1.5 and 3 cm per bird for the above periods respectively. The waterers and feeders
may have to be changed after second week and at fifth week and larger sized equipment have to be
provided for adequate feeder and waterer space allowances.

Clean, potable water should be provided. Early morning, as a first duty in daily routine, empty the
waterers, clean them and provide water afresh. Watering may be done twice daily and feeding four
times in a day. Fill waterers and feeders to only their 2/3rd capacity. Take care to avoid spillage of water
on the litter. If conventional chick waterers and plastic basins are used, have one spare set of waterers
and clean and sun dry the used set every day.

Feeding of broilers may be done in two phases. During first four weeks, broiler starter mash with 24%
crude protein and 2900 Kcal/kg of M.E. has to be fed and after four weeks, till they are marketed, broiler
finisher mash with 21% crude protein and 2900-3000 KCal/kg of M.E. has to be given. The method of
preparing broiler mash is described separately. The broilers may also be fed in three phases from 0-2
weeks, three to five weeks and from sixth week to market age. Accordingly, different feed formulations
have to be made for the three phases.

During feeding and watering, take care that the birds are disturbed to the minimum. If possible, same
person may be allowed to attend one batch. Feeding and watering may also be done at the same time
everyday to minimize the stress.

Take all steps to avoid feed wastage. Provide adequate number of feeders; make provisions to adjust
the height of feeders, so that the brim of the feeder/ waterer is hiked to the level of the back of the
growing broiler.

Monitor the growth of the broilers up to the market age by weighing atleast 10 birds of average size at
the end of every week of age so as to make sure that they put on weight normally and there is no
sudden drop in growth rate. If the growth rate is lower than the standard, the farmer has to check the
quality of feed for the presence of toxins, adequacy of protein and amino acid levels (lysine, methionine
etc.) and also the possibility of presence of any sub-clinical infection. Also watch out for daily
consumption of feed and water as any drastic change has to be investigated.

Litter management

Broilers are mostly reared on deep litter only. Some of the materials which are commonly used as litter
are paddy husk, ground nut hulls, saw dust, wood shavings, coir pith, chopped straw, bagasse and even
sand. The choice of litter material depends mostly on cost and local availability of the material.

A total litter height of 5 cm is sufficient. The litter should be maintained practically dry. After two weeks
of age, it is advisable to rake the litter everyday morning with the help of a spike so that caked material
is broken up. Remove waterers and feeders outside while raking the litter to avoid its spillage into such
equipment. Moisture level in litter material will go up every day because of water in birds’ droppings. If
it goes beyond 25%, excess ammonia will be produced.

If ammonia level in the atmosphere exceeds 25 ppm, the birds will be subjected to various stresses.
There will be irritation of eyes and nasal membrane leading to conjunctivitis, poor feed intake and
growth rate. The birds will be predisposed to diseases like coryza, bronchitis, other respiratory diseases
and also coccidiosis. Higher moisture level in the litter may also cause lameness, disinclination to move
and weight loss.

To assess moisture level in the litter, take a handful of it and squeeze. If the litter forms a cake, moisture
level is high. If it crumbles into fine dust, moisture is very low which will make the environment more
dusty. It has to remain as a loose mass, if the moisture level is less.

When litter remains wet even after raking, add some more fresh litter material. Addition of super
phosphate at 2 kg/ 100sq.ft. area will help in reducing ammonia level. Addition of lime powder is not
advisable. Try to prevent excess moisture build up by ensuring proper ventilation. Keep in mind, the
space between broiler houses etc., Never attempt to recycle old litter for subsequent batches.

Lighting

For brooding, to provide warmth, artificial lighting has to be given upto three weeks as suggested
earlier. It is advisable to provide light source during night to encourage night feeding particularly during
summer, since the feed will be withdrawn during hotter parts of the day.

HATCHERY PRACTICES

Incubation and Hatchery Management

The modern concept of hatchery building is to provide the best physical environment to optimize the
efficiency of conversion of a hatching egg into a live and healthy chick through the process of artificial
incubation and hatching.

Location and site

Proper location and isolation of hatchery is important from the standpoint of modern biosecurity
programs. The hatchery should be situated at least 1500 ft (460 mts) away from poultry house; however
it is better to keep the hatchery far away from breeder farms, feed mills and grain storage sites. The
hatchery area should be a separate unit with its own entrance and exit unassociated with those of the
poultry farm as far as possible. Size of the hatchery is dependent upon the number of chicken to be
hatched in each setting or each week based on the local demand or supply of day old chicks.

