Oral Communication

DR. FatimaZahraBOUTABSSIL
1 Oral communication introduction.pptx
2 Levels of communication, week 3.pptx
3 Giving an effective presentation, week 3.pptx
4 Giving oral presentations.pptx
5 S2 Oral communication, verbal vs non-verbal communication.pptx
6 Barriers of communication.pptx
7 Listening in interpersonal communication.pptx
8 Perception in oral communication.pptx
9 models of interpersonal communication.pptx
10 Culture in interpersonal communication.pptx
11 The self in interpersonal communication.ppt.pptx
12 Universals of interpersonal relationships.pptx
13 Conflict in interpersonal relationships.pptx
14 power in interpersonal relationships, ppt.pptx
1 Oral communication
Prof. BOUTABSSIL
18/03/2024

Week 2:
Introduction to communication
Basics of communication
Elements of communication
Types of noise
• What is communication?
1.Keith Davis: Communication is a process of passing information and understanding from
one person to another.
2. John Adair: Communication is essentially the ability of one person to make contact with
another and make himself or herself understood.
3. William Newman and Charles Summer: Communication is an exchange of ideas, facts,
opinions or emotions of two or more persons.
4. Louis Allen: Communication is a bridge of meaning. It involves a systematic and
continuous process of telling, listening and understanding.
5. Peter Little: Communication is a process by which information is transmitted between
individuals and / or organizations so that an understanding response results.
6. Murphy, Hildebrandt, Thomas: Communication is a process of transmitting and receiving
verbal and non-verbal messages. It is considered effective when it achieves the desired
response or reaction from the receiver.
• What is communication?
1.Keith Davis: Communication is a process of passing information and understanding from
one person to another.
2. John Adair: Communication is essentially the ability of one person to make contact with
another and make himself or herself understood.
3. William Newman and Charles Summer: Communication is an exchange of ideas, facts,
opinions or emotions of two or more persons.
4. Louis Allen: Communication is a bridge of meaning. It involves a systematic and
continuous process of telling, listening and understanding.
5. Peter Little: Communication is a process by which information is transmitted between
individuals and / or organizations so that an understanding response results.
6. Murphy, Hildebrandt, Thomas: Communication is a process of transmitting and receiving
verbal and non-verbal messages. It is considered effective when it achieves the desired
response or reaction from the receiver.
• Communication is the art and process of creating and sharing
ideas.
• Communication relies on the perception and the delivery of
the information.
• It is the process of sending and recieving information to share
meanings.
• Communication= transmission of messages, sharing of
meaning= comprehension of messages.
• Communication= exchange of information, comprehending the
message.
• The word commnication comes from the greek word
communis which means common. This leads to the conclusion
that communication cannot be effective if the parts
communicating do not understand each other.
• Communication then could be defined as the process of
exhanging information, opinions, emotions
 Objectives of communication
• To be received (heard or read);
• To be understood;
• To be accepted;
• To get action (change of behaviour or attitude)
- When we fail to achieve any of these, we have failed to
communicate. This can often lead to frustration and the
communication process will fail.
 Elements of communication

Sender
Message: encoding
Channel or
Decoding the medium

Encoding or sending Reciever

feedback Decoding
 Elements of communication
1)- Sender:the sender is the person who sends the message,
initiates the conversation, or conveys an idea or a concept to
others.
• The sender encodes the idea by selecting words, symbols or
gestures to compose a message.
2)- Encoding: means a communicator reviews all the available
symbols or actions that could represent the thought selects the
most appropariate ones. The person then selects a channel to
send words or actions to other communicators.
 Elements of communication
3)- Message: It is the outcome of the encoding which
takes the form of verbal, non-verbal or written
communication.
4)- Channel: The way through which a message is sent,
it is the medium or the carrier of communication. The
medium can be a face-to-face conversation, telephone
call, e-mail, or written report. The receiver decodes the
received message into meaningful information.
5)- Decoding: applying meaning and understanding the message
that has been sent. Decoding of the message is as integral to
communication as encoding it. Decoding refers to the process of
giving meaning to the encoded message. It can also be referred
to as extracting the embedded meaning or interpreting what was
encoded by the sender. The ability of the receiver in decoding
the message correctly is decisive in understanding the message
in its holistic sense.
• Feedback: Feedback consists of messages the receiver returns, which
allows the sender to know how accurately the message has been
received, as well as the receiver's reaction. Feedback allows the sender
to regulate, adapt or repeat the message in order to improve
communication.
• Context: All communication is influenced by the context in which it
takes place. However, apart from looking at the situational context of
where the interaction takes place, for example in a room, office, or
perhaps outdoors, the social context also needs to be considered, for
example the roles, responsibilities and relative status of the
participants. The emotional climate and participants' expectations of
the interaction will also affect the communication.
 Communication basics
• Each communication experience is an opportunity to demonstrate your
willingness to work with others. Appropriate words and actions make
you appealing to strangers and open social/professional doors that lead
to friendships, employment and personal growth. There are three basics
of communication:
- Communication is two-way process;
- Communication can be intentional or unintentional;
- Communication occurs even when the interpretation does not match
the original intent (communication occurs whether is it interpreted
correctly or incorrectly. When the meaning is interpreted incorrectly, it
is called miscommunication, but it is communication nevertheless.
 Types of noise
• Personal noise refers to the ongoing thoughts in ours minds.
1)- Prejudice: It occurs when we prejudge, or have a
preconceived, often negative view of someone or something. If,
for instance, you have biases against small towns, you may have
a negative impression of anyone from a town with a population
of less than 3000.
 Types of noise
2)- Closed-mindedness: it occurs when we refuse to listen to
another person’s point of view. Many people who believe they
are right refuse to listen to any information that conflicts with
their own beliefs. This position harms the communication
process.
3)- Self-centered noise: it occurs when we focus more on
ourselves than on the other person. It basically refers to the lack
of attention the communicators pay to each other.
 Types of noise
• 1. Physical (external) noise interferes with communication
• Physical noise is interference that is external to both speaker and listener; it
hampers the physical transmission of the signal or message.

• Examples of physical noise:

• loud party at the neighbors while you’re trying to record

• loud kids who don’t want to take their nap
• irritating hum of your computer, air conditioner, or heater.
 Types of noise
• 2. Physiological noise interferes with communication
• Physiological noise is created by barriers within the sender or receiver.
• Examples of physiological noise on the podcaster’s side:

• articulation problems
• mumbling
• talking too fast
• talking too slow
• forgetting to pause
• forgetting to breathe
 Types of noise
• Psychological (internal) noise interferes with communication
• Psychological noise is mental interference in the speaker or listener.
• Three examples of psychological noise are wandering thoughts, preconceived ideas, and
sarcasm.
• “WANDERING THOUGHTS” CAN BE A KIND OF PSYCHOLOGICAL NOISE
• This is primarily a listener problem. If you’re trying to communicate a concept in your
podcast, “wandering thoughts” is an obstacle because your listener may be distracted and
have difficulty keeping up with you. This is often a problem when talking about abstract
ideas.
• Sometimes as podcasters, we cause a listener’s thoughts to wander, especially if we talk too
fast, too
 Types of noise
• Semantic noise interferes with communication
• Semantic noise is interference created when the speaker and listener have different meaning systems.
• Maybe when I use a word, you have a slightly different meaning in mind. This can cause confusion.
• JARGON CAN BE SEMANTIC NOISE
• Jargon is a fantastic linguistic shortcut. If everyone listening agrees and understands the terminology, then
jargon makes communication quicker and clearer.
• However, if listeners have different definitions of the terminology, then jargon becomes noise. This is especially
noisy to people outside your particular job or field.
• ABSTRACT IDEAS CAN BE SEMANTIC NOISE
• Another kind of semantic noise is when your words and sentences are nebulous or ambiguous.
 Basic communication principles
• Below are four principles to keep in mind when thinking
about communication:
1- We cannot not to communicate: everything we do is
received and interpreted by someone.
2- Communication is irreversible: if say or do something, you
can’t take it back.
3- Communication is a continuing process: the bits of
communication we collect become part of our circumstances
and affect our future communication. By being more aware of
our goals and surroundings, we can improve our
communication style and learn other perspectives. (adapting
the message to different life situations).
4- Communication involves ethical considerations: ethics are
moral principles that guide judgements about good and bad,
right and wrong, not just effectiveness or efficiency…
 Oral communication
2 Prof. BOUTABSSIL
Week 3
25/03/2024

