Summary

An Introduction of Sociolinguistics

Part I

Arellano Nicole, Lozada Camila, Marfetan Deneb and Parco Christian

UNIVERSIDAD TÉCNICA DE AMBATO

Pedagogía de los Idiomas Nacionales y Extranjeros

Sociolinguistics

4 th Semester

Mg. Ana Vera

October 13th, 2023

 Introduction

Knowledge of language

Language is the instrument that unites the whole world, but what is language?

Language is what the members of a given group or society speak using codes (use of

speech to communicate), systems (knowledge of each speaker), among others. According

to Chomsky, human beings use language according to their competence, that is, what they

know about their language and not what they do with their language (performance).

Variation

When we speak of variation in a language, we mean that no two people speak the

same way and that they have boundaries that can be precisely described. It also refers to

identity (race, ethnicity, gender, religion, etc.), group membership, power and

socialization. In addition, power plays an important role in society, as certain groups

possess a gifted language that affects, controls or influences other languages.

Scientific Investigation

Scientific research determined some problems of organization and uses of

language in which Saussure and Chomsky stand out. Saussure establishes a difference

between langue (collective knowledge of language) and parole (individual use of

language), while Chomsky identifies the superficial features of utterances and the deep

realities of language.

Language and society

According to Chomsky there are four possible relationships between society and

language: the first is that social structure can influence linguistic structure and behavior,

the second that linguistic structure and behavior can influence social structure, the third

that language and society can influence each other, and the fourth that there is no

relationship between language and society.

Sociolinguistics and Sociology of Language

It is first necessary to define the word sociolinguistics which is the study of how

language is used in society and this gave rise to several researches. Some researchers

claimed that it was necessary to distinguish between the social structures that influence

the way people speak, called micro sociolinguistics, which also correlates with social

class, gender and age, and the changes that society introduces into each language, called

macro sociolinguistics.

Languages and Communities

Languages, Dialects, and Varieties

Everyone knows what language they speak and the dialects (difference between

types of languages with different vocabulary and grammar) they use. In addition, the

use of the terms dialect and language are ambiguous terms, as their meaning varies from

person to person. People who are uneducated or who know very little about the true

meaning of these terms use them very freely and believe that it is only a local variety. A

language that has different variants can go through a process of standardization by

referring to the elimination of those varieties that distinguish them from each other.

Another point to consider is that in a society there is power and solidarity, but one

always has more advantage over the other, being generally the power the one that has

more influence either by social or economic status, that is why a language dominates or

covers more space than a dialect.

Regional Dialects

Regional dialects are variations of the same language that are distinguished by

pronunciation, words and syntax. This variation is due to the different geographical

locations where the same language is spoken. Many regional dialects have disappeared

over time, but others have been preserved because the younger inhabitants consider them
to be part of their identity. In addition, there can be two types of variations in a language:

dialect and patois, both with significant differences, as patois is spoken by people who

lack economic resources and have a low social status and who also live in rural areas with

a small geographical extension, while dialect covers larger geographical areas and is

usually spoken by people who have a middle socioeconomic class.

Social Dialects

Social dialects are used by associated groups depending on their race, religion or

social class. This last aspect (social class) seems to affect the language as such, since its

determination gives rise to the use of both dialects and patois. Dialects can be identified

more frequently in the urban area than in the rural area because in the urban area there

are more people of different origins and some of them migrants.

Styles, registers and beliefs

Dialects may vary according to the style of speech, which may be formal or

informal depending on the situation, which may depend on age, occasion or social

status. Another term used in reference to language is the register (set of linguistic

elements associated with different occupational or social groups) used by people who

are exposed to recurrent language use and make variations in their language such as

intonation and the use of different vocabulary. Language can have different dialects,

styles and registers that are different from each other and can be used at the same time

in the same situation and be distinguished from each other. On the other hand, each

person has his or her own criteria and beliefs based on language since, as mentioned

before, this term can be ambiguous.

Pidgins And Creoles

UNESCO defined lingua franca as language which is used habitually by people

whose mother tongues are different to facilitate communication between them’. For

example, Greek koiné and Vulgar Latin were in widespread use as lingua francas.

Pidgin is a language with no native speakers: it is no one's first language but is a contact

language. The process of pidginization involves at least three language, one dominant.

