Macroeconomics

Module 1: Economic growth, distribution, and

sustainability (5 hp)

Lecture 1. Introduction to economic growth (Unit 1)

Reading list:
The Economy 1.0: Unit 1, 2, 3 (3.1, 3.6, 3.10), 16 (16.1-16.2, 16.5-16.7), 19, 20.
Articles (in CANVAS)
Handout

Lectures (Niklas):
Mostly PPT presentations. Available in CANVAS (the day before the lecture).

Examination:
Literature seminar 1 (March 13), Literature seminar 2 (April 19), Written assignment.

Supervision (Marie-Therese):
Data management for the assignment.
The module begins with an introduction to long run economic
growth and related questions such as distribution of income,
living standards and sustainability.

This is followed by a review of concepts that are central to

analysing long-term growth such as aggregate savings, capital
accumulation and technological development.

The module also covers topics related to technological change

and its impact on the labour market and living standards.
Expected Learning Outcomes:

• Define and calculate levels and changes in material welfare over time and between
individuals as well as between countries.

• Explain the determinants underlying long-term economic growth.

• Explain how saving, technological change and population growth affect the distribution of
income in the economy and a country's material well-being the long-term.

• Explain the components of aggregate production and demand.

• Explain the interaction between the technological change and the labour market in the long
term and its consequences for living standard.

• Communicate orally and in writing the central concepts of the course in English.

• Discuss and problematize possible conflicts between economic growth and

social/environmental sustainability.
A. Introduction
 Measuring income and living standards
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) = A measure of the market value of the output
of final goods and services in the economy in a given period. Output of
intermediate goods that are inputs to final production is excluded to prevent
double counting.

• Usually expressed in per-capita terms (as an average income).

GDP per capita ≠ Disposable income

Disposable income = Total income – taxes + government transfers

Both are imperfect measures of well-being

 GDP growth rates

“Hockey-stick” curves represent the sustained rapid growth in

GDP per capita experienced by countries worldwide.
B. Inequality
 How unequal is the world?
1980 1990

2014

In Singapore, the richest country on the furthest right, the average incomes
of the richest and poorest 10% are $67,436 and $3,652 respectively.
In Liberia, the furthest left, the corresponding incomes are $994 and $17.
 Within and between country inequality
1,000 years ago, the world was “flat”. Today, there are large
differences both within and across countries.

While both types of inequality seemed to have increased,

differences in average income between countries are much
larger today than they were in the past.

We can link growing between-country inequality to the hockey-

stick diagram.
 Inequality and growth
For a very long time, living standards did not grow in any
sustained way. When sustained growth occurred it began at
different times in different places.

• The countries that took off economically a century or more

ago—UK, Japan, Italy—are now rich.

• The countries that took off only recently, or not at all, are
behind ……
C. “Hockey-stick” growth
 Timing of growth
Growth take-off occurred at different points in time for different
countries:

• Britain was the first country to experience sustained economic

growth. It began around 1650.
• In Japan, it occurred around 1870.
• The kink for China and India happened in the second half of the
20th century.
 The Technological Revolution
Technology = The description of a process using a set of materials and
other inputs, including the work of people and machines, to produce an
output.

By reducing the amount of work-time it takes to produce the things we

need, technological changes allowed significant increases in living
standards.

Remarkable scientific and technological advances occurred more or less

at the same time as the upward kink in the hockey stick in Britain in the
middle of the 18th century.
 The Industrial Revolution
Industrial Revolution = a wave of technological advances starting in
Britain in the 18th century, which transformed an agrarian and craft-
based economy into a commercial and industrial economy.

Technological progress also greatly improved the speed at which

information travels, making the world more connected.
 Environmental consequences

Increased production and population growth affects the environment

• Global impacts – climate change
• Local impacts – pollution in cities, deforestation

Technology may provide the solution

 Environmental consequences
These effects are results of both
• the expansion of the economy (illustrated by the growth in total
output)
• the way the economy is organized (what kinds of things are valued
and conserved, for example).

The permanent technological revolution may also be part of the

solution, by making it possible to use less resources to produce more
output.
D. Capitalism
 Economic systems and institutions
• Institutions: the laws and informal rules that regulate social
interactions among people and between people and the biosphere,
sometimes also termed the rules of the game.

• Economic system: a way of organizing the economy that is distinctive

in its basic institutions. Economic systems of the past and present
include: central economic planning (e.g. the Soviet Union in the 20th
century), feudalism (e.g. much of Europe in the early Middle Ages),
slave economy (e.g. the US South and the Caribbean plantation
economies prior to the abolition of slavery in the 19th century), and
capitalism (most of the world’s economies today).
 Capitalism
Capitalism = an economic system in which the main form of
economic organization is the firm, in which the private owners
of capital goods hire labour to produce goods and services for
sale on markets with the intent of making a profit. The main
economic institutions in a capitalist economic system, then, are
private property, markets, and firms.
 Key Concepts: Firms
• Firms = Economic organizations in which private owners of
capital goods hire and direct labour to produce goods and
services for sale on markets to make a profit.
• Other forms of economic organization coexist with firms in a
capitalist economic system, but they are not firms:
• Family or individual production (they do not hire others)
• Nonprofit organizations (they do not seek to make profit or
sell their output on a market)
• Cooperatives (labour is not hired, work is done by members)
• Government bodies (they do not seek profit; capital goods are
not privately owned)
 Key Concepts: Private Property & Markets
Private property = something is private property if the person
possessing it has the right to exclude others from it, to benefit from the
use of it, and to exchange it with others.
Capital goods = the durable and costly non-labour inputs used in
production (machinery, buildings) not including some essential inputs,
e.g. air, water, knowledge that are used in production at zero cost to
the user
Markets = a way that people exchange goods and services by means of
directly reciprocated transfers (unlike gifts), voluntarily entered into for
mutual benefit (unlike theft, taxation), that is often impersonal (unlike
transfers among friends, family)
 The Capitalist Revolution
Capitalism led to growth in living standards because of:

• impact on technology: firms competing in markets had strong

incentives to adopt and develop new technologies
• specialization: the growth of firms and the expansion of
markets linking the entire world allowed historically
unprecedented specialization in tasks and production

Together with the technological revolution, this increased worker

productivity.
 The gains from specialization
Specialization increases productivity of labour because we
become better at producing things when we each focus on a
limited range of activities
• learning by doing
• taking advantage of natural differences in skill and talent
• economies of scale

People can only specialize if they have a way to acquire the other
goods they need. In a capitalist society, this is done via markets.
 Comparative advantage

All producers can benefit by specializing and trading goods, even

when this means that one producer specializes in a good that
another could produce at lower cost.

Markets contribute to increasing the productivity of labour by

allowing people to specialize.
Did capitalism cause the hockey-stick growth?
Natural experiment: the division of Germany at the end of World War II
into two separate economic systems, capitalist in the west and centrally
planned in the east.
 Divergence in growth
Not all capitalist economies are equally
successful
• economic conditions: firms, private
property, or markets may fail
• political conditions: capitalist
institutions are regulated by the
government
• the government also provides
essential goods and services
(infrastructure, education)
 Political systems
Capitalism coexists with many political systems.

A political system determines how governments will be selected,

and how those governments will make and implement decisions.

In most countries today, capitalism coexists with democracy

• individual rights of citizens (e.g. freedom of speech)
• fair elections

But capitalism has coexisted with non-democratic systems, too.

Next lecture:

Technology, population, and growth (mainly Unit 2).