Levels of communication
 Levels of communication
1- Interpersonal communication:
• Interpersonal communication is the process by which people exchange
information, feelings, and meaning through verbal and non-verbal messages: it
is face-to-face communication.
• .Interpersonal communication just means the exchange of information between
two or more people. As long as you are communicating with another person,
you're involved in interpersonal communication.
• Interpersonal communication is not just about what is actually said - the
language used - but how it is said and the non-verbal messages sent through
tone of voice, facial expressions, gestures and body language.
 Levels of communication
2. Mass communication:
Mass communication is a more public form of communication
between an entity and a large and diverse audience, mediated by
some form of technology. Examples: Radio and television,
newspapers and magazines
• “Public communication transmitted electronically or
mechanically.”
Levels of communication

Newspapers
Magazines
Advertising
Films
Radio
Television
 Levels of communication
Mass media: plural form of medium, a means to send messages.
When we meet someone we have a face to face conversation.
But when we talk about a mass medium like television, it is not a
face to face conversation. There is a mass or a large of people
watching it.
• The first medium used to communicate with people was the
news paper. News had to be collected, compiled, edited and
printed in advance and then sent to people to read them.
 Levels of communication

• Functions of mass communication

• Educate
• Entertain
• Inform
 Levels of communication
3)- Intercultural communication is the
sending and recieving of messages across
languages and cultures.
• Communication must be placed in a
framework of understanding. That framework
is based on assumptions from our home
culture or any other cultures that we are in
contact with.
 Organization communication
4)- Organizational communication is the
sending and receiving of messages among
interrelated individuals within a particular
environment or setting to achieve individual and
common goals.
• Organizational communication is highly
contextual and culturally dependent. Individuals
in organizations transmit messages through face-
to face, written, and mediated channels.
• Organizational communication indicates communication not only in
business but also in hospitals, churches, government agencies,
military organization, and academic institutions. Every organization
whether business or non-business has some specific goals and
stakeholders. Attainment of those goals depends on successful
communication with the respective stakeholder groups.
• organizational communication can include superior to
subordinate, co-worker to co-worker, and frontline to
customer/client/guest, to name a few. These interactions
can happen face-to-face, over the phone, or electronically.
 Intrapersonal communication
5)- Intrapersonal communication concerns the
messages we send to ourselves. Some scholars define it
as talking out loud to one’s self. Intrapersonal
communication often is said to include one’s self-view as
a mediator of intrapersonal processes and as an outcome
of interpersonal communication= how we communicate
with oneself defines how we communicate with others.
• Intrapersonal communication refers to internally
communicating with yourself/inner dialogue/self talk
 Small group communication

6)- Small group communication refers to interactions among

three or more people who are connected through a common
purpose, mutual influence, and a shared identity.
 Small group communication
• While our interpersonal relationships primarily focus on
relationship building, small groups usually focus on some
sort of task completion or goal accomplishment. A college
learning community focused on math and science, a
campaign team for a state senator, and a group of local
organic farmers are examples of small groups that would
all have a different size, structure, identity, and
interaction pattern.
 Public communication
7)- Public communication occurs when a
communicator informs, persuades, and/or
entertains a group of people. Speakers have an
organized message and an official audience, and
they prepare for the event. Public communication
comes in the form of shcool assemblies, oral
presentations, political speeches, a keynote address
at a conference…
 S2 Oral Communication
3 Prof. BOUTABSSIL
Week 3
25/03/2024

Delivering a successful presentation

Planning the message
 Planning the message
Stage 1:Write down your purpose
- It is always a good idea to write down (preferably in one or two
sentences) exactly what you are trying to achieve by your
message. You will then have it always before you to help you to
organise your material and avoid straying from the point.
 Planning the message
Stage 2: Assemble the information
Using notes on paper or notes on your laptop, especially if it is to be a fairly
long message like a report or oral presentation. Jot down all the ideas or
points which you think you need to make.
At this stage, you only need to select the essential, relevant information and
reject the irrelevant, however much you feel tempted to include it.
Questions to ask:
Is this really relevant to my message?
Does my audience really need to have this information if they are to
understand my message? Will this help me to achieve my purpose?
 Planning the message
Stage 3: group the information
Rewrite your notes in clear groups. It helps to give each group a
heading. The groups will become paragraphs or sections in your
finished message and the heading could either remain as a heading
or contain the gist of each group and will therefore help you to
compose the main sentence of a paragraph, often called the topic
sentence.
Remember that all paragraphs should contain only one main idea. All
the other materials in the paragraph should become supporting
materials.
 Planning the message
Stage 4: Put the information into logical sequencing
- Chronological order or historical order: it is the most
common method, which merely presents the material in the
order in which it occured in time. On occasions, presenting
the material chronologically is the most appropriate order to
adopt, but don’t use this method without some critical
thought. Since most of the things we need to write about in
business have a time sequence, there is always a temptation
to use this method even when it is the not the most
appropriate. Always try to look for some other logical link
between the sections of your material.
 Planning the message
InductiveVs deductive reasoning:
• Order of importance: descending order of importance (or deductive order),
starting with the most important point to gain the reader’s attention,or
ascending order of importance (or inductive order): starting with the least
important point.
• Ascending order of complexity: simpler ideas first followed by increasingly
difficult or complex material.
• Descending order of familiarity: moving from the known to the unknown.
• Cause and effect: put simply, cause and effect means « because of this, this
happened ».
• Topical (thematic): it consists of dividing the presentation topic-by-topic if
no link takes place between the chunks of material.
 Planning the message
Stage 5: Produce a skeleton outline
By working through the previous four stages, you will have
produced, in effect, a plan or a skeleton outline of your finished
message. It is essential to produce this plan which you can then
use to work from. It will then make the job of writing easier and
the receiver’s job of understanding you much easier.
 Planning the message
Stage 6:Write the first draft
Now you are ready to start writing. Write the first draft to
yourself. Don’t worry at this stage about the style and the words.
Many people think that starting to write is the most difficult
barrier to get through. However, if you have done the necessary
planning, including some thoughts on what you are going to put
in the introduction, the main body and the conclusion, you will
probably find that words themselves come much more easily.
 Planning the message
Stage 7: Edit the rough draft and write the final draft
Once you have written the first rough draft, you must put
yourself in the shoes of your receiver. Read your draft through
their eyes, checking for ambiguities, errors, awkward
expressions, lack of signpost words (first, second, on the other
hand, consequently) which are essential to guide your reader
along the route of your argument and above all, aiming for a
concise, easily understood style.
 Qualities of a good public speaker
- Clarity: to be a good public speaker, you need first and foremost to
be able to express your ideas clearly. Your language should be
simple and your material organized so that it can be followed. You
should avoid trying to impress by using long complicated words. Of
course, you may have to use specialized vocabulary or jargon,
however, you should also take care to explain any terms that may
be unfamiliar to your audience.
- Clear speaking stems from clear thinking; it also means uttering the
words distinctly so that they are easily recognisable.
 Qualities of a good public speaker
• Accuracy: as a speaker, you should also make sure that the
words you use say exactly what you mean. You therefore need
a reasonably wide vocabulary so that you can choose the
words with precise meanings to suit your purpose.
• The facts you use should also be correct, so you should take
care to research your subject thoroughly and ensure that any
authorities you quote are reliable.
 Qualities of a good public speaker
- Empathy: always be courteous and friendly, even when people do
not agree with what you are saying. This helps you to understand
them better. Therefore, facial expressions and tone of voice are
obviously important here, especially in group discussions and
interviews.
- Sincerity: this means being natural. There is always a danger when
talking to people of higher status of becoming stiff and awkward, and
trying to put on an act. This usually stems from a lack of self-
confidence. Of course, when you talk to your boss, you would not
talk the same way you would when you talk to a friend, but try to be
yourself as much as you can in all situations.
 Qualities of a good public speaker
• Relaxation: the best way of getting rid of these unusual speech
characteristics is to relax. When your muscles are tense, we
have difficulty expressing ourselves naturally. Awkward
movements are also the result of tension.
• Remind yourself to breath, otherwise, you’ll end up holding
your breath without even realizing it.
 Qualities of a good public speaker
• Conviction: the audience wants facts, but more than that, they
want to know your attitude towards those facts; they need to
feel you have a sincere belief in what you are saying and a
sincere interest in them-the audience.
• Enthusiasm: real conviction breeds enthusiam. If you are
listless and half-hearted, so they will be.
• Power of speech: speak with controlled power. Be positive,
avoid weak phrases like « in my humble opinion, please bear
with me », « forgive me ».
 S2 Oral Communication
Week 3
Prof. BOUTABSSIL
4 25/03/2024