The rooms must be arranged to give better use of the building, afford a shorter route for the eggs and
reduce employee movement through the rooms. Hatchery building should be such that hatching eggs
may be taken in at one end and the chick removed at the other.

Change cum shower room

To maintain a disease free condition, it is essential that all persons entering inside the building should
have a shower and change into clean clothing in this room. Also, after they finish their duty, they may
leave only through this room after changing back to their home clothings. The shower cum change room
would therefore be carefully constructed so that those seeking entrance and exit must have to pass
through this room only. The room should, also possess some area for disrobing and keeping clean
clothes and personal belongings in safe custody.

Egg reception and setting room

1. Must be large enough to permit storage of maximum number of egg cases (full and empty) likely to be
held overnight.

2. Should be accessible to concrete or pucca road or hard pavement.

3. If the same room is to be used for traying, there should be sufficient provision of space for the same.

4. The loading racks may be constructed along with the side walls to support the setting trays at the
right angle for easy working. To make things easier, it is necessary to provide some sturdy supporting
bench of the right height to bring the egg cases to a convenient working position.

Fumigation room should be as small as possible in order to reduce the amount of fumigant used.

Egg holding room

After proper fumigation, the hatching eggs should be stored in the egg holding room. It should be about
8 ft. (2.5mts.) high, ventilated with complete air movements, cooled and humidified. The walls and
ceilings should have the ‘R’ values of 12 and 16 respectively (‘R’ value is a term used to denote thermal
resistance power of a material).

Incubator room

There should be good access from incubator room to other rooms by means of sliding doors in the
‘work’ side of the hatchery. The actual size of the incubator room should be worked out on the basis of
the egg capacity of all the machines in it, and should not be less than 5.6m3 (200 cu.ft.) for each 1000
egg capacity. The ceiling height should not be less than 12 feet. It would be advisable to counteract the
bad effects of high ambient temperature during summer season; then the ceiling height may be kept 15
to 18 feet instead of 12 feet. To ensure good air circulation throughout the incubator room, there
should be atleast 1.2 m (3.5 ft.) gap between the incubator frame and any wall. The distance between
two rows of incubator fitted front to front may be kept at least 1.83 m (6 ft.) and even more space may
be needed with some machines if the work of loading and removing trays is to be efficiently performed.

Hatching room

The hatching room should have good fitting, air tight doors and be provided with a separate ventilation
system, which should discharge to the outer air through some sort of filter to trap and disinfect the fluff
of the hatch and to prevent disease dissemination. The fumigation system should be fan assisted which
will also discharge the fumigant.

Chick sexing room

Sexing room for day old chicks should be warm, well ventilated and must have some form of easily
washable shelves to hold the chick boxes. The sexing table must have metal, plastic, sun mica, or very
hard wooden tops so that they can be efficiently cleaned and disinfected as often as necessary. The
container for the different sexes if reusable must be easy to keep clean and disinfected. Each table must
be equipped with a high powered overhead light which is adjustable for height. Cleanliness is of vital
importance in the operation of sexing and the sexing room must be provided with ample washing
facilities so arranged that each sexer can, without undue waste of time, wash between each batch of
chicks, and as often as necessary.

Packing, vaccination and despatch room

The primary needs of the packing and despatch room are adequate bench space and racks to enable the
full hatch to be dealt with swiftly and efficiently. It must have direct access from the sexing room and
from the hatching and incubator room. Space for record keeping is required and a room communicating
direct with or nearer to the store is convenient. Before packing, necessary vaccination may also be done
here. The despatch room should have a door leading directly to the road or hard standing pavement for
vehicles. It should also be comfortable to staff.

Store

The store room should be large enough and well planned in respect of racks etc. to keep various
hatchery items e.g. chick boxes, packing materials, spare incubator fittings, labels and a lot more
number of items. Good lighting and access to the road is also desirable.

Generator shed

One or more standby source/sources of electricity apart from the main supply source is a must for the
hatchery. The room should be sufficiently large, well ventilated, adjacent to the hatchery and with an
easy access to road. It should be easily approachable during odd hours and rainy seasons. Sufficient
space should be there inside the room to keep the reserved stock of fuel, necessary spare parts and for
working of staff.

