General pathology 396

Ecology and control of grapevine root diseases in

New Zealand: a review
D.C. Mundy

The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited Marlborough, Marlborough
Wine Research Centre, PO Box 845, Blenheim 7240, New Zealand
Corresponding author: dion.mundy@plantandfood.co.nz

Abstract Grapevine root diseases can result in economic loss during vineyard establishment.
Symptoms may not be noticed in vineyards until vines die. The death of young vines as a
result of root rots can be a point of contention between the grower and the nursery supplying
the plants. In New Zealand root diseases include black foot rot (caused by Cylindrocarpon
spp.), verticillium wilt (caused by Verticillium dahlia), phytophthora root rot (caused by
various Phytophthora spp.) and armillaria root rot (caused in New Zealand by Armillaria
novaezelandiae and A. limonea). Of these diseases, black foot rot is the most commonly
observed in the field in New Zealand and has received the most study. This review provides
information on symptoms, causal organisms, disease cycles and, where available, control of
grapevine root rots under New Zealand conditions.

Keywords root diseases, grapevines, management.

INTRODUCTION
Grapevine root diseases can cause whole plant in the soil at the time of planting (Graham 2007;
losses in vineyards, resulting in additional costs Jaspers 2013a,b).
of replacement vines and the management Root diseases can be managed through good
of mixed-age plantings. Grapevine root rots vineyard hygiene, especially with regard to infected
observed in New Zealand include black foot rot roots and residues (Jaspers 2013a). Vineyard
(caused by Cylindrocarpon spp.), verticillium wilt manipulations can also be used to prevent root
(caused by Verticillium dahlia), phytophthora disease, with drainage often the most useful cultural
root rot (caused by various Phytophthora spp.) control (D.C. Mundy, unpublished data).
and armillaria root rot (caused in New Zealand As infection sites are below ground, by the
by Armillaria novaezelandiae and A. limonea). time top symptoms are seen it may be too late
Root diseases are often a problem in nurseries to save the vine. Disease management options
(Graham 2007; Jaspers 2013b) and during vine are usually aimed at prevention and removal of
establishment in the vineyard (Gubler et al. infected grapevine tissue. This review summarises
2004). Anecdotally, the replanting of vines at the research that has been carried out in New
sites with a history of grape growing results in Zealand, the current information from the
higher losses of vines to root rots than in new literature available to vineyard managers, and
sites, and most of the management practices for information gleaned from sources such as PhD
root diseases aim to reduce the inoculum present theses and popular articles.