Giving an oral presentation

 Killer hooks to grab your audience’s attention
• It is all about how you start the presentation.
• It is very important to give a good « first impression » by
attracting your audience’s attention.
• Speakers would use stories, jokes, or ask a question to their
audience in order to involve them in the conversation.
• However, it is always better to find your own way of attracting
your audience.
 Tell the audience what you are about to do
• After the hook, the speaker needs to tell the audience about the
purpose of the presentation.
• Before starting the presentation, audience analysis should be
performed in order to determine whether specific basic terms need
to be defined before approaching the core topic/ concept.
• This is very important if you do not want to lose your audience’s
attention and interest somewhere in the middle of everything.
• Let your audience know how you are going to proceed.
 How does the audience relate to your topic?

• A good speaker will try to figure out how the audience will
benefit from the presentation or the topic discussed.
• It is always good to let the audience know that the
presentation has been tailored to fit their expectations or their
needs.
 Be methodical!
• Provide an outline (layout) of your presentation in which evey
concept to be discussed is included.
• Use a logical flow or transition from one idea to the other.
• Visual aids can be helpful to give more visibility to the topic
discussed.
 Leave your audience hungry for more… (reiterate
and energize step)
• Indicate that your speech is coming to an end.

• Do not use expressions such as « in conclusion », « to sum up »,

« to reiterate ».

• Be subtler, finish the presentation even when it is at its peak or

when the audience expects it least to end.

• Have a short period of time to answer your audience’s questions.

 Guide
• Use appropriate volume of speaking: look for cues in your
audience to check whether your volume of speaking is
appropriate.
• Develop an oral conversational style by choosing the right
pitch, volume, intonation and rate.
• You need to sound « said » not « read ».
• Use appropriate prononciation and articulation
 Guide
• Use eye contact with the entire audience.

• Through non-verbal communication (eye-contact), the speaker

can figure out whether or not they are doing a good job in
delivering the messages to their audience.
 Guide

• Use appropriate facial expressions, gestures, posture, and

movements: animated and enthusiastic physical behaviors
usually engender a positive response. They make the speech
more interesting to listen to and easier to understand, they
also show that the speaker cares about the topic.
• Relax and let your facial expressions and gestures be
spontaneous reflection of your inner state of thinking and
feeling.
 Guide
• Use minimal vocalized pauses is simply a bad habit.
• Record yourself on audio or videotape, and see if you use too
much pausing or distracting vocalized pauses.
• Avoid distracting mannerisms like playing with your hair,
scratching your head, or other forms of mannerisms…
 S2 Oral communication
Prof. BOUTABSSIL
5 Week 4
01/04/2024

VerbalVs Nonverbal communication

OralVs Written communication
ListeningVs Hearing
 Introduction
• Words are only a part of our communication. We have three
channels- our words, our tone, and our body language. A study
published in the British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology
shows that we do not use the three channels equally. Our use of
these channels breaks down as follows:
- 7% words;
- 38% voice tone;
- 55% body language
• Therefore, 93% of our total communication relies upon aspects
other than the words we use, hence, the term nonverbal
communication.
 Verbal communication
• Verbal Communication is a type of oral
communication wherein the message is
transmitted through the spoken words. Here the
sender gives words to his feelings, thoughts, ideas
and opinions and expresses them in the form of
speeches, discussions, presentations, and
conversations.
 Verbal communication
• Effective verbal communication involves more than just the
choice of words.
• The five C’s for an effective communication:
1. Clear: make the message very clear. Allow questions from the
recipient to ensure you are understood.
2. Concise: your message has to be straightforward, to the point,
and as clear as possible to not make your recipient lost in your
words.
 Verbal communication
3. Consistent: transmit your message in a consistent, accurate,
and an organized manner. Convey facts as they are without being
dramatic or trying to be impressive.
4. Credible: know what you say. Credibility means sincerity. Make
sure your message is real.
5. Courteous: words and phrases like « hello », « hi », « thank
you », « please, « excuse me », are all effective ways to
demonstrate respect.
 Verbal communication
• The effectiveness of verbal communication depends on the tone of the
speaker, clarity of speech, volume, speed, body language and the quality
of words used in the conversation. In the case of the verbal
communication, the feedback is immediate since there are a
simultaneous transmission and receipt of the message by the sender and
receiver respectively.
• The sender must keep his speech tone high and clearly audible to all. The
sender should always cross check with the receiver to ensure that the
message is understood in absolutely the same way as it was intended.
Paralanguage ( tone, volume, intonation…)
Clarity of speech
The importance of feedback
Cross-checking
 Non-verbal communication
• Non-Verbal Communication is the process of
conveying meaning without the use of words
either written or spoken. In other words, any
communication made between two or more
persons through the use of facial expressions,
hand movements, and gestures is called as non-
verbal communication.
 Non-verbal communication
• Non-verbal communication in the form of signals,
expressions add meaning over the verbal and help
people to communicate more efficiently. It
supplements whatever is said in words, such as
people nod to acknowledge and move their hands
to give directions.
 Non-verbal communication
• Non-verbal communication is a natural and unconscious
language that reveals your true feelings and intentions.
• All of the non-verbal behaviour, the gestures you make, the
way you sit, how fast or loud you talk, how close you stand to
others, whether or not you make eye-contact, send strong
messages.
 Four functions of nonverbals
• There are four basic functions of nonverbal communication:
- They can substitute a verbal message;
- They can emphasize a verbal message;
- They can contradict a verbal message;
- They can regulate messages
 Four functions of nonverbals
• Nonverbals help us to communicate in a variety of ways. First, they can substitute for a
verbal message. It is far easier to point to something than explain where it is.
• Secondly, nonverbals can emphasize a verbal message. We can use a hand gesture to make
a verbal statement more grandiose. Think of the times you have seen someone emphasize
how big something was with a hand gesture for emphasis, « It was THAT BIG ».
• Third, we have to be careful of contradicting our verbals with our nonverbal. Sometimes, it
is a nervous reaction to smile while telling very bad news. The conflicting messages are
confusing and can undermine our credibility.
• Finally, we use nonverbals to regulate conversation. We use eye contact to let someone
know when it is their turn to talk, or we put up a hand to stop someone from interrupting us.
 Consistency between verbal and non-verbal
affective cues: a clue to speaker credibility.