Ventilation

Ventilation must be adequate and should be based on a minimum of eight complete changes of air
every hour. No specific system is recommended, but the air inlets must be provided to prevent straight
draughts; outlets whether fan assisted or natural draught must not be placed immediately above the
upper outlets of the incubators since this will interfere with the proper internal ventilation of the
incubators. Incoming air should be cooled in the summer to keep the room temperature around 18.3 to
21.1oC which is not too warm to the incubators. More air should be moved through the hatchery rooms
during warm seasons than cool. Therefore rheostats should be installed on all ventilating fans to provide
increased or decreased air flow to help control room temperature.

Handling and Care of hatching eggs

Hatching eggs should be collected atleast four times/day from breeder farm and brought to the
hatchery. They should be cooled to a temperature well below Physiological zero to arrest the embryonic
development. It is a temperature below which embryonic growth will be arrested, and above which it is
reinitiated. Temperature in the egg holding room should be 65oF (18oC) to curtail embryonic
development completely. The humidity of the cooling room should be around 75-80%.

Abnormal eggs having ridges, rough surface, flat side, pointed at tip, too small or too large in size and
also with abnormal shell e.g. thin, porous soft tip or soiled should be rejected.

Setting of hatching eggs

Approximately 6 hours prior to loading eggs in the incubator they should be moved from the egg cooler
room to a room temperature.

Setting time should be adjusted as per the time the chick supply is scheduled to begin. Ordinarily, chicks
should reach to the customer’s farm about 12 hours after they are taken out. If the chicks are scheduled
to be supplied early in the morning, chicks should be removed from the hatchery at about 9.00 to 10.00
PM. Accordingly, eggs should be set at a time that will allow chicks to hatch and dry prior to 9.00 to
10.00 PM. This means that the average egg setting time will be about 5.00 to 6.00 PM. White Leghorn
eggs require less than 21 days to hatch, and hence eggs from Leghorns should be set later than those
from meat type breeders. In cabinet type incubators, the eggs are arranged in a vertical position with
broad end up and hot air is circulated by fan or stirrer. The trays are turned by 40-45 degrees in either
direction. They are run by electricity, coal or oil and have economy of space through the use of several
layers of trays. They have a setting compartment with setting trays and a hatching compartment with
hatching trays in the same cabinet. They have thermocapsule arrangement with temperature, relative
humidity control system along with turning arrangement.
A successful flat type incubator must maintain 39.4oC with the centre of the bulb set 2 inches above the
floor of the egg tray. For cabinet type incubators it should be 37.5oC to 37.8oC at the centre of the egg,
whereas in hatchers the ambient temperature may be reduced by 1oC to avoid late embryo mortality at
too high temperature. Optimum relative humidity inside the incubator for best results should be
maintained at 55 - 60% in setter compartment for the first 18 days and 75-80 % relative humidity needs
to be maintained during the last 3 days of incubation in the hatcher compartment.

Embryo should gently but frequently be moved within the egg to prevent its settling and adhering to
other structures, if left for 21 days in one position. The need for frequent turning appears to be the
greatest in the earlier stages of incubation in setter compartment before the full development of the
extra embryonic sacs and their fluids. The interval between turnings is 1 to 4 hours.

Removal of hatch

There exists a difference of about 36 hours between the time the first and last chicks hatch. From
practical standpoint, chicks should be delivered to the farm about 12 hours after the entire group is
removed from the hatcher. Excessive drying of chicks in the hatchery should be avoided as it may cause
dehydration to chicks. Chicks should be removed from the machine as soon as all are hatched. When the
chicks are removed from the hatchers the temperature of the chicks holding room should be 75oF
(23.9oC) to reduce the danger of chilling and have a relative humidity of 75% to reduce dehydration.
After counting the number of chicks, they will be placed comfortably in chick boxes for transportation.

POULTRY DISEASES

Disease is a condition caused by living factors like viruses, bacteria or parasites, or non-living factors
such as deficiencies, toxins and other physical or chemical agents. Diseases can be classified depending
on the causative factors. Some common poultry diseases and the noticeable symptoms of each are
described below. The preventive measures are given, and for necessary treatment, poultry farmers are
advised to contact a qualified veterinarian. Diseases cause severe economic loss in poultry production.
The loss is not only due to the death of birds but also due to loss in production. A farmer should always
therefore remain on the alert to notice any symptom evinced by the flock so that control or treatment
measures can be initiated early and the loss minimized. However, it is prudent on the part of the farmer
to take all possible precautions to keep the flock disease-free.