New Zealand Plant Protection 68: 396-404 (2015) www.nzpps.org

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General pathology 397

BLACK FOOT ROT Symptoms

This is a commonly identified disease of young The pathogen is soil borne and causes severe
vines in New Zealand, and has only been observed losses when grapevines are grown on susceptible
in vines in Marlborough since 2000 (D.C. rootstocks in heavy, poorly drained soils (Gubler
Mundy, unpublished data). Due to the relatively et al. 2004). The pathogen invades the roots of
recent reporting of this disease, it is not listed grapevines and quickly moves into the butt of
in “Compendium of Grape Diseases” (Pearson the rootstock, showing dark purplish or reddish
& Goheen 1988) or “Grape Pest Management” brown necrotic streaking (Bleach et al. 2013).
(Flaherty et al. 1992), which are the common The vascular tissue turns black and the xylem
reference texts for other root diseases of grapes in becomes occluded with fungal tissue, gums and
New Zealand. Lincoln University researchers and tyloses (Gubler et al. 2004). When young vines
others have remedied this gap by publishing on the are attacked, they die very quickly, but as the
pathogen, and on disease management for New vines age, infection results in a more gradual
Zealand winegrowers and the associated nursery decline and death may take more than 1 year to
industry (Graham 2007; Jaspers 2007; Bleach et al. occur (Gubler et al. 2004). However, death seems
2008; Shiller 2008; Probst 2011; Brown et al. 2012; to be inevitable when vines less than 10 years
Jones et al. 2012; Bleach et al. 2013; Brown et al. old are infected with C. destructans (Gubler et
2013; Jaspers 2013a,b). al. 2004) and vines up to 14 years old have been
In California, this disease of young plants has observed to succumb to the disease (D.C. Mundy,
become more widespread and serious since 1995 unpublished data). Purple discolouration of the
(Gubler et al. 2004). First reported in France in root tissue is common, but isolations are required
1961, black foot disease occurs in all the major to confirm the pathogen is present.
viticultural regions throughout the world, including
Italy, Portugal, Spain, South Africa, New Zealand, Causal organisms
Australia and California (Bleach et al. 2013). Young In New Zealand, C. liriodendri, C. macrodidymum
vines up to 8 years old are primarily affected by the and C. destructans have all been reported
disease. Because diseased plants must be removed, to produce disease when inoculated onto
the disease causes substantial economic losses from callused and rooted grapevines from rootstock
replanting costs (Gubler 2013). varieties 101-14 and 5C (Bleach et al. 2009).
Within Marlborough black foot rot is the most Cylindrocarpon parvum has also been shown
commonly identified root disease associated with to be pathogenic to grapes (Jones et al. 2012;
death of young vines. It is commonly observed on Brown et al. 2013). Bleach et al. (2009) found
vines with waterlogging or other stress factors such that callused vines had significantly greater
as frost damage of young vines under Marlborough disease incidences than rooted vines. Conidia,
conditions (D.C. Mundy, unpublished data). While chlamydospores and mycelia from all of the
vines as old as 14 years with black foot rot have been isolates were capable of infecting grapevines
observed in Marlborough, these vines were of low through wounded roots and callused basal ends.
vigour and had very restricted root areas. More In the Bleach et al. (2009) study, C. liriodendri
often, the disease is observed in vines 6 years old was consistently the most pathogenic species.
or younger (D.C. Mundy, unpublished data). One However, the genus Cylindrocarpon has since
case of 50% mortality of vines has been observed been reclassified and many of the old species
in Marlborough in a section of vineyard that was groupings are now shown to represent multiple
lower lying than the surrounding area and could species complexes (Cabral et al. 2011; Chaverri
not be drained (D.C. Mundy, unpublished data). et al. 2011; Cabral et al. 2012; Pathrose et
Other cases with up to 20% vine mortality have al. 2014). Within these complexes, different
been observed, but always with other factors such isolates have been reported to be more or less
as frost damage or waterlogging present as well as pathogenic than isolates from other complexes.
the disease (D.C. Mundy, unpublished data). Some infections can be achieved with very low

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General pathology 398

inoculum. Experimentally, concentrations of to the industry as a factsheet (Jaspers 2013a). Soil