• Listeners are exposed to inconsistencies in

communication; for example, when speakers' words (i.e.
verbal) are discrepant with their demonstrated emotions
(i.e. non-verbal). Such inconsistencies introduce
ambiguity, which may render a speaker to be a less
credible source of information.
 Forms of non-verbal communication
• Eye contact: Whether or not eye contact is made, who makes it
and how long it lasts vary tremendously in meaning. In many
Asian cultures, avoiding eye contact is seen as a sign of respect.
However, those in Latin and North America consider eye
contact important for conveying equality among individuals. In
Ghana, if a young child looks an adult in the eye, it is
considered an act of defiance. OCCULESICS
 Forms of non-verbal communication
• Body movement: Gestures can convey wildly different
meanings. Individuals in the United States use the “OK” sign to
convey that something is acceptable. In Japan, the same hand
symbol means “money.” Argentinians, Belgians, the French and
the Portuguese all use the symbol to mean “zero” or “nothing.”
Still other countries in eastern Europe consider that same sign
an offensive swear. KINESICS
 Forms of non-verbal communication
• Physical Space: Countries that are densely populated generally
have much less need for personal space than those that are
not. The Japanese, for example, are less likely to react strongly
to an accidental touch by a stranger than Americans. Less
personal space is also needed in areas such as Latin America,
and, in the context of one-on-one conversations, the Middle
East. Proxemics
 Forms of non-verbal communication
• Haptics is the study of touch as a form of nonverbal
communication. Touch is used in many ways in our daily
lives, such as greeting, comfort, affection, task
accomplishment, and control. You may have engaged in a
few or all of these behaviors today.
• In the United States, it is common for someone to pat a
child’s head an as affectionate gesture. However, in some
Asian countries, this might be inappropriate because they
believe that the head is a sacred part of the body.
 Forms of nonverbal communication
- Chronemics: time communication is the study of the way that individuals and
cultures use time. Our use of time sends messages about our character. Whether we
intend these messages or not, people will perceive things about us and make
assumptions about us based on our use of time.
- Edward Hall (1966) described two constrating ways to treat time. Monochronic
cultures structure time into discrete units (minutes and hours) and treat it like an
object. In these cultures, people save time, make time, and have time. Activities are
scheduled one at a time and in a linear sequence. Monochronic cultures
compartementalize time, and people are disoriented if they have to focus on too many
things simultaneously.
- Polychronic cultures plan many things at once, but time is unstructed and informal.
People in polychronic cultures don’t feel pressured by time. If a person is two hours
mate, no one cares. Tasks are completed no matter how much time they take.
 Forms of nonverbal communication
• Smell communication (olfatics): Smells are strong nonverbal
messages. We use smell to communicate messages about
ourselves, our homes, our office, our vehicles. We choose
pefumes, colognes, deodorants, laundry detergents, aftershaves,
shampoos, conditionners and other products based on their smell.
Aromatherapy is a field of study where people research how smell
affects our moods and stress levels.
• The problem is that people perceive smells differently. What if the
receiver has allergies to the smoke lingering on your clothes, a
perfume you’ve chosen…?
 Forms of non-verbal communication
• Facial Expressions: Winking is a facial expression particularly
varied in meaning. In Latin America, for example, the gesture is
often considered a romantic or sexual invitation. The Yoruba
people in Nigeria wink at their children if they want them to
leave the room. And the Chinese consider the gesture rude.
 Forms of non-verbal communication
• Posture: Posture can convey power structures, attitudes and levels
of civility. Slouching in Taiwan is considered disrespectful, while
other parts of the world may not think much of it one way or
another. In America, standing with hands on the hips may suggest
power or pride, but in Argentina, it may suggest anger or a
challenge.
• Many cultures also frown upon showing the bottom of the shoe,
something that is considered dirty. Therefore, sitting with the foot
resting on the opposite knee is strongly discouraged in places such
as many Arab countries.
 Non-verbal communication
• Paralanguage: “Paralanguage” refers to factors of speech such as accent,
pitch range, volume or articulation. In Britain, for example, people use
volume to convey anger, while in India, they use it to command attention.
Japanese women make a point of raising the pitch of their voices to
differentiate themselves from men. In America, voice pitch between
genders remains comparably the same.
• The use of and attitude toward silence can also be considered a type of
paralanguage. The Greeks use silence as a way to refuse things, while
Egyptians use it to consent. Some cultures (such as those in Asia) are
generally more comfortable with long bouts of silence than others.
 Non-verbal communication
• All these facets of non-verbal communication are also called meta-
communication.
• The Greeck word « Meta » refers to « beyond » or « in addition to ».
• Metacommunication is very powerful as it accompanies verbal messages.
• Metacommunication can offer clues. (inconsistencies may show whether
what you say contradicts what you do).
• Interpretation may also depend on the context and the situation in which
communication is taking place.
• Therefore, in order to communicate effectively, the context needs to be
taken into consideration. Exchanging messages with other parts relies on
analyzing the context rather than assuming.
 Oral communication
• Oral communication is a process whereby information is
transferred from a sender to a reciever usually by verbal means
which can be supported by visual aids, discussions, speeches,
conversations, through the radio, tv, internet, telephone…and the
reciever could be an individual, a group or even an audience.
• « The ability to compose, critically analyze, present and deliver
information through verbal interactions ».
• « Information spoken by mouth, the use of speech ».
• « The art of expressing, exchanging, and delivering ideas in
speech ».
 Oral communication
• Oral communication therefore involves two crucial skills:
listening and speaking.
Listening Vs. hearing: Hearing, which is merely the physical
ability to hear sounds, occurs unconsciously. Listening is to hear
something mindfully. Effective listening requires you to listen
intently and pay close attention to the speaker. If you do not pay
full attention or miss part of the message, you cannot replay
what has been said unless you have recorded the message or
lecture.
 Oral vs Written communication
• Written communication:
✓Formal
✓Planned
✓Detailed
✓Official
✓Elicits a response after lapse of some time
 Oral communication
• Oral communication:
➢More spontaneous
➢More direct
➢Less formal
➢Elicits a promt response
 Basic oral communication skills
• Asking questions;
• Listening skills; (active listening)
• Providing feedback that has impact;
• Receiving feedback with grace and dignity;
The inconsistencies between verbal and nonverbal communication.
What do you think ?

