Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974
The maritime industry’s most important concerns are the safety of personnel and prevention of
marine pollution for smooth cargo transportation and marine operation at high seas.
To achieve this, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) relies on its two very strong
pillars: SOLAS & MARPOL – The International Conventions for safeguarding human life and
marine environment from all kinds of pollutions and accidents.
Adoption: 1 November 1974; Entry into force: 25 May 1980
The SOLAS Convention in its successive forms is generally regarded as the most important of
all international treaties concerning the safety of merchant ships. The first version was adopted
in 1914, in response to the Titanic disaster, the second in 1929, the third in 1948, and the fourth
in 1960. The 1974 version includes the tacit acceptance procedure - which provides that an
amendment shall enter into force on a specified date unless, before that date, objections to the
amendment are received from an agreed number of Parties.
As a result the 1974 Convention has been updated and amended on numerous occasions. The
Convention in force today is sometimes referred to as SOLAS, 1974, as amended.
Technical provisions
The main objective of the SOLAS Convention is to specify minimum standards for the
construction, equipment and operation of ships, compatible with their safety. Flag States are
responsible for ensuring that ships under their flag comply with its requirements, and a number
of certificates are prescribed in the Convention as proof that this has been done. Control
provisions also allow Contracting Governments to inspect ships of other Contracting States if
there are clear grounds for believing that the ship and its equipment do not substantially comply
with the requirements of the Convention - this procedure is known as port State control. The
current SOLAS Convention includes Articles setting out general obligations, amendment
procedure and so on, followed by an Annex divided into 14 Chapters.
What is SOLAS Convention?
The word SOLAS is an abbreviation and SOLAS full form is “Safety Of Life At Sea”, an
international maritime treaty, also known as SOLAS Convention or International Convention
for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), which establishes the least safety measures in the
construction, equipment and operation of merchant ships.
IMO SOLAS 74, the last adopted revised convention of 1974, includes a number of regulations
under different SOLAS chapters, which deals with safety precautions and safety procedures
starting from the construction of the ship to real emergency like – “Abandon Ship”. The
convention is updated to meet the safety norms in the modern shipping industry from time to
time.
Main Chapters Of SOLAS
The SOLAS 1974 international maritime treaty comprises 13 chapters and each chapter has its
own set of regulations. The following are the list of SOLAS all 14 chapters and the regulations
they contain:
The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974 describes the
requirement for all merchant ship of any flag state to comply with the minimum safety norms
laid down in the chapters which are as follows:
Chapter I - General Provisions
Includes regulations concerning the survey of the various types of ships and the issuing of
documents signifying that the ship meets the requirements of the Convention. The Chapter also
includes provisions for the control of ships in ports of other Contracting Governments.
Chapter II-1 - Construction - Subdivision and stability, machinery and electrical
installations
The subdivision of passenger ships into watertight compartments must be such that after
assumed damage to the ship's hull the vessel will remain afloat and stable. Requirements for
watertight integrity and bilge pumping arrangements for passenger ships are also laid down as
well as stability requirements for both passenger and cargo ships.
The degree of subdivision - measured by the maximum permissible distance between two
adjacent bulkheads - varies with ship's length and the service in which it is engaged. The highest
degree of subdivision applies to passenger ships.
Requirements covering machinery and electrical installations are designed to ensure that
services which are essential for the safety of the ship, passengers and crew are maintained under
various emergency conditions.
"Goal-based standards" for oil tankers and bulk carriers were adopted in 2010, requiring new
ships to be designed and constructed for a specified design life and to be safe and
environmentally friendly, in intact and specified damage conditions, throughout their life.
Under the regulation, ships should have adequate strength, integrity and stability to minimize
the risk of loss of the ship or pollution to the marine environment due to structural failure,
including collapse, resulting in flooding or loss of watertight integrity.
Chapter II-2 - Fire protection, fire detection and fire extinction
Includes detailed fire safety provisions for all ships and specific measures for passenger ships,
cargo ships and tankers.