On the other hand, a creole is defined as a pidgin that has become the first language of a

new generation of speakers.

Origins

Pidgins from very different parts of the world show remarkable similarities in

structure, even when the standard languages with which they are associated are very

different. The first theory is the idea that pidgins arise because the people among whom

they are found lack the ability to learn the standard languages with which pidgins are

associated. However, these ideas were considered racist because non-European languages

were considered deficient.

The polygenesis theory argues that Pidgins and Creoles have diverse origins. The

similarities between pidgins and creoles are due to the common circumstances of their

origins. For example, English speakers have had to make themselves understood to trade,

and those who traded with them have had to make themselves understood.

There are also monogenetic theories. The monogenetic hypothesis of afrogenesis suggests

that the similarities between Pidgins and Atlantic Creoles are due to African rather than

European influence. The argument is that the African languages of African slaves

contributed greatly to the formation of these languages. Another monogenetic hypothesis

says that the similarities between pidgins and creoles may be due to a common language
among sailors, a kind of nautical jargon, which developed due to the diversity of

nationalities in the ships' crews.

The relexification theory suggests that all current pidgins and creoles based on European

languages derive from a single source, a lingua franca called sabir used in the

Mediterranean in the Middle Ages. In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Portuguese

relexified sabir by introducing their own vocabulary into its grammatical structure.

Bickerton (1981) offers an alternative theory with his linguistic bioprogram theory. He

claims that creoles are created by children who are born into a multilingual environment

in which the most important language for peer contact is a pidgin and children are forced

to develop that language because each child has a bio-programme to develop a full

language.

Distribution

Pidgin and creole languages are distributed mainly, though not exclusively, in the

equatorial belt around the world, usually in places with direct or easy access to the oceans.

Consequently, they are found mainly in the Caribbean and around the north and east

coasts of South America, around the coasts of Africa, particularly the west coast, and

across the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Their distribution appears to be closely related to

long-standing patterns of trade, including trade in slaves.

Hancock (1977) lists 127 pidgins and creoles. Thirty-five of these are English-based.

Another fifteen are French-based. Fourteen others are Portuguese-based. Seven are

Spanish-based; five are Dutch-based; three are Italian-based; six are German-based; and

the rest are based on a variety of other languages. There are countries or areas that are

almost exclusively Spanish-speaking e.g., the Dominican Republic. Others have only

English-based creoles, e.g.Grenada. Others have only French-based ones, e.g.,

Martinique. Some have both, e.g., Dominica and Trinidad. Aruba and Curaçao have
Portuguese-based creoles, and the US Virgin Islands has a virtually extinct Dutch-based

creole.

Characteristics

The sounds of a pidgin or creole are likely to be fewer and less complicated.

Likewise, pidgins are comfortable without inflections. In pidgins and creoles there is

likely to be a complete lack of inflection in nouns, pronouns, verbs, and adjectives. Nouns

are not marked for number and gender, and verbs lack tense markers.

The development of embedded clauses, e.g., of relative clauses, is one characteristic of

the process of creolization: pidgins do not have such embedding. The use of particles, that

is, usually small isolated words, is also quite frequent.

The vocabulary of a pidgin or a creole has a great many similarities to that of the standard

language with which it is associated. It is sometimes necessary to use this reduplicative

pattern to avoid possible confusion or to express certain concepts, e.g., ‘repetition’ or

‘intensification.’

From Pidgin to Creole

Pidginization is the linguistic contact among speakers of different languages.

Occurs because of the need to communicate. Most pidgins are lingua franca that

eventually becomes a creole. On the other hand, creolization occurs when a pidgin

becomes the variety of language. Is used by middle and lower social class. Decreolization

occurs when the standard language makes a variation or influence on the creole language.

According to Bickerton, there are three different parts of creole. Arolect is creole language

spoken by middle social class, educated people. It has a few differences from standard

language. A basilect is a creole language spoken by lower social class, illiterate people

and this language is hard to understand. Finally, a mesolect is a creole language spoken

by lower-middle and urban working class.

Codes

Code is a language or a variety of a language that some people use a private code

to protect certain secrets. You can shift from one code to another.