Ambiguity
Credibility

The end
 S2 Oral communication
6 Prof. BOUTABSSIL
Week 5
08/04/2024

Barries of oral
communication
 Barries of communication
• A communication barrier is anything that comes in the
way of receiving and understanding messages that
one sends to another to convey his ideas, thoughts,
or any other kind of information. These various barriers
of communication block or interfere with the message that
someone is trying to send.
 Barriers of oral communication

• A skilled communicator needs to have information about the

different types of barriers to effective communication and try
to prevent them. These barriers to effective communication
can be overcome by active listening and reflection.
• The communicator must seek feedback from the receiver of
the information to check if the message was understood in its
true sense. The context is also to be taken into consideration.
 Shyness
• Shyness: is the tendency to feel awkward, worried, or tense
during social encounters, especially with unfamiliar people.
Severely shy people may have physical symptoms like blushing,
sweating, a pounding heart or upset stomach; negative feelings
about themselves; worries about how others view them; and a
tendency to withdraw from social interactions.
 Anxiety
- The way shy people feel will have a direct impact in their day-
to-day interaction with the outside world.
- Anxiety can hinder one’s skills.
- Anxiety can influence competence; interesting speeches can
turn to be a total failure if anxiety takes over the speaker.
 Self-esteem
• The way people evaluate themselves will influence their social
image and behaviour.
• People with high self-esteem are willing to take risks because
they believe they can succeed.
• People with low self-esteem anticipate failure and take few
chances.
• High self-esteem comes from success.
• Success comes from failure.
 Marginality
• Marginalization can be a barrier to social interaction and behaviour.
• To be marginalized is to be excluded by members of society.
• Marginality can be understood as the experience of disadvantaged (typically
involuntarily) people or groups who are excluded from the resources and
opportunities they need to participate as full and equal members of society.
• This experience may be based on one’s demographic identity, such as race,
ethnicity, gender, religion, sexual orientation, sexual identity, and it could also be
based on circumstances, such as chronic illness, physical ability, one’s profession,
and the intersections therein.
• Marginality influences what people can achieve and limits their abilities to take
advantage of the resources and opportunities afforded to non-marginalized peers.
Furthermore, marginalized individuals and groups are often politically,
economically, and/or socially vulnerable, as their susceptibility to harm is greater,
often due to their exclusion from critical resources.
 Barries of oral communication
• Using Jargon: over-complicated, unfamiliar and/or technical terms.
• Differences in perceptions: the way we view the world- past experiences-
age- nationality- culture-education- occupation- sex (gender)- status-
personality;
• The Difference in Culture: Social interactions have different norms in
different cultures. For example, the idea of space exists in some cultures
and social settings but not in the same form in others. These cultural
differences could prevent effective communication.
 Barriers to communication
• Jumping to conclusions: (officially the jumping conclusion
bias, and also referred to as the inference-observation
confusion) is a psychological term referring to a
communication obstacle where one "judge[s] or
decide[s] something without having all the facts; to
reach unwarranted conclusions".
 Barriers to communication
• Stereotyping: Most people have preconceived
notions about many things; hence they hear only
what they want to listen to, not what is being
said. These false assumptions and stereotyping
lead to barriers in communication.
• Lack of knowledge: (do communicators have
equal knowledge about the subject?).
Discrepancy in the level of knowledge between
communicators can prevent effectiveness. BIAS
 Barriers to communication
• Lack of interest: (interest and level of engagement defines
effectiveness). (make the message as appealing as possible).
• Difficulties in self-expression: conveying effective message
relies on selecting the appropriate vocabulory. Lack in self-
confidence can cause difficulties in choosing the right words.
This can however be prevented by extensive planning and
preperation.
• Incompetent discourse (invention, memory, language…)
 Barriers to communication
• Clash of personalities: we may not be able to change the
personalities of others, but at least we have to assume that
others are indeed different.
• Adjustment and adaptation can reduce the risk of
misunderstanding and thus contribute to effectively
communicate.
 Overcoming barriers?
• Effectiveness? Ask six questions before communicating:
• Why: what is the purpose of communication?
What is the reason behind speaking or writing? What
impact do I want to achieve?
What does my audience need to know?
 Overcoming barriers?
• Who (receiver): Who exactly is my audience? Characteristics:
their age, education, status, personality? How are they likely to
react? How much do they already know about the subject?
How much do they still need to know?
• Where and when (place and context): situational and social
contexts to be taken into consideration.
 Overcoming barriers?
• What? (subject): what exactly do I want to convey? How I am going
to say it? what information can I omit? How can I be concise,
constructive, clear, corect, courteous, complete? (The six Cs of
effective communication)
• How? (tone and style): How am I going to communicate my
message? Words, pictures, or both? What is appropriate medium
of communication? How effective will it be in conveying the
message?) How will I organize the points I want to make?
Deductively or inductively? How am I going to achieve the right
effect)? (which tone, pitch, intonation will make my messages more
effective?)
 S2 Oral communication
Prof. BOUTABSSIL
7 Week 6
15/04/2024

Listening in interpersonal
communication
 The importance of listening
• Listening is fundamental in communication. In a sequence of
communication, more than half of the process includes
listening (Dinu, 2000). But not all the receptive behaviours that
refer to or involve listening are similar.
• Such behaviours can be ranged on a continuum from simple
hearing to active listening.
• The latter involves a form of activism on the part of the
receiver (full decoding of the message and providing an
eloquent feedback in this regard).
 The importance of listening in communication
• According to Devito (2009), effective listening comprises five
components as shown in Figure 2.2 below:

Understand Remembe
recieving ing ring

Responding Evaluating
 The importance of listening in communication
Hearing which is merely the physical ability to hear sounds
occurs unconsciously.
Listening is to hear sounds mindfully. Effective listening requires
you to listen intently and pay close attention to the speaker.
If you miss a part of the message, you can’t replay what has been
said.
 Listening process
• Receiving: in listening, receiving does not start and end with
just hearing a sound. However, it involves deriving meaning to
sound. When your listen, you concentrate on the verbal as well
as non-verbal messages. This invovles reading gestures, body
language, and facial expressions.
• Understanding: this is the stage where you learn to decipher
the meaning as well as pick up clues from the emotional tone
of the speaker.
 Listening process
• Remembering: listening also involves remembering interpreted sounds or
messages and saving for a later use. However, recalling 100% of the
information is impossible and hard.
• Evaluating: to evaluate is to make a judgment about the message
received. This can be done unconsciously. In some other times, you might
want to identify the listener’s intentions and motives. You may want to
decide whether the speaker has a personal agenda, or is biased and
prejudiced.
• Responding: responses are feedback based on what you have heard. You
can respond while the speaker has stopped speaking. In responding, you
allow the speaker to know what you think or feel about what he has said.
 Types of listening
• Listening:
• There are two types of listening : passive and active. The difference between them is
the level of involvement of the listener.
• In passive listening, you listen passively, at a low level of concentration and absorb the
minimum number of words. Very often, you remember, or understand, very little of
what has been said. You may respond to the speaker by smiling or nodding but do not
pay full attention to him/her.
• Active listening involves a higher level of concentration. You listen actively at school,
university or work, when you need to obtain information.
 The importance of listening in communication
• Listening fulfills several functions in communication:
1. Encouragement to others: when others note that you listen to
them in a non-threatening manner, they in turn lose some or all
of their defensiveness and will usually try to understand you
better by listening more effectively to you; thus, your effective
listening often results in making others good listeners.
 The importance of listening in communication
• Possession of all information: to solve problems and make
decisions more effectively. It is necessary to obtain as much
relevant information as possible. Good listening helps you to
get as much information as the speakers processes. Your
careful listening will usually motivate them to continue talking
as possible, you are in a position to make accurate decisions.
 The importance of listening in communication
• Improved relationships: effective listening usually improves relationships
between people. It gives the speaker the opportunity to get facts, ideas and
hostile feelings off their chest. You will understand them better as you listen; they
appreciate your interest in them, and friendship may therefore deepen.
• Resolution to problems: disagreements and problems can best be solved when
individuals listen to each other. This does not mean that they must agree with
each other’ point of view. Everyone wants understanding, and there is no better
way of expressing this quality than through sensitive listening.
• Better understanding of people: listening carefully to others will give you clues on
how they think, what they feel is important and why they are saying what they
are saying. By understanding them better, you will be able to work with them in
better conditions.
 The importance of listening in communication
• Verbal signs of active listening include:
1- Positive reinforcement: by using words such as « indeed »,
very good », « yes ». The best positive reinforcement is when the
listener elaborates or explains why he/she is agreeing with a
certain point transmitted by the speaker.
2. Questioning: which means asking relevant questions and/or
making statements that build or help to clarify what the speaker
has said. By questioning, the listener reinforces that he/she is
interested in what is being said.
 The importance of listening in communication
3. Remembering key points, names, details, and concepts from
previous conversations proves that the attention of the listener
was kept through the process and the messages have been
received and understood.
4. Reflection, by repeating and paraphrasing what the speaker has
said, is a powerful skill that demonstrates attention and
understanding, and shows the comprehension of the listener.
 Verbal signs of active listening
5. Clarification: by using open questions which enable the speaker to
explain or expand on certain points, shows that the listener ensures
that they received the correct messages or meaning.
6. Summarization: repeating, usually by your own words, a summary
of what has been said back to the speaker. Such a feedback, through
the reiteration of the message in a summarized, logical and clear way,
not only demonstrates attention and understanding, but also gives
the speaker the chance to correct some points whenever necessary.
 Non-verbal signs of active listening
• Eye contact: which can show to the speaker that the listener is
paying attention. Too much eye contact can be intimidating,
especially for more shy speakers. That is why, eye contact
should not be too long and should be combined with other
non-verbal signs of listening.
• Smile can also be used to show that the listener is paying
attention, combined with nods of the head, smiles can be used
as signs that the message is listened and understood.
 Non-verbal signs of active listening
• Posture is another important way to communicate feedback in
interpersonal interactions. An attentive posture may include
that the body is leaned slightly forwards or sideways while
sitting, or the head is a bit tilted or resting on one hand.
• Mirroring or automatic facial expressions is also a sign of
attentive listening, helping to show empathy or sympathy in
more emotional situations.
• Those signs may/may not be appropriate for all cultures.
 Active listening techniques
• A number of active listening techniques can be used, such as:
1. Paraphrasing the speaker: means that the listener is
reformulating the message received with his/her own words.
This technique implies that, after receiving sufficient
information, the listener re-communicates the message in
his/her own words, in order to establish real points of
communication with the interlocutor. Paraphrasing ensures a
high degree of understanding in communication.
 Active listening techniques
2. Asking questions: is necessary to discover the subtext and
understand exactly what the transmitter wants to communicate.
Active listenign involves the investigative effort of the listener (the
receiver of the message). This does not mean that the receiver has to
often interrupt the interlocutor to ask questions, as this would
fragment the communication and disturb the transmitter which may
thus lose its string of ideas.
 Active listening techniques
3. Following the main ideas: is required particularly in
extensive speeches and wide discourses full of information and
details. This is why active listening should focus not on the
unimportant things or on details, but on the main ideas about
which , eventually, additional information may be required (by
asking questions, paraphrasing…). Also, the focus shoud be on
what is being said, not on what is not being said, and not on
some side effects or collateral/accidental consequences that may
occur in the information.
 Active listening techniques
4. Taking notes: can help the listener to more accurately track the
ideas presented and allows him/her to develop a sketch of what has
been exposed.
5. Expressions of interest: means listening so that it is obvious that
the speaker is being followed. It is recommended that signals in this
regard (both verbal and non-verbal) should be sent to the speaker.
6. Understanding the speaker’s actual state of mind and supporting
him/her implies a positive and encouraging attitude on the part of
the receiver, to enable the transsmitter to continue and to help
him/her succeed in their approach.
 Roles of speaker and listener
• Both the speaker and the listener are responsible for ensuring
that effective communication takes place.
1- evaluate the situation: effective communication can only take
place when the speaker is clear about his own views and
interpretation of ideas and experiences.
Communication with yourself must take place before you can
communicate with others. The speaker needs to evaluate the
communication situation and try to do the follwing:
Role of speaker and listener

• Avoid misinterpretation;
• Give and receive feedback;
• Maintain good will;
• Understand needs;
8
S2 Oral communication
Prof. BOUTABSSIL
15/04/2024
Week 6

Perception in
Communication
 Perspectives in communication

« Ourindividual perceptions are

the filter through which we
communicate with others ».
 Perspectives in communication
• What is perception?
“Perception is the processing, interpreting, selecting and
organizing of information. Perception's effect on the
communication process is all about how the same message
can be interpreted differently by different people”.
 Perspectives in Communication
Perception is how people make sense of the
messages they encounter in their daily lives. It’s an
active process that the brain goes through when
processing information. In business, perception affects
how customers and other stakeholders assign meaning
to your business and the messages you put out into the
world. By knowing how perception works, you'll be able
to clear up any communication
misunderstandings before they happen
 The perception process
• Perception and communication are tightly linked.
While communicating with others, perception follows a
three-step process:
1.Selection

2.Organization

3.Interpretation
 The perception process
• In the first step, people select the information they want to
perceive, and this affects the rest of the perception process.
There are a number of different messages that everyone is
bombarded with, and it’s not possible for someone to
perceive each one. That’s why the brain selects specific parts
of a message to concentrate on.
• For example, if two people are watching a commercial about
a local hair salon, they may both focus on a different aspect.
One might concentrate on the different hairstyles the salon
is able to do, while the other may pay attention to the
location of the salon.
 Perspectives in communication
• In the next step, people organize the information they
have selected to perceive. Each individual has a
different way they categorize their information, and it's
related to past perceptions and experiences. For
example, the person that focused on the different
hairstyles in the commercial may be looking for a
hairdresser for their upcoming wedding. If they have
been researching local hairdressers, they may
categorize this information with other similar ones
they've researched.
 Perspectives in communication
• In the last step, people assign meaning to the
information they've selected and organized. Like all
aspects of perception, interpretation is based on a
number of factors the person has experienced. For
example, if the hair salon commercial says that the
location is within walking distance from a certain area,
the person that's focused on location may interpret
that to mean it's close to their house.
 Perspectives in communication
• There are four factors affecting our perception:
1. Physiology
2. Visual perception
3. Culture
4. Past experiences
5. Present feelings
 Physiology
• A person’s physiology is one of the factors that affect
how they perceive messages and includes aspects
like age, gender and physical characteristics. The
age of your audience will determine how they view
your products and services. Children perceive
messages differently from teenagers who view things
differently from adults. The way an individual once
perceived messages as a child will change as they grow
older.
Visual perception
Visual perception
 Culture
• A difference in perception can also be due to a person’s culture.
People from the same nation, social group or geographical
group often share the same social customs and values. This
plays a major role in communication and business, especially
when business is being conducted across cultures.
• In some cultures, making eye contact is considered rude, while
in North America it’s a sign of directness and openness.
Similarly, in North America, it’s imperative to be on time for
business meetings, while in other parts of the world punctuality
isn't seen as critical. If the greeting card business owner is
looking to partner with a company from a different culture, it
would be wise to learn their social customs so that there are no
misunderstandings while communicating.
 Past experiences and prejudices
• Situation:
Imagine you are in a meeting where you will be discussing
changes in your personal policies at work. What will you be
bringing to that conversation?
You might have examples of other companies’ personal policies,
you might have examples from your own time at the company
that demonstrate why you feel that certain changes need to be
made.
• What influenced you to do so? It’s your past experiences.
 Past experiences or prejudice
• A person’s past experience plays a big role in shaping
their perception of communication.
• Past experiences can include anything
from someone’s childhood to something they did
last week.
 Past experiences and prejudice
• Prejudices occur when we take our past experiences and
assume that the same type of experience will happen with all
people.
• Prejudices are partly due to culture and partly due to personal
preference or experience.
• Not all prejudice involve a negative characteristic.
 Past experience and prejudices
Prejudice Result and effect on
communication
Your boss has reacted negatively You hesitate to discuss the topic
when you have discussed thsi topic even when it is necessary for your
in the past. work.