They include the following principles: division of the ship into main and vertical zones by
thermal and structural boundaries; separation of accommodation spaces from the remainder of
the ship by thermal and structural boundaries; restricted use of combustible materials; detection
of any fire in the zone of origin; containment and extinction of any fire in the space of origin;
protection of the means of escape or of access for fire-fighting purposes; ready availability of
fire-extinguishing appliances; minimization of the possibility of ignition of flammable cargo
vapour.
Chapter III - Life-saving appliances and arrangements
The Chapter includes requirements for life-saving appliances and arrangements, including
requirements for life boats, rescue boats and life jackets according to type of ship. The
International Life-Saving Appliance (LSA) Code gives specific technical requirements for
LSAs and is mandatory under Regulation 34, which states that all life-saving appliances and
arrangements shall comply with the applicable requirements of the LSA Code.
Chapter IV - Radiocommunications
The Chapter incorporates the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS). All
passenger ships and all cargo ships of 300 gross tonnage and upwards on international voyages
are required to carry equipment designed to improve the chances of rescue following an
accident, including satellite emergency position indicating radio beacons (EPIRBs) and search
and rescue transponders (SARTs) for the location of the ship or survival craft.
Regulations in Chapter IV cover undertakings by contracting governments to provide
radiocommunication services as well as ship requirements for carriage of radiocommunications
equipment. The Chapter is closely linked to the Radio Regulations of the International
Telecommunication Union.
Chapter V - Safety of navigation
Chapter V identifies certain navigation safety services which should be provided by
Contracting Governments and sets forth provisions of an operational nature applicable in
general to all ships on all voyages. This is in contrast to the Convention as a whole, which only
applies to certain classes of ship engaged on international voyages.
The subjects covered include the maintenance of meteorological services for ships; the ice
patrol service; routeing of ships; and the maintenance of search and rescue services.
This Chapter also includes a general obligation for masters to proceed to the assistance of those
in distress and for Contracting Governments to ensure that all ships shall be sufficiently and
efficiently manned from a safety point of view.
The chapter makes mandatory the carriage of voyage data recorders (VDRs) and automatic
ship identification systems (AIS).
Chapter VI - Carriage of Cargoes
The Chapter covers all types of cargo (except liquids and gases in bulk) "which, owing to their
particular hazards to ships or persons on board, may require special precautions". The
regulations include requirements for stowage and securing of cargo or cargo units (such as
containers). The Chapter requires cargo ships carrying grain to comply with the International
Grain Code.
Chapter VII - Carriage of dangerous goods
The regulations are contained in three parts:
Part A - Carriage of dangerous goods in packaged form - includes provisions for the
classification, packing, marking, labelling and placarding, documentation and stowage of
dangerous goods. Contracting Governments are required to issue instructions at the national
level and the Chapter makes mandatory the International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG)
Code, developed by IMO, which is constantly updated to accommodate new dangerous goods
and to supplement or revise existing provisions.
Part A-1 - Carriage of dangerous goods in solid form in bulk - covers the documentation,
stowage and segregation requirements for these goods and requires reporting of incidents
involving such goods.
Part B covers Construction and equipment of ships carrying dangerous liquid chemicals in bulk
and requires chemical tankers to comply with the International Bulk Chemical Code (IBC
Code).
Part C covers Construction and equipment of ships carrying liquefied gases in bulk and gas
carriers to comply with the requirements of the International Gas Carrier Code (IGC Code).
Part D includes special requirements for the carriage of packaged irradiated nuclear fuel,
plutonium and high-level radioactive wastes on board ships and requires ships carrying such
products to comply with the International Code for the Safe Carriage of Packaged Irradiated
Nuclear Fuel, Plutonium and High-Level Radioactive Wastes on Board Ships (INF Code).
The chapter requires carriage of dangerous goods to be in compliance with the relevant
provisions of the International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG Code).
Chapter VIII - Nuclear ships
Gives basic requirements for nuclear-powered ships and is particularly concerned with
radiation hazards. It refers to detailed and comprehensive Code of Safety for Nuclear Merchant
Ships which was adopted by the IMO Assembly in 1981.
Chapter IX - Management for the Safe Operation of Ships
The Chapter makes mandatory the International Safety Management (ISM) Code, which
requires a safety management system to be established by the shipowner or any person who
has assumed responsibility for the ship (the "Company").