BACTERIAL DISEASES

a). Coli-bacillosis

This is a common bacterial disease caused by E.coli organism. It can manifest in different forms such as
infection of the yolk sac, colisepticaemia, etc. Lethargy and diarrhoea will be noticed. Control of
infection of the yolk sac depends on sanitary conditions at the hatchery and provision of appropriate
warmth during brooding. The practice of efficient water sanitation methods and the use of clean
drinkers are strongly advised. Provide adequate ventilation and manage the litter properly.

b). Salmonellosis
This disease is transmitted vertically from parent flocks and affects baby chicks with a high mortality.
Huddling, pasting of vent feathers and whitish diarrhoea are noticed. Ensure Salmonella-free chicks from
the hatchery by using sterilised fish-meal and meat meal. Pelleting of the feed will also be helpful. Add
furazolidone to the feed to control Salmonellosis.

c). Coryza

Symptoms of this disease are swollen faces and swollen eyes, filled with a cheesy substance. Respiratory
distress and poor feed intake are also noticeable. Avoid overcrowding and wet litter. Reduce the
ammonia level by proper ventilation.

d). Fowl Cholera

Combs and wattles of poultry with this condition become swollen and bluish. High mortality and
morbidity are experienced along with a watery nasal discharge and saliva dripping. Pin-point blood spots
on the heart and duodenum and white spots on the liver are present. Whitish diarrhoea is noticed.
Control rodents and ensure proper management. Provide good ventilation and stress-free conditions.

e). Chronic Respiratory Disease (CRD)

Respiratory distress, the sound of rales, sneezing, poor weight gain and nasal discharge are symptoms of
the disease. Infected chicks transmit the disease through water and feed. Avoid over crowding, improve
ventilation, ensure hatchery sanitation and screening of parent stock. Mixing tiamutin or tylosine in the
feed will be helpful.

VIRAL DISEASES

These are prevented by carrying out protective vaccinations at the recommended age; treatment will
not be effective.

a). Newcastle disease

It is the most dreadful disease in poultry. A high mortality rate is evident in all age groups. Respiratory
distress, paralysis of legs and wings, greenish diarrhoea and a twisting of the neck will be noticed.
Control Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD) and give toxin-free feed. Multiple vaccinations should be given as
suggested. Routine screening of sera samples on larger farms is advisable.

b). Infectious Bronchitis (IB)

Respiratory distress, rales and gurgling sounds are evident. Prevent the disease by vaccination.

c). Infectious anaemia

Young chicks are affected. A mortality of up to 20 percent is noted and the disease predisposes adults to
other diseases. Vaccination of the parent stock is required.

d). Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD or Gumboro)

Young birds are affected. Listlessness, huddling, whitish, pasty diarrhoea and pecking at vents are some
of the symptoms. The consequences of this disease are 10-60 percent mortality rate and the breakdown
of immunity, leading to the outbreak of other diseases. Vaccinate young birds at the recommended age.
Include immuno-stimulants like Vitamin E in the feed. Give toxin-free feed.

e). Marek’s disease

This disease is characterized by poor growth and paralysis of one leg which is stretched backwards. Birds
under 16 weeks are affected. An inability to take feed follows, and death ensues. Ensure that protective
vaccination is given at day old in the hatchery.

f). Infectious laryngo-tracheitis (ILT)

Symptoms like respiratory distress, rales, extended neck for inhalation, nasal discharge, low egg
production, and mortality of up to 30 percent are noticeable. Secondary infections can be controlled by
antibiotics.

g). Inclusion body hepatitis (Hydropericardium Syndrome or Leechi disease)

This condition affects broilers at four to five weeks of age and a 30-60 percent mortality is experienced.
Straw-coloured fluid around the heart is noted. Controlled IBD vaccines are available against this
disease.

h). Fowl pox

Raised skin lesions appear at the corners of the beak, as well as at the comb and wattle. The mortality
level is low, but recovered birds perform poorly. Vaccination at the appropriate age is suggested.