10² spores/ml and 1 g of mycelium-infested wheat preparation for new plantings, using mustard
grains were capable of causing an infection on and addressing some drainage issues with
grapevines in potting mix (Probst 2011). Lincoln deep ripping to remove any compacted areas
University researchers have developed a rapid are all possible methods of control that can be
method of screening isolates for pathogenicity considered at pre-planting. Pre-planting is also
using detached grape roots (Pathrose et al. 2010). the easiest and most cost-effective time to insert
This method of screening maybe required to field drains to address any areas of poor drainage.
determine how pathogenic individual isolates are, The use of mycorrhizae on roots before
as research carried out before the reclassification planting did not provide consistent protection
may be hard to align to the newly-named species. against Cylindrocarpon, but it did increase root
and shoot growth (Bleach et al. 2008; Jaspers
Disease cycle and epidemiology 2013a). The use of mycorrhizae in conjunction
Cylindrocarpon species can persist as resting with other management options may be useful to
spores (chlamydospores) or mycelium in rotten growers as any one method is unlikely to provide
root fragments in the vineyard soils even after total control.
fruit or forestry host trees are removed (Jaspers In a number of cases in Marlborough, when
2013a). When vine roots come in contact with the replant problems have been observed with
fungus, infection can occur if conditions (such as continued cases of black foot rot, changes to the
wet soils and root wounding) are conducive. In soil physical environment have been required
New Zealand vineyards, grass grub larvae damage to produce successful re-establishment of vines
may provide wound sites for black foot rot or within the vineyard (D.C. Mundy, unpublished
other rot rots (Mundy et al. 2005). When insect data). For example, in the case of a vineyard
damage to the roots was observed in the field, planted on an old cherry site with a low area in
black foot rot symptoms were also often present. which vines were dying, drainage of that area
Non-symptomatic infections may also enter the prevented any further vine deaths at the site
vineyard on nursery plants (Bleach et al. 2013). (D.C. Mundy, unpublished data). At a hill site
Once infected plants are present in the vineyard, with drainage in place, the unblocking of the
asexual (conidia) spores allow the disease to field drain in the area of vine deaths prevented
spread from plant to plant within drainage water. any more vines succumbing to black foot rot
Carbohydrate reserves of vines may be important disease (D.C. Mundy, unpublished data).
during the infection stage as defoliation has been To prevent the distribution of infection in
reported to increase susceptibility of rootstocks nursery material, a number of control steps
to C. destructans (Brown et al. 2012). These can be taken. The current New Zealand wine
results have implications for over cropping of industry recommendations to reduce the
young vines during establishment. risk of nursery material contamination with
Cylindrocarpon species are to grow plants only in
Control well-drained soils; to rotate nursery beds to avoid
One of the best ways to control the disease is build up of inoculum; to use good sanitation
correct planting site preparation. The use of during grafting, including the use of fungicide
bio-fumigation of soils with mustard cover solutions; to wax-dip grafted joints on cuttings;
crops has been investigated under New Zealand and to sterilise callusing media before use
conditions for the control of this disease, with (Jaspers 2013b). Hot water treatment of dormant
significant reduction in inoculum (Bleach et al. harvested nursery vines at 50°C for 30 min can
2009). Recommendations on rates of mustard provide control without significantly reducing
seed to be applied to replant areas and timing for growth rate (Jaspers 2013b). In soils with heavy
turning in a cover crop have been made available disease pressure, partially resistant rootstocks

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General pathology 399

(e.g. Riparia Gloire, 3309 and 5C) can be used cropping history of alternative hosts for the
(Jaspers et al. 2007; Jaspers 2013b). pathogen (Flaherty et al. 1992). Infection of the
One of the problems in trying to control black vine occurs via the roots from soil inoculum
foot rot is detecting the pathogen in young vines that resulting from previous susceptible crops
are non-symptomatic. Two molecular tools have (Pearson & Goheen 1988). Once established in
been investigated as possible detection methods for the roots, the pathogen moves in the vascular
nurseries to determine if plants are infected with tissue up the vine, resulting in wilting or water
the fungi responsible for black foot rot and other stress symptoms (Flaherty et al. 1992). Symptoms
wood-based diseases (Shiller 2008; Weir & Graham occur from year 2 onwards and may range from a
2008). Their effectiveness as a standard field tool single wilted shoot to total vine collapse up until
for the detection of non-symptomatic infections in year 6 (Pearson & Goheen 1988). The delay in
young vines is yet to be determined. symptom expression could allow nursery stock
to be shipped without the disease having been
VERTICILLIUM WILT detected.
Symptoms As with many root diseases in vineyards, the
The external symptoms of verticillium wilt can main issue other than the cost of replacement
be similar to those of other diseases or stress, plants is the delay in bringing the vineyard to full
potentially resulting in misdiagnoses (Pearson & production. Vineyards with mixed-age plantings
Goheen 1988). Shoots and leaves wilt and die in during establishment require multiple passes for
mid-growing season, with characteristic brown-red vine management, which incurs additional costs
discolouration of the vascular tissue of the affected compared with conventional establishment in
areas. Leaves drop prematurely and fruit clusters fail New Zealand conditions.
to develop, then shrivel and mummify. Symptoms
range from one or two shoots on a vine to whole Control
plant collapse (Balasubramamiam et al. 1993). Infected vines that die should be removed. During
Symptoms are associated with restricted water 1999 to 2015 in the Nelson/Marlborough district,
movement in the vascular elements, so symptoms very few confirmed cases of verticillium wilt were
develop as the season progresses and water stress observed. At a site in Nelson, vines with poor
within the plant increases (Pearson & Goheen growth were removed and replacements planted
1988). Vines not killed may recover completely by the following year, with compost (to enhance
the following year. vine establishment) in each of the planting holes;
no new disease occurrences were observed the
Causal organism following season (D.C. Mundy, unpublished
The fungus V. dahlia Kleb. is the causal organism data). In one site in Marlborough, affected plants
and can be grown on potato dextrose agar if it were drenched with carbendazim fungicide
can successfully be isolated from the infected and returned to production the following
tissues (Pearson & Goheen 1988). Isolation from season. However, the vines succumbed in the
field samples has been more difficult than for following season and were removed (I.C. Harvey,
Cylindrocarpon species, and repeated isolations PLANTwise Services, personal communication).
may need to be made. If this disease becomes In California specific control of the disease is
more common in New Zealand, a molecular not practised, as few vines die and the vines that
detection method may need to be considered, but have symptoms but survive produce normally by
its occurrence currently appears to be infrequent. year 5 or 6 with no further symptoms (Pearson
& Goheen 1988). One method of control is the
Disease cycle and epidemiology avoidance of high-risk sites where the disease may
Verticillium wilt disease is often associated have been on another host (e.g. lucerne, potatoes,
with new plantings into green fields with a past fruit trees, berryfruits or tobacco). However,