Chapter X - Safety measures for high-speed craft
The Chapter makes mandatory the International Code of Safety for High-Speed Craft (HSC
Code).
Chapter XI-1 - Special measures to enhance maritime safety
The Chapter clarifies requirements relating to authorization of recognized organizations
(responsible for carrying out surveys and inspections on Administrations' behalves); enhanced
surveys; ship identification number scheme; and port State control on operational requirements.
Chapter XI-2 - Special measures to enhance maritime security
Regulation XI-2/3 of the chapter enshrines the International Ship and Port Facilities Security
Code (ISPS Code). Part A of the Code is mandatory and part B contains guidance as to how
best to comply with the mandatory requirements. Regulation XI-2/8 confirms the role of the
Master in exercising his professional judgement over decisions necessary to maintain the
security of the ship. It says he shall not be constrained by the Company, the charterer or any
other person in this respect.
Regulation XI-2/5 requires all ships to be provided with a ship security alert system.
Regulation XI-2/6 covers requirements for port facilities, providing among other things for
Contracting Governments to ensure that port facility security assessments are carried out and
that port facility security plans are developed, implemented and reviewed in accordance with
the ISPS Code. Other regulations in this chapter cover the provision of information to IMO,
the control of ships in port, (including measures such as the delay, detention, restriction of
operations including movement within the port, or expulsion of a ship from port), and the
specific responsibility of Companies.
Chapter XII - Additional safety measures for bulk carriers
The Chapter includes structural requirements for bulk carriers over 150 metres in length.
Chapter XIII - Verification of compliance
Makes mandatory from 1 January 2016 the IMO Member State Audit Scheme.
Chapter XIV - Safety measures for ships operating in polar waters
The chapter makes mandatory, from 1 January 2017, the Introduction and part I-A of the
International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (the Polar Code).
Figure 1. SOLAS 1974 chapters
Types of Risks
The risks being managed in SOLAS 1974 may be categorised into the following (non-
exhaustive) list of eleven (11) different (but, interrelated) types.
Figure 2. Classification of risks being managed in SOLAS 1974 and associated chapters
mitigating the primary risks.
A certain number of these risks are also addressed in other IMO Instruments such as MARPOL
and STCW with the issue of shipboard operations standing out, but with different objectives
when compared to SOLAS 1974. Additionally, some of these risks and their management are
interlinked within different SOLAS 1974 chapters under the specific provisions. Furthermore,
the risks being managed in SOLAS 1974 can be also be categorised into two stages based on
its handling stage, as described in Table 1.
Table 1: Categorisation of risk mitigated in SOLAS 1974 based on its handling stage
(created by the authors)
Categorisation of risk mitigated in SOLAS based on its handling stage
Construction stage Operation Stage
The construction stage is when risks are Operation stage is when risks are dealt
managed during shipbuilding in the ship during the routine operations by the ship
design, construction and/or equipment crew and/or by necessary shore support by
fitment stage by complying with the complying with the requirements of
requirements of SOLAS provisions. SOLAS provisions.
Categorisation of risk mitigated in SOLAS based on its handling stage
Construction stage Operation Stage
The risks dealing with structural stability The risks dealing with cargo (grain code,
and integrity, fire, navigational risks, etc), Shipboard operations (ISM Code),
lifesaving appliances, High speed craft, maritime security (ISPS Code),
Nuclear Ships, etc. are generally mainly cybersecurity (ISM Code) are being dealt
dealt in the construction stage. mainly in the operational stage.
SOLAS 1974, through its legislation, has ensured that risks are managed by “properly sharing”
between the four main stakeholders: Ship-owner, Flag State, Classification Society (Class) and
Port State. This sharing ensures that a safety net is created through Survey, Audit, Inspection
and Examination to verify that the provisions of SOLAS 1974 are being complied with and
therefore ensure that risks are sufficiently and efficiently managed.
Structural integrity and stability related risk
Figure 3 presents the chapters in SOLAS 1974 addressing “Structural Integrity & Stability” as
Primary & Secondary Risk. The importance of this risk is evident from the fact the sea is indeed
a very dangerous place and the common saying that a ship itself is the best available “lifeboat”
for the crew while conducting the voyage. Ensuring safety at sea is made possible via the
mitigation of all “primary and secondary” risks by SOLAS 1974.