FUNGAL DISEASES:

a). Brooder Pneumonia

Young chicks of 1-2 weeks of age are affected. A high mortality rate of 10-50 percent is noted, with
symptoms of gasping, respiratory distress and strong thirst. Yellowish white pin-point filaments on lungs
are present. Avoid using mouldy, fungus-infested litter material. Use thoroughly cleaned drinkers and
feeders.

b). Mycotoxicosis

Caused by mycotoxins, this disease is produced by fungi in feed ingredients. Reduced feed intake, poor
growth rate or egg production, breakdown of immunity and vaccination failures are the consequences.

Sun-dry feed ingredients. Avoid using mouldy ingredients; use toxin binders like zeolites, aluminium
si1icate or charcoal in the feed. Add liver tonics. Withdraw fungal-infested feed.

c). Coccidiosis
Three common types of coccidiosis can occur. Caecal and duodenal types affect younger birds. Birds
over 10 weeks of age are affected by intestinal coccidiosis. Mortality is higher in younger birds. Reddish
diarrhoea, stunted growth and crouching are noticeable symptoms. There is a loss of raw or digested
blood through droppings. Performance is very severely affected because of poor absorption of nutrients
through the intestine. Avoid wet litter. Ensure proper management. Avoid spillage of water.
Coccidiostats like superdot, clopidol, cycostat,etc., should be used in broiler mashes and brooder and
grower mashes. Coccicidal drugs like salinomycin and maduramycin should be used in broiler mashes
only. Preventive water medication with coccidiostats like amprolium, codrinal, etc., may also be
adopted. The coccidiostats used in feed may be rotated every three to six months to prevent the
parasite developing resistance against the drug in use.

d). Deficiency diseases

Deficiency of protein and vital amino acids cause poor growth and ruffled feathers. Vit. A deficiency –
respiratory symptoms, conjunctivitis, Vit. B1- paralysis, neuritis, Vit.B2 – Curled toe paralysis, manganese
and choline deficiency – slipped tendon disease etc.

BIOSECURITY AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT

Biosecurity, which literally means safety of living things, is a programme designed to prevent the
exposure of birds to disease causing organisms by reducing introduction and spread of pathogens into
and between the farms. Bio security in a broader sense encompasses isolation, traffic control sanitation,
vaccination, serological monitoring of diseases and air quality etc. which will aid in prevent the entry and
control the pathogens in and around the farm. Biosecurity is the cheapest and at the same time most
effective means of disease control available without, which no disease prevention programme will work
well. Biosecurity is a defensive health plan and hygienic procedure that can help to keep your farm
disease free. Biosecurity is therefore is one of the integrated part of farm operations.

As the poultry operation becomes more and more efficient, however, they also become a threat to
themselves and their neighbours and the concentration of more birds in limited space. Poultry farmers
should take time to eliminate as many disease causing organisms as possible. Therefore, it is better to
wait a little longer before introducing new flock than to hurry and risk infection of new flock. The most
effective form of protection against disease, especially for poultry under modern production techniques
is biosecurity i.e. excluding disease from the farm environment and this holds the key to successful and
profitable farming.

Biosecurity, medication/ vaccination and good management of farm are three sides of disease control
triangle. Poultry must be given an environment in which disease and infection is controlled to the point
where vaccination and medication achieve beneficial effects. Biosecurity is the key element in the
triangle of disease control.

Conceptual Biosecurity
1. It is best to build farm in a isolated area atleast three km away from nearest poultry in the case of
breeder farm and 1.6 km in the case of commercial layer and broiler farm.

2. In the case of breeders the farm should be away from the major road ways that may be used to
transport commercial and backyard poultry.

3. Maintain enough distance between breeders and grow out farms and facilities such as hatcheries and
feed mills.

Structural biosecurity

1. Fencing of farm perimeter to prevent unwanted visitors.

2. Test water source for minerals, bacteria, chemical contamination and pathogen load.

3. Concrete stage with suitable water and power supply for sanitation of vehicles.

4. Suitable location for storage of bagged feed.

5. All-weather roads within the farm to ease cleaning and to prevent spreading of microbes by vehicles
and foot wear.

6. Facilities for safe scientific disposal of dead birds.

7. Safe housing, with suitable wild birds and rodent proofing.

8. Feed, litter and equipment should be stored in a section separated from live bird area to prevent
contamination.

9. A 3-meter boundary of land around the building must be kept free of all vegetation to prevent rodent
and wild life activity.