Diglossia

A diglossic situation exists in a society when it has two distinct codes which show

clear functional separation. In each situation there is a ‘high’ variety (H) of language and

a ‘low’ variety (L). Each variety has its own specialized functions. It appears to be a

persistent social and linguistic phenomenon.

High varieties may be used for delivering sermons and formal lectures, for giving political

speeches, for broadcasting the news on radio and television, and for writing poetry. The

Low varieties may be used in giving instructions to workers in low prestige occupations

or to household servants, in conversation with familiars, in ‘soap operas’ and popular

programs on the radio.

People living in a diglossic community do not usually regard diglossia as a ‘problem.’ It

becomes a problem only when there is a growth of literacy, or when there is a desire to

decrease regional and/or social barriers, or when a need is seen for a unified ‘national’

language.

Bilingualism and Multilingualism

Monolingualism, that is, the ability to use only one language. While,

Multilingualism is the use of more than one language. Bilingual and multilingual people

are normally immigrants, visitors, or children of mixed marriages. It means being able to

interact freely with the speakers of other languages.

Code switching

Switching from one code to another or to mix codes even within sometimes very

short utterances and thereby create a new code is a process known as code-switching.
Code-switching can be an individual choice or an important identity marker for a group

of speakers who have to deal with more than one language in their common activities.

The actual choice can be very important, especially if the relationship between languages

is changing at the same time. Linguistic negotiation has to do with judgments about

personal treatment, social knowledge, relationships, social differences, group boundaries,

and ways to signal them. The choice of code becomes a form of political expression.

Situational code-switching occurs when the languages used change according to the

situations. The interlocutors speak one language in one situation and another in a different

one. One variety of codes is used in a certain set of situations and sometimes are so

socially prescribed that they can even be taught.

Metaphorical code-switching occurs when a change in subject matter requires a change

in the language used. Some topics can be covered in both codes, but the choice of code

gives a different flavor to what is said about the topic.

The purpose of code switching involves talking about a particular topic, being empathetic

and maintaining neutrality in a conversation. Accommodation is about adjust verbal and

non-verbal communication to optimize the comfort of others. People in films may adjust

their speech. While audience design proposes a change of linguistic style in response to

the audience, so speakers adapt primarily to their target audience.

Speech Communities

Language is consider an individual and social possession, while people who speak

the same language, dialect, variety and code are considered to have the same speech

community.

Intersecting communities

Indicates that people have same idea or thought of how a ‘typical’ person from

other place speaks of a particular areas’ speech community. Each residential community
has its unique multilingual mix that is why a person may belong at any time to many

different groups. So, any person always speak in the same way on very occasion.

Networks and Repertories

Is to show how an individual communicate and relates to other individuals in

society and it allows us to how sometimes individual interacts with other. There are 3

types of Networks a dense network that is occurs when the individuals you know and

interact with also know and interact with each other. A loose network is when the person

we interact with does carry out any additional interaction with other people. Multiplex

network is about people make it up are united in more than one way, through work and

social activities. There are some of the differences that affect individual variation in

speech such as religion, gender, nationality and psychological differences. Speech

Repertoire controls several varieties of one language or two or more languages

Language Variation

Saying that people of a single language occasionally use multiple dialects of that

language is one way of characterizing certain variations

Religions Variation

Regional Variation it is spoken in different geographical areas and there are several

regional dialects in each place and speakers become a distant from each other in time and

space that is why dialects become new languages. Dialect geographers have traditionally

attempted to reproduce their findings on maps and it’s called dialect atlas which showed

the geographical limits of the distribution of a linguistic feature.

The linguistic variable

It’s serious attention to such matters as stating hypotheses, sampling, the statistical

treatment of data, drawing conclusion and relating the conclusion. It’s consider a

linguistic item with identifiable variants such as morpheme “ing” indicates the present
continuous tense on verbs, also in phonological for example “pin” or “pen” and grammar

(s) in 3rd person singular verbs

Linguistic and Social Variation

Gender, age ethnic group and educational level is affected by the use of language.

It’s is very easy to relate the occurrences of the variants of a linguistic variable to factors

such as the occupational scale can divide people into large professionals and executives

of large companies; small professionals; technicians; skilled workers, and unskilled

workers. Also, an educational scale may employ some categories such as graduate;

college or university degree; attendance at college or university of formal education.