Figure 3 Chapters in SOLAS 1974 and associated codes addressing “structural integrity &
stability” as primary & secondary risk codes.
SOLAS 1974 Chapter II-1 Regulation 3–1 requires ships to be designed, built and maintained
in compliance with a classification society’s structural, mechanical and electrical
specifications. This results in effective micro risk management as the classification society is
involved from the stage of ship design up to the end of the ships life when recycled.
Furthermore, under Chapter II-1 Regulation 3–10, the introduction of Goal-based ship
construction standards (GBS) for bulk carriers and oil tankers, as incorporated under
Res.MSC.290(87) in 2003, was a positive move by IMO. GBS allowed ship designers to
overcome the disadvantages of prescriptive regulations which were on bases of past
experiences and therefore redundant in some instances due to its failure to take into
consideration future design challenges (IMO 2020a).
Chapter II-1 which in coordination Chapter XII (bulk Carriers) and codes such as SPS, MODU,
INF, IGF, IBC, Polar & Grain contain further measures such as provisions for subdivision,
intact stability including special requirements for ships, double bottom requirements and
structural requirements, etc., which are applicable for cargo ships and passenger ships (unless
specified otherwise). Further, the subdivision and damage stability provisions of SOLAS 1974
under Chapter II-1part B regulations 4–7 and IMO Resolution A.265 (VIII), as an equivalent
to Chapter II-1 part B regulation 7, allow for evaluating the stability of ships in case of damage.
These regulations impose requirements on subdivision arrangements and also
compartmentalise the vessel by providing for the allowable length of the compartments to
ensure that the ship is safe without submerging the margin line when two consecutive
compartments are flooded.
Fire risk
The reason why fire risk incidents numbers are high is that ships most commonly operated
within an environment where the three elements constituting a fire triangle are present,
increasing such exposure to this risk. Casualties from fire incidents are low even though the
numbers of incidents are high, and the main reason for this is the rigorous way the SOLAS
Convention manages the risk of Fire. For example, the Ch. II-2 of SOLAS 1974 (Figure 4)
deals with mitigating fire risk by focusing on the location where the fire originates and
thereafter containing, controlling and extinguishing it in case of an outbreak.
Figure 4. Chapters in SOLAS 1974 and associated codes addressing “fire” as primary &
secondary risk codes
Regulation 2 of Chapter II-2 specifies five safety objectives with regards to a fire which is
prevention, reduction to risk to life, reduction to the risk of damage, contain, control and
suppress the fire and provide easy means of escape from spaces on fire.
Navigational risk
As evident from statistics of past marine incident databases, the navigational risk is at the
forefront of attention, especially when considering that a very extended number of incidents is
linked to this specific risk. This risk is most often associated with consequences such as
collision, grounding or contact damage. Incidentally, the collision of RMS Titanic with an
iceberg on the ill-fated night was also linked to a navigational risk. Figure 5 presents the
chapters in SOLAS 1974 addressing “Navigation” as Primary & Secondary Risk.
Figure 5. Chapters in SOLAS 1974 and associated Codes addressing “Navigation” as
Primary & Secondary Risk Codes
a. What is SOLAS?
The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) is an important
international treaty concerning the safety of merchant ships. It ensures that ships registered by
signatory States comply with minimum safety standards in construction, equipment and
operation of ships.
b. What is the main objective of the SOLAS Convention?
The SOLAS Convention aims to specify minimum standards for the construction, equipment
and operation of ships, compatible with their safety. Flag States are responsible for ensuring
that ships under their flag comply with its requirements, and a number of certificates are
prescribed in the Convention as proof that this has been done. Control provisions also allow
Contracting Governments to inspect ships of other Contracting States if there are clear grounds
for believing that the ship and its equipment do not substantially comply with the requirements
of the Convention. This procedure is known as Port State Control.
c. How was SOLAS adopted?
The first version of SOLAS was adopted in 1914 in response to the sinking of the White Star
Liner Titanic. It prescribed new international requirements dealing with safety of navigation
for all merchant ships which includes the number of lifeboats and other emergency equipment
along with safety procedures and continuous radio watches. However, the 1914 treaty never
entered into force due to the outbreak of the First World War. Further revisions were adopted
in 1929 and 1948.