Your co-worker has ignored has You assume he or she will forget
forgotten important information the information this time and so
multiple times in the past. you overload him or her with
reminders.
 Prejudice

• Prejudices occur when we take an isolated experience and with

one type of person and then act as if all encounters in the
future with people of the same type or with the same
characteristics will result in the same experience.
 Feeling
• There are two ways in which your feelings can influence your
communication with another person.
• The first refers to the way you feel on a given day. If you feel
well, you will communicate in one way and if you feel ill, you
will communicate on another.
• The second refers to how you feel towards a person. When you
like someone, the way you communicate will show it. The
same can be said when you don’t like the person.
 Environment

• All of us communicate differently in different environments. Do

you talk to your colleagues the same way you talk to your
friends?
• Do you talk to strangers with more formality or less formality
than the people you know?
 Self-concept and perception
• Self concept refers to what we think about ourselves including our
physical attributes, our aptitudes, our physical coordination and
our skills.
• Our self-concept is also dependent on how others make comments
about us.
• Self-concept also relies on whether or not we compare ourselves
with others.
• Once you have the whole picture of your self-concept, you need to
know that it influences your communication skills with the external
world.
 Self-esteem and perception
• Self-esteem refers to the value we place on self-concept observations.
• Self-esteem and how we feel about ourselves influence our willingness
and ability to communicate effectively. If you feel good about yourself,
you may be more likely to approach and meet new people, to assert
your ideas in a team situation, to stand confidently before an audience,
and to try new communication strategies. If you don’t trust
 S2 Oral communication
9 Week 7
Prof. BOUTABSSIL
22/04/2024

Models of interpersonal
communication
 Models of communication?
• A model describes an object, event, process, or relationship. It
attempts to showcase the important features of what it
represents.
• Thus, we could state that communication models attempt to
describe the process of communication and how it functions.
• A communication model provides a picture of what actually
happens when one communicates in different circumstances.
• It helps us understand why and how people communicate; thus
assisting us to develop our own effective communication styles
and techniques.
 Action models
• The purpose of using models is to provide visual
representations of interpersonal communication and to
offer a better understanding of how various scholars
have conceptualized it over time. The first type of
models are action models, or communication models
that view communication as a one-directional
transmission of information from a source or sender to
some destination or receiver.
 Interaction models
• Interaction models view the sender and the receiver as
responsible for the effectiveness of the
communication. One of the biggest differences
between the action and interaction models is a
heightened focus on feedback.
 Lasswell’s models of communication
• Lasswell's model of communication (also known
as Lasswell's communication model) describes an act
of communication by defining who said it, what was said,
in what channel it was said, to whom it was said, and with
what effect it was said.
Laswell’s models of communication

1- Who is communicating?
2- What needs to be communicated?
3- Which channel is going to be used?
4- Who is the message intended for?
5- What is the effect of communication?
 Lasswell’s model of communication
• The sender prepares the message
• The message is the information being conveyed
• The message is encoded, or converted, to fit the
channel being used
• Various channels (email, radio, television, etc.) deliver
the message
• The receiver decodes and reviews the message
Aristotle’s model of communication
 Aristotle’s model of communication
• Aristotle is credited for a model of communication that applies to
the basics of oral communication.
• Aristotle’s model of communication is made of three elements,
speaker-speech-audience, where the basic function of the
communication is to persuade people. This was a valid
conception of communication at that time. Yet, the evolution of
societies all over the world causes communication to attract new
meanings and adapt to new realities.
• Aristotle’s model of communication is probably too simplistic and
incapable of containing the complex character of today’s
communication.
OsGood-Schram’s model of communication
 OsGood-Schram’s model of communication
• The Osgood-Schramm model of communication is defined as a
circular model that shows that messages go in two directions.
The model has four key principles: (1) Communication is
circular not linear; (2) Communication is usually equal and
reciprocal; (3) Messages require interpretation; (4) there are
three steps for communicating: encoding, decoding and
interpreting.
 OsGood-Schram’s model of communication

• The benefit of this model is that it illustrates that feedback is

cyclical. It also shows that communication is complex because
it accounts for interpretation. This model also showcases the
fact that we are active communicators, and we are active in
interpreting the messages that we receive.
 OsGood-Schram’s model of communication

• They stressed the social nature of communication. This

model was found more applicable in interpersonal
communication in which the source and receiver were
physically present. For example when a teacher teaches, the
learners interact by raising queries, answering questions, etc.
The role of interpretation of the message has also been
highlighted in this model for decoding a message.
Shannon-Weaver model of communication

Sender Message Receiver

Channel

Noise
 Shannon-Weaver model of communication
• This model is also referred to as the transmission model of
communication as it involves signal transmission for communication.
• Shannon and Weaver were mathematicians, who developed their work during the
Second World War in the Bell Telephone Laboratories. They aimed to discover
which channels are most effective for communicating.
• So, although they were doing research as part of their engineering endeavors,
they claimed that their theory is applicable to human communication as well.
• The Shannon-Weaver communication model, therefore, is a mathematical
communication concept that proposes that communication is a linear, one-way
process that can be broken down into 5 key concepts.
 Transactional model

Sender Sender
and and
reciever Nonverbal communication reciever
Feedback is important

Noise

Social context/ Cultural context/Situational

context
 Transactional model
• Meaning is Embedded in people, not words;
• Meaning comes through interaction;
• Communication is about creating shared meanings between people;
• According to this model, people are senders and recievers at the same time;
• It integrates nonverbal communication and feedback;
• It is a two-way dynamic. A back and forth discussion where meaning is
discussed and understanding is achieved at the end of the conversation.
• This model accounts for the concept of context. Contextual features will
determine how communication will take place (one to many, many to many,
one to one).
• It also accounts for the experience of the communicators (past experiences,
beliefs, values) that help him/her relate to other communicators.
• These experiences form a « field of experiences » from which communicators
draw meaning at any point at communication
 Exercise
1- What is a model?
2- Which of the mentioned models better suits the context of
oral communication?
3- What are the drawbacks of Lass well’s model of
communication?
4- How is Osgood’s model of communication different from
Shannon and Weaver’s model?
 S2 Oral communication
Prof. BOUTABSSIL
10 Week 8
06/05/2024

Culture in interpersonal
communication
 Defining and interpreting culture
➢ Culture is a very difficult concept to be defined, partly because it is complex, multidimensional
and abstract.
➢ Culture is the shared, personal and learned life experiences of a group of individuals who have
a common set of values, norms and traditions.
➢ When we identify with a group that is part of a more extensive cultural group, you are a
member of a co-culture.
➢ Co-cultural membership, often found in many societies, can include many subsets:
- Age and generation (e,g, adolescents, older adults)
- Gender (e,g, masculine, feminine,…)
- Race, ethnicity (African American,…);
- Spiritual and religious identity;
- Geographic region;
- Family background;
 Culture evolves from one generation to another