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General pathology 400

Verticillium spp. causing wilt diseases have Causal organism

about 200 hosts worldwide and are very difficult Various Phytophthora species have been reported
pathogens to control (Balasubramamiam et al. as pathogens on grapes, including P. cactorum,
1993). In other crops such as olives, solarisation P. parasitica, P. cryptogea, P. megasperma and
and Trichoderma additions to soil have been P. cinnamomi. Of these P. cinnamomi has been
reported to reduce severity of verticillium wilt reported as the most virulent on grapes (Pearson
(Otero et al. 2014) and may be options under & Goheen 1988). These fungi are not restricted
New Zealand conditions. to grapevines as host plants and may be present
in the soil associated with other infected plant
PHYTOPHTHORA ROOT ROT material. There are no published data on the
Phytophthora root rot occurs in many grape- virulence of New Zealand Phytophthora species
producing areas of the world, but it is often against the rootstocks or own-rooted vines
considered a minor disease because of its low varieties used by the wine industry.
incidence and sporadic occurrence (Pearson &
Goheen 1988). This disease is often observed Disease cycle and epidemiology
in vineyards with standing water, or it can be The disease cycle will depend on which of
associated with vines where the drip irrigation is the Phytophthora species are present. Both
allowed to run down the side of the lower trunk P. megasperma and P. cinnamomi have been
(Flaherty et al. 1992). The disease is most often reported as pathogens of grapevines in California,
associated with young vines (Pearson & Goheen with slightly different optimum temperatures
1988). In Marlborough, cases of this disease have and wetness conditions for infection (Pearson
been associated with poorly drained clay slopes & Goheen 1988). Phytophthora spp. survive in
(D.C. Mundy, unpublished data). The disease soil as oospores. Direct contact with oospores
has been observed on single vines, or small areas in infected colonised roots is unlikely. The
of diseased vines have occurred where water most likely method of infection is by indirect
naturally pools during rainfall events. germination and zoospore production, which
then allows movement of zoospores in water
Symptoms films, resulting in root or crown infection as has
In poorly drained areas of the vineyard, infected been observed with kiwifruit (I.J. Horner, Plant
plants are stunted and appear stressed. Foliage & Food Research, personal communication).
often yellows and the vines defoliate prematurely.
Necrotic dark brown cankers are present on the Control
vine trunk at the soil line, extending up and/ The disease is unlikely to develop in vines
or down into the roots (Balasubramamiam that are not subjected to prolonged periods
et al. 1993). Unlike Armillaria spp., no white of excessive soil moisture (Pearson & Goheen
mycelium mat is present under the bark of the 1988). Avoidance of poorly drained soils
root crown (Flaherty et al. 1992). Girdling of or improving the drainage of areas where
the trunk at the ground level by the pathogen problems exist are recommended, preferably
will cause vine death (Balasubramamiam et al. before planting. Irrigation design to minimise
1993). Symptoms are most common in seasons saturation at the base of the plant is also desirable
following excessive irrigation or high rainfall (Balasubramamiam et al. 1993). Long-distance
(Pearson & Goheen 1988). Vines with early leaf spread of these pathogens can be aided by the
discolouration or fall may be suffering from movement of infested soil on farm equipment
this disease or another root rot, so digging up (Flaherty et al. 1992). Hence when deep ripping
of the root system is required to determine if a vineyard to provide drainage, equipment
the symptoms are a result of phytophthora such as bulldozers should be cleaned before the
root rot. earthworks start to minimise the introduction