Operational biosecurity

1. Operation manuals should be developed for day-to-day activities carried out in feed mills, hatcheries,
breeding and grow-out facilities incorporating emergency plans.

2. Proper decontamination and disinfection of equipment, houses etc., following depletion of flock.

3. In breeder farms, all visitors and workers require to shower and use clean farm clothes to prevent
cross contamination between them.

4. Maintain record for visitors and their purpose.

5. In the case of breeders, no vehicles or equipment should be allowed within the farm area from the
time of delivery of flock until disposal.

6. In commercial broiler unit, a minimum inter flock interval of two weeks is recommended.
7. Use an effective integrated pest management program to control pest and rodent through biological,
chemical and mechanical means.

8. Appropriate program of disease diagnosis and proper vaccination schedule should be implemented.

9. In small scale egg production unit, follow all-in-all-out system. If it is not possible, pullets should be
obtained from a source free of vertically transmitted diseases.

10. Recycling of egg packing materials etc. should be decontaminated at the point of entry of farm.

11. Routine disease monitoring procedures like postmortem examination and periodic serum antibody
assay to determine immune status of the flock.

12. Regular culling of unhealthy, unproductive and diseased birds.

MANAGEMENTAL FACTORS IN DISEASE PREVENTION

The following managerial factors help to reduce the spread of disease and stress to the birds.

Isolation

It is not advisable to rear birds of different age groups in the same house. Wherever possible, it is
advisable to practise the all-in-all-out system. Proper layout of houses, appropriate designing to prevent
any entry of rodents, proper ventilation, and the designing of feeders and drinkers to avoid spillage, are
basic essentials in disease prevention.

Litter management

Wet litter is a potential source of disease transmission. Maintain proper litter conditions as suggested
earlier.

Quality chicks

Ensure that chicks are received from a hatchery where adequate preventive care is taken for breeder
birds to guard against mycoplasmosis, salmonellosis and infectious bursal disease. Check for a history of
vaccination against Marek's disease. Look for signs of dehydration. Ensure that the received chicks are
healthy and are within the normal weight range.

Proper nutrition

A good balanced feed prepared according to nutrient requirements at different ages will ensure proper
health and good immune status in birds. Addition of coccidiostats, and vitamin and mineral supplements
are essential.

Water quality

Poultry farmers often fail to provide the birds with good quality water. Both the microbial and chemical
quality of the water need to be tested before establishing a poultry farm in a given area.
Microbial contamination of water may happen at the source, for instance in ponds, rivers, open wells
and the public water supply system, or during transportation and storage, as well as in the overhead
tank or bins. Unhygienic practices on the farm result in the spread of disease. The microbial load shoots
up during flood conditions. Faecal contamination of water will add to the presence of coliform
organisms. Mineral levels in water depend on soil conditions, and show only minor fluctuations based on
the season and the water table. They lead to hardness in water and affect the taste and palatability.

The desirable quality guidelines for drinking water on poultry farms are as follows:

Water quality Permissible Desirable level

 Total hardness 60-180

 pH 6.8-7.5

 Nitrate 10 mg/litre

 Nitrite 0.4 mg/litre

 Total bacterial count 0/ml

 Coliform count 0/ml

 Calcium chloride 60 mg/litre

 Sodium 50 mg/litre

 Sulphate 125 mg/litre

The removal of excess dissolved minerals by cheaper and simpler methods is not practicable, and the
farmer should change to other water sources in case of excess minerals in the water. Chlorination is the
best and cheapest method to get rid of micro-organisms. Five to eight grams of bleaching powder with
about 35 percent available chlorine should be added to 1000 litres of drinking water to maintain a
chlorine level of 1 to 2 ppm at delivery. A minimum contact time of one hour should be given before
offering the water to birds. Where storage facilities are not available, liquid chlorine preparations like
chlorine dioxide, 5 percent sodium hypochlorite (sanitech), etc., may be used at a level of one ml per 10
litres of water. Iodophores containing 1.6 percent available iodine are also used as water sanitizers at
the same dosage level. Products containing Quarternary ammonium compounds like quat, quatovet,
encivet, sokrena etc. may be used as water sanitizers as per the manufacturers’ specifications. By
providing sanitized water to the birds, the chance of water-borne infections is reduced and the cost of
medication is saved. The life of pipelines and storage tanks is also increased, and the overall growth of
the birds and egg production efficiency will be improved.