Data Collection and Analysis

Process and challenges involved in collecting and analyzing data for sociolinguistic

invest.

Some Findings and Issues

An Early Study-Fischer’s Study (1958)

Fischer's 1958 study focused on the (ng) variable in pronunciation, comparing

forms like "singing" [ŋ] to "singin’" [n]. The history of both variants spans centuries, with

stigmatization of [n] primarily occurring in the 19th and 20th centuries. Fischer

interviewed young children in various formal and informal situations, finding that boys

used more -in’ forms than girls in formal settings. He compared the language use of a

'model' boy (well-behaved) and a 'typical' boy (mischievous), showing differences in their

preferences for -ing and -in’ endings. The study indicated that the choice between these

variants was influenced by factors like sex, class, personality, mood, formality of

conversation, and the specific verb being used. Fischer's study was simple, with a small

sample size and informal data collection methods, lacking statistical testing or profound

claims.
Preferences for -ing and -in’ endings, by sex

-ing > -in’ -ing < -in’

Boys 5 7

Girls 10 2

New York City-Labov’s study

Labov's work in New York City is a pioneering effort in quantitative studies of

linguistic variation. He began by investigating the (r) variable, studying its usage in

different social class groups and levels of formality in speech. Labov found that r-

pronunciation after vowels was being reintroduced into New York speech more among

younger people and in formal speech situations, particularly at the ends of words. He

observed differences in the use of (r) among employees in department stores catering to

different social class groups. One of Labov's significant findings was the relationship

between social class and the use of r-pronunciation. He noticed that individuals in the

middle social class were more likely to change their pronunciation as they aged, possibly

due to social aspirations. Labov emphasized the shift in the prestige of r-pronunciation in

New York City over the years and its association with the upper middle class, although

its value and usage have varied historically.

Labov also studied the (th) variable, analyzing the pronunciation of initial consonants in

words like "thing" and "three." He found distinct usage patterns based on social class and

style of speech, showcasing a clear stratification between working-class and middle-class

groups in linguistic behavior.

Norwich and reading

Trudgill (1974) conducted a study in Norwich, England, investigating sixteen

phonological variables and their relation to social class and formality of speech. He

highlighted that higher social class individuals tend to use certain phonological variants
([ng], [t], [h]) more frequently than lower social class individuals, especially in specific

words. The use of these variants was also influenced by gender, with females showing a

greater preference for [ng] than males. Trudgill emphasized the inverse relationship

between social class and nonstandard variant usage, as well as the greater incidence of

nonstandard variants in less formal speech styles.

In a separate study in Reading, England, Cheshire (1978) focused on the (s) variable,

examining its extension to all persons in verb marking. She studied three groups of boys

and girls, finding that the use of nonstandard forms varied based on peer-group influence

and linguistic constraints. Vernacular verbs were more likely to take the nonstandard -s

ending. Cheshire identified social factors affecting variation, including ambition and

peer-group status, and noted that girls exhibited different patterns of usage compared to

boys, adapting more to Standard English norms in formal settings. The use of nonstandard

forms, reflecting local loyalty and covert prestige, was seen as a part of a personal

linguistic process.

Belfast

The Milroys conducted a study in working-class areas of Belfast, Northern

Ireland, focusing on the relationship between linguistic norms and social networks. They

identified two types of norms: vernacular norms, symbolizing values of solidarity and

reciprocity, and middle-class norms, associated with wider social standards. The study

covered three communities: Ballymacarrett (Protestant, low male unemployment, close

male relationships), the Hammer (Protestant, high male unemployment, weaker social

networks), and the Clonard (Catholic, high male unemployment, weaker social networks).

Using a participant-observer technique, Lesley Milroy became part of the studied

communities. They analyzed linguistic variables and found significant correlations

between linguistic usage and network strength, especially in Ballymacarrett. The stronger
the social network, the greater the use of certain vernacular linguistic features, particularly

the vowel in words like "hat," "man," and "grass," and the deletion of the fricative "th"

sound in words like "mother" and "brother."