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General pathology 401

to the site of contaminated soil residue from Symptoms

other actives such as horticulture clearance where Severe foliage wilting leading to rapid vine death
Phytophthora species may be present (I.J. Horner, may occur, or sometimes death can be much
Plant & Food Research, personal communication). slower, with the vine having stunted dark green
Judicious use of irrigation is also recommended leaves, which may then develop sunburn during
to reduce the spread of the disease in vineyards the season (Pearson & Goheen 1988). Cane
already infected (Flaherty et al. 1992). In studies growth becomes weaker and a general decline in
conducted in the Nelson region on apple orchards vigour is observed before collapse (Flaherty et
with drainage issues, the suggested methods al. 1992). Under the bark are white mats of the
of overcoming waterlogging and associated fungus (mycelium), which have a mushroom
disease issues were: ridging planting rows; soil smell (Pearson & Goheen 1988). These plaques
amendments to increase aeration, address of mycelium never appear on the outside of the
element deficiencies and adjust pH as required for bark (Flaherty et al. 1992). Black rhizomorphs can
individual soils; and removing water stress with develop on diseased roots, and honey-coloured
irrigation scheduling, which stops the top soil from mushrooms develop on some infected vines in the
becoming waterlogged (Griffiths & Horner 1991). autumn and early winter (Balasubramamiam et
Studies in South Africa have indicated that Paulsen al. 1993). The symptoms on the grape trunk are
1045, Paulsen 1103 and St George grapevine distinctive from those of other hosts. The mycelial
rootstocks are highly resistant to P. cinnamomi pattern in the grapevine occurs as striations in the
(Pearson & Goheen 1988). In the 1990s rootstocks white mat found between the bark and hardwood,
SO4, 5BB, 5C, 420A, 110R 3309 and 101-14 were whereas in other hosts the mat is solid.
extensively planted in California for Phylloxera
resistance but with little assessment of resistance Causal organism
to soil-borne pathogens (Gubler et al. 2004). No The fungus A. mellea (Vahl:Fr.) is the causal
New Zealand studies have been published, possibly fungus for this disease overseas (Pearson &
due to the low occurrence of this disease. However, Goheen 1988). However, this species is not present
rootstock selection may provide some control at in New Zealand. In New Zealand horticultural
sites at high risk of phytophthora root rot or other crops, the two main species are A. novaezelandiae
grape root rots. and A. limonea. These can be readily identified
by the presence of characteristic rhizomorphs,
ARMILLARIA ROOT ROT which no other fungi possess (I.J. Horner, Plant
Armillaria root rot can be a problem in vineyards & Food Research, personal communication).
that have previously been planted with fruit In Marlborough the one sample collected was
trees (Pearson & Goheen 1988; Horner 1991) or identified only to the genus level (D.C. Mundy,
shelterbelts (Horner 1987). The fungus has been unpublished data).
called the mushroom fungus, the shoestring or
bootlace fungus, the honey fungus and the oak root Disease cycle and epidemiology
fungus (Pearson & Goheen 1988). Most commonly Infection of susceptible roots results from contact
the disease results in the loss of only a few vines with infected woody plant material (Pearson &
at a time (Flaherty et al. 1992). In Marlborough a Goheen 1988). As the disease progresses, patches
single case was positively identified between 1999 of vines may die in a vineyard (Balasubramamiam
and 2015 at a site with a large number of shelter et al. 1993). These will often progress down the
trees and a high water table. In this case, only two row as root-to-root contact allows the disease to
vines died of the disease and further spread was spread. In older vineyards, spread across rows
stopped by removing the infected vines. In other is also possible where roots make contact
regions of New Zealand where mixed horticulture (Pearson & Goheen 1988). Deep tilling can also
is more common, the risk of armillaria root rot move the infected roots in a vineyard, resulting
may be higher. in disease spread.