Dead bird disposal

The main principle involved in the prevention and control of current and emerging diseases is the
scientific disposal of dead birds. Mortality is inevitable on every poultry farm, and it varies with the
prevailing disease and sanitary conditions on the farm. When birds die, their carcasses remain as a
source of infection for pen-mates and other birds on the farm (or other farms). All carcasses should be
removed from the pen as soon as possible. Diseased and ill birds also discharge infectious material into
the environment and act as reservoirs for disease-producing organisms. It is essential to eliminate ailing
birds from the flock rather than jeopardize the health of the remainder of the flock. The habit of
throwing dead birds on to the nearest manure pile or into an open field is dangerous and unscientific for
the following reasons:

 The smell of the carcasses attracts street dogs and cats, which consume the infected carcasses and
harbour the enteric organisms infectious to poultry. Because of their free movement, these animals are
capable of carrying contaminated material or a portion of a carcass to neighbouring farms, with
disastrous results;

 Vultures and other wild birds invade the carcasses and become potential carriers of the disease-
causing agents from one farm to another or even from one country to another country if they migrate;

 The carcasses lure insects and flies, which act as transmitters of infectious agents;

 The disease agents carried by rain water contaminate other water sources;

 The surrounding area of the farm is contaminated with feathers and bones, causing soil pollution;

 On decomposition, the carcasses may emit a foul smell and cause air pollution. The disposal of
carcasses of birds dying from known or unknown causes, should be carefully attended to. There are
many methods for the efficient disposal of carcasses such as burying, pit disposal, incineration, septic
tank disposal, or composting. In general, the following points should be observed while disposing of the
carcasses:

 Remove the dead birds from the flock as soon as possible;

 Do not deposit carcasses in or near a flowing stream;

 Take the necessary precautions to prevent spillage of infectious material from the carcasses during
transportation from the farm or post-mortem room to the disposal site;

 Take sound bio-security measures at the disposal sites to prevent disease transmission.

Moreover, with the present concern for the environment, the poultry industry needs to pursue efforts
to protect the environment. Therefore, all methods that allow for environmentally safe and scientific
ways of disposing of carcasses should be considered.

Litter removal

After the pen is emptied, deep litter and caged layer droppings should be removed to a field far from the
poultry shed, and spread to dry in the sun. It should be disposed off as soon as possible for manure or
other purposes and not allowed to remain accumulating for a long period. Composting is better, since
the heat produced will destroy the pathogens.

Disinfection

To disinfect is to free from pathogenic micro-organisms. A disinfectant is an agent that destroys

pathogenic organisms, and that can be applied on inanimate objects or used as a footbath. Phenol,
cresol, chlorine compounds and iodophors can be used for disinfecting surfaces as well as the egg room,
feeders, drinkers, buildings and footwear; liquid formalin at 5 percent level, or formaldehyde gas by
fumigation, will also serve as an effective disinfectant. Sun-drying may be practised for washed
equipment; for cement surfaces-dry heat in the form of flame is recommended. Copper sulphate as a
0.5 percent solution is effective against fungi. Quarternary ammonium compounds are good
disinfectants when used according to directions. However, they are not effective in hard water. They can
be used for disinfecting surfaces, washing egg rooms, feeders and drinkers and other equipment.

Rodent control

Keep rodents out from the initial stage of farming itself, since once the farm is infested, it is difficult to
get rid of them. Remove piles of unused equipment and empty gunny bags as they serve as breeding
places for rats, mice and squirrels. Remove spilled feed daily. Store feed in well-ventilated, rodent-proof
rooms. Use traps in the initial stages and later rodenticides. Rodenticides should be used at night
according to specifications.

Insect control

Counter measures against insects are part of maintaining a sanitary environment, as insects play a
significant role in transmitting disease-producing micro-organisms, tape worms, etc. Flies sit on the
birds, irritate them, prevent them from taking water and feeding normally, causing stress which results
in reduced egg production especially where cage rearing is practised. Insect or fly control measures
include:

 Avoiding stagnation of water in and around the farm premises.

 Provision of proper drainage facilities, attending immediately to leaky drinkers, water lines, etc.

 Use of insecticide sprays or dusting at required intervals,

 Treating the birds and checking the feed and water quality to avoid watery droppings. Keep the
surroundings clean by covering the area with treated soil devoid of vegetation or by growing grass
lawns.