Controversies

Wolfram and Fasold (1974) present data on the deletion of final stops in clusters

among black speakers in Washington, DC, showing how multiple factors or constraints

interact to affect the distribution of a linguistic variable. Constraints may include

phonological, grammatical, and social features. The discussion highlights the complexity

of linguistic variation and the challenges of predicting specific linguistic behaviors using

variable rules.

The concept of variability in language is examined, including criticisms and alternative

perspectives proposed by Bailey and Bickerton. They propose a dynamic model where

individual lects form a continuum, each with specific linguistic features. Variation is seen

as an inherent property of language, and understanding it challenges traditional

competence-performance distinctions in linguistic theories. Recent studies utilizing

linguistic variables have enriched our understanding of language by demonstrating that

variation is systematic, influenced by various factors, and intimately tied to language

change. The relationship between synchronic (descriptive) and diachronic (historical)

aspects of language is emphasized, highlighting the interconnectedness of linguistic

phenomena across time and context.

Change

The Traditional View

This section discusses two main types of language change: internal change and

external change. Internal change involves alterations within a language's structure,

affecting phonology, morphology, and syntax. Changes can be either phonemic

coalescence (losing a contrast) or phonemic split (gaining a contrast). This approach

emphasizes structural consequences and contrasts between linguistic elements.

External change, on the other hand, occurs through borrowing from other languages or

dialects. Borrowed elements may initially appear idiosyncratic or marked, often

describing "exotic" objects or scientific terms. Different languages and cultures have

varying attitudes towards borrowing, with some being more discerning than others.

The traditional linguistic perspective values internal change more than external change,

focusing on how languages evolve and differentiate over time. It often adopts a "family

tree" model, emphasizing sharp distinctions between languages or varieties, with splits,

losses, or coalescence at specific points in time. However, a more fluid approach,

considering waves and diffusion of changes throughout a language, offers valuable

insights into the process of language change, challenging traditional views.

Changes in Progress

The passage discusses the distinction between variation and change in language.

Not all variations in language lead to change; some variations are long-term and stable.

Factors such as socio-economic class, age, and gender affect the distribution of these

stable linguistic variables over time. On the other hand, language change is progressive

and linear, with examples given, such as the Great Vowel Shift and the Northern Cities

Shift in English.

The passage also delves into how linguistic changes spread through space, influenced by

factors like population density and the influence of large population centers, often

following a gravity model of diffusion. It discusses how physical barriers, national

boundaries, and social identity can influence the diffusion of language changes.

The study of language change often involves analyzing variations across age groups.

However, it is essential to differentiate between actual linguistic change and age-graded

variation, where speech patterns are influenced by age groups and may not represent long-

term linguistic change.

The Phenomenon of Linguistic Changes

Age-grading is a phenomenon where people tend to adopt language patterns that

are typical of their age group. For example, people may adopt language patterns to be like

a higher social group or to mark themselves off from outsiders.

Gender can also play a role in linguistic changes. For example, women may be more

likely to adopt new language patterns than men, or they may be more likely to use

language that is associated with politeness or deference. Recent emphasis on equality

between men and women may also affect language use. Linguistic changes are a natural

part of language evolution, and they can provide insights into how language is used and

how it reflects social and cultural changes over time.

Labov suggests that there are two basic kinds of change: Change from below is

systematic, unconscious change: Change from below is unconscious and away from

existing norms. Some observers believe that in societies such as our women may be in

the vanguard of the first kind of change and men in the vanguard of the second, because

women and men have different motives.

Language Behavior and Social Change

Eckert's research on 'jocks' and 'burnouts' in a suburban Detroit high school

demonstrates the impact of lifestyle and social identity on linguistic changes. The

distinction between these groups was not solely based on social class or gender but

reflected ideological allegiance. Jocks, often with middle-class aspirations, leaned

towards linguistic conservatism, while burnouts, associated with the working class,

actively participated in linguistic changes, particularly the Northern Cities Shift (NCS).

The linguistic differences were more pronounced among girls, suggesting the need for
establishing identity and social position within their communities. The study emphasizes

how variation in language arises from individuals' engagement with their communities

and their ways of constructing meaning in their lives.

 References

Wardhaugh, R. (2006). An introduction to sociolinguistics. Blackwell Publishing.

https://humanaseducaciononline.uta.edu.ec/pluginfile.php/121568/mod_resource/conten

t/1/Book.pdf?redirect=1