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General pathology 402

Control In New Zealand, methyl bromide is banned

In the past in California, the use of methyl for soil fumigation, and other methods of
bromide reduced the problem in blocks coming soil treatment are required if a vineyard
out of fruit tree production (Pearson & Goheen block is deemed to be high risk. The use of
1988). However, in New Zealand and other Telone C35 and chloropicrin soil fumigants,
countries the widespread use of methyl bromide which are alternatives to methyl bromide,
is banned for soil fumigation. Fumigants can were not successful at reducing vine deaths
have limited success because of the ability of when investigated at two previously used
the pathogen to survive on dead roots at depth grapevine nursery sites (Bleach et al. 2008).
for prolonged periods of time (Pearson & New fumigants are under investigation for
Goheen 1988) so the removal of root residues other crops in New Zealand, such as the
is an important step in an intergrated approch carrot industry (Horner et al. 2010), and
to reduce disease risk. If a susceptible host is research from these crops maybe useful to
present at a site of vineyard development then the wine industry. Fumigation would need to
checking the residues during the clearance phase be cost effective or, as is the case with carrots,
of development may provide an indication if many growers may choose not to fumigate,
Armillaria is present (Pearson & Goheen 1988). as the cost is greater than the perceived
Options for control are limited at a site that has risk from root rots. Use of fumigants in
the fungus. Hence in New Zealand it has been vine propagation with higher densities of
recommended to remove and dispose of infested vines and the reuse of soils from season to
vines; avoid planting susceptible areas such as season may be more economically rewarding.
along or near old tree rows; and if planting in The use of biofumigants that can be grown
risk areas, to use biological drenches (of active on site and worked into the soil without the
saprophytes) to decay residues or soil fumigation cost of contractors and fumigation chemicals
with registered products (Balasubramamiam provides another option for the wine industry
et al. 1993). Two commercial New Zealand (Jaspers 2013a). Biofumigants for black foot
Trichoderma products that could be trialled rot may also be useful for other root diseases,
as biological drenches are Growchem DRH but these studies under New Zealand conditions
(Novachem 2015a) and Agrimm Technologies are yet to be conducted. In the longer term,
Limited VinevaxTM (Novachem 2015b). rootstocks with resistance or tolerance may
However, neither product is currently registered be an option for sites that have a high risk
to control armillaria root rot. of root disease during establishment.
In summary, with the aging of many
CONCLUSION New Zealand vineyards and the replacement of
Black foot rot has been the most commonly vines in existing vineyards following removal
observed root disease during the rapid expansion because of trunk disease or virus infection, root
of the Marlborough wine region from 1999 to rot issues may become more common.
2015 (D.C. Mundy, unpublished data). With
a slowing of new plantings and a change to ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
maintenance of existing plantings, the other This work is part of the New Zealand Grape
root diseases outlined here may become more and Wine Research programme, a joint
common. Alternatively, with new plantings investment by Plant & Food Research and NZ
moving into areas that have previously been Winegrowers. Megan Gee of Plant & Food
considered marginal, root rot issues may change Research was instrumental in preparing the
in occurrence. However, regardless of which references for the paper. Ian Horner and Ian
grapevine root rot is to be managed, site selection Scott of Plant & Food Research provided
and good drainage are common themes. feedback on the manuscript.

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General pathology 403

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