The 1960 Convention was adopted on 17 June 1960 and entered into force on 26 May 1965. It
was the fourth SOLAS Convention and was the first major achievement for the International
Maritime Organization (IMO). It represented a considerable step forward in modernizing
regulations and keeping up with technical developments in the shipping industry.
The SOLAS 1974, as amended, entered into force on 25 May 1980. The Convention is the
version currently in force and it is unlikely to be replaced by a new instrument because of the
new tacit amendment procedure that is included in Article VIII. Still, the said Convention has
been updated and amended on numerous occasions, including the 1978 and 1988 Protocols.
d. What is the difference between SOLAS Protocol 1978 and SOLAS Protocol 1988?
SOLAS Protocol 1978 covers the important amendments pertaining to tanker safety and
pollution prevention particularly the requirement and acceptable exemption for inert gas
systems and the requirement for radar and steering gear control systems.
SOLAS Protocol 1988 covers the changes to SOLAS Chapter V, such as the details of the
navigational systems and equipment referred to in the records of equipment attached to the
certificates and also introduces a new Harmonized System of Survey and Certification (HSSC)
to harmonize two (2) Conventions, namely: the International Convention on Load Lines and
the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973 as modified by
the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL 73/78).
e. What are the general provisions of the SOLAS Convention?
The current SOLAS Convention consists of nine (9) Articles setting out the general obligations,
amendment procedures, followed by an Annex divided into fourteen (14) Chapters:
Chapter I – General Provisions
Chapter II – 1 – Construction-Subdivision and Stability, Machinery and Electrical Installations
Chapter II – 2 – Fire Protection, Fire Detection and Fire Extinction
Chapter III – Life-saving Appliances and Arrangements Chapter IV – Radiocommunications
Chapter V – Safety of Navigation
Chapter VI – Carriage of Cargoes
Chapter VII – Carriage of Dangerous Goods
Chapter VIII – Nuclear Ships
Chapter IX – Management for the Safe Operation of Ships
Chapter X – Safety Measures to Enhance Maritime Safety
Chapter XI-1 – Special Measures to Enhance Maritime Safety
Chapter XI-2 – Special Measures to Enhance Maritime Security
Chapter XII – Additional Safety Measures for Bulk Carriers
Chapter XIII – Verification of Compliance
Chapter XIV – Safety Measures for Ships Operating in Polar Waters
f. What are the surveys conducted under the SOLAS Convention?
The inspection and survey of ships is carried out by officers of the country in which the ship is
registered.
A passenger ship shall be subjected to the following surveys:
a. A survey before the ship is put in service;
b. A periodical survey once every twelve months; and c. Additional surveys, as the
occasion arises.
In the case of cargo ships, after the initial survey, the ship is subject to a subsequent survey:
a. Every two years in respect of life-saving appliances and other equipment;
b. Once every year in respect of radio installation; and
c. In respect of hull, machinery and equipment, at such intervals as the Administration
may consider necessary to ensure that the ship’s condition is satisfactory.
Other surveys include:
a. Surveys of life-saving appliances and other equipment of cargo ships;
b. Surveys of radio and radar installations of cargo ships; and
c. Surveys of hull, machinery and equipment of cargo ships.
After any survey of the ship, no change shall be made in the structural arrangements,
machinery, equipment, etc., covered by the survey, without the sanction of the Administration.
g. What are the certificates issued under the SOLAS Convention and their validity?
1. Passenger Ship Safety Certificate – 12 months
2. Cargo Ship Safety Construction Certificate – 5 years
3. Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Certificate – 5 years
4. Exemption Certificate - shall not be valid longer than the period of the certificates to
which it refers
5. Cargo Ship Safety Radio Certificate – 5 years
h. Are there exceptions to the applicability of the SOLAS Convention?
The SOLAS Convention shall not apply to the following:
1. Ships of war and troopships
2. Cargo ships of less than 500 gross tonnage
3. Ships not propelled by mechanical means
4. Wooden ships of primitive built
5. Pleasure yachts not engaged in trade
6. Fishing vessels