▪ People learn about a culture through the communication of symbols

for meaning and we do this learning both consciously and
unconsciously.
▪ We can learn about our culture directly such as when we observe
cultural practices. Family, friends, schools and (social) media can be the
primary teachers of our culture.
▪ Yet, cultural practices can evolve significantly (e,g, marriage,
dating,…)
 Culture both promotes and divides community
• Central to our definition of culture is the assumption that it helps create a sense of community. We
view community as the common understandings among people who are committed to coexisting.
• Each community has unique communication behaviors and practices to which members subscribe and
adhere to.
• Membership in a co-culture provides individuals with social identity. Still, such membership can
be problematic. For instance, if you are a member of a unrepresented or a marginalized co-culture,
you may be disadvantaged in a job interview because interview protocols are generally determined by
dominant groups.
• Many times, culture mesh effortlessly; however, sometimes, a culture clash, or a disgreement or
conflict over cultural expectations, occurs. Consider for instance the reaction of an immgrant in a
totally different environment.
• Still, cultural conflicts are not necessarily bad. In fact, having the opportunity to view a situation from
an entirely different cultural point could be productive.
 Culture is multilevel
• On the national level of culture, we assume that people of the same national
background share many things that bind them in a common culture.
• However, cultures can be formed on other levels such as generation, gender, sexual
identity, race, and region among others.
• In many parts of a country, regionalism exists. That is, people can belong to the
same country but still, each group might have their unique way of looking at things.
• The multilevel nature of a co-culture is a culture that develops around a certain age
cohort. That is, culture is in a dynamic process; it changes over time. Thus, reactions
to specific events can differ from one era to another and from one generation to
another.
 Enculturation
• When you identify and even acquire the knowledge, skills,
attitudes and values that allow one to become fully functioning
in a culture, you are said to be enculturated.

• Enculturation occurs when a person learns to identify with a

culture and a culture’s thinking, way of relating and worldview.
•
• Enculturation allows for a successful participation in a particular
society and typically makes that person more accepted by that
society.
 Acculturation
❖Acculturation occurs when you learn, adapt to, and adopt the
appropriate behaviors and rules of a host culture.
❖Acculturated individuals have successfully absorbed themselves into
another society.
❖Immigrants, for instance, typically adapt to the country to which they
have migrated by using its services, understanding its laws, or
participating in social gatherings.
❖To sum up, enculturation is first-culture learning, and acculturaltion is
second-culture learning.
 Hofstede’s cultural dimensions
Dimension Description
Uncertainty Refers to the extent to which uncertainty is tolerated. According to
avoidance Hofstede, this should influence intercultural communication

Power Refers to how different cultures approach the distribution of power. Some
distribution cultures believe that members of society should benefit from an equal
distribution of power while others believe in social classification.

Masculinity- Masculine and feminine cultures view the world differently. While the first
Femininity values competitiveness, material success and assertiveness, feminine
cultures value quality of life, affection, and caring for the less fortunate.
Individualistic- Individualistic cultures value individual achievement, collectivist culture
Collectivist value group collaboration. Understanding these differences facilitates
cultures intercultural communication.
Time orientation Hofstede suggests that the concept of time matters in how members of a
specific cultures view the future especially in business contexts.
 Uncertainty avoidance
➢ Uncertainty avoidance refers to how tolerant or untolerant a person is of uncertainty.
➢ According to Hofstede, there are two types of cultures; cultures with high degree of
uncertainty avoidance and others with a low degree of uncertainty avoidance.
➢ A culture that resists change and high levels of anxiety associated with change are said
to have a high degree of uncertainty avoidance. These cultures rather prefer
predictability. They need specific laws to guide behavior and personal conduct. Risky
decisions are therefore discouraged because they increase uncertainty.
➢ Cultures, like the US for instance, that are unthreatened by change have a low degree
of uncertainty avoidance. They are comfortable taking risks and are less aggressive
and less emotional than cultures with high degree of uncertainty avoidance.
➢ Hofstede suggests that the extent to which members of a culture are tolerating
uncertainty has an impact on intercultural communication.
 Distribution of power
• Distribution of power refers to how a culture deals with power or the
extent to which a society accepts a unequal distribution of power.
• Citizens of nations that are high in power distance tend to show respect to
people with higher status. Also, these populations typically do not work
against authority centeredness.
• Differences in age and income are exxagerated in these cultures and
people accept these differences. Example: social classification of citizens
based on their status. Communication in this case is not equally
distributed among all groups. Only those at the top are allowed to
communicate with all groups.
 Distribution of power
• Cultures that are low in power distance believe that power should be
equally distributed regardless of age, gender, status,…They minimize
differences among the classes and are able to accept challenges to power in
interpersonal relationships.

• Intercultural encouters between people of high and low power distance

cultures can be challenging. Think for instance of a supervisor from a high
power distance cultures working with employees from a low power
distance culture.
 Masculinity-Femininity
✓ In describing cultures, Cultural Variability Theory articulates the presence of a
binary gender identity.
✓ The masculinity and femininity traits depict the extent to which cultures
represent masculinity and femininity traits.
✓ According to Hofstede, masculinity does not refer to male, nor does feminity
refer to female.
✓ Masculine cultures focus on achievement, competitiveness, strength and
material success. Emphasis is on money and labour is divided based on sex.
✓ Feminine cultures emphasize gender and sex equality, nurturance, quality of life,
supportiveness, and affection; that is, traits that are generally associated with
feminine people. Compassion for the less fortunate is also characterizes
feminine culture.
 Masculinity-Femininity
o Hofstede’s research has shown that countries such as Mexico, Italy, Venezuela are
masculine-centered. Countries such as Norway, Thailand, and Netherlands are
feminine-centered cultures where a promotion of gender equality exists.

o What might happen when a person from a culture that honors masculine traits
communicates or intersects with a person from a culture that honors feminine
traits?

o Think about a woman who is asked to lead a group of men in a masculine culture.
 Individualistic Vs collectivist cultures
❑Some societies embrace the individual while others embrace the group.
Hofstede suggests that this binary division impacts intercultural
communication.
❑When a culture values individualism, it prefers competition over
cooperation, the individual over the group and private over the public.
❑Individualistic cultures have and I communication orientation,
emphasizing self-concept, autonomy, and personal achievement. They tend
to reject authority and typically believe that people should « pull themselves
up by their own bootstraps ».
 Individualistic Vs collectivist cultures
❑Collectivism suggests that the self is secondary to the group and its norms, beliefs
and values. Group orientation takes priority over the self.
❑Collectivist cultures teach their members about duty, tradition, conformity and
hierarchy. A we communication prevails. Collectivist cultures work together to
achieve goals.
❑Taking care of family, including extended members is valued.
❑However, the collectivist and the individualistic intersect at time; a collectivist
sense of family coexists with the individualistic need for community members to
become personally successful.
❑Think of an immigrant coming from a collectivist culture moving to a country with
an individualstic culture.
 Time orientation
❑Every culture has its own perception of time.
❑Every culture must reconcile the past with the challenges of the present and an
uncertain future.
❑Long-term orientation cultures (LTO) prefer to stay focused on the future. They are
enthusiastic about change. LTO cultures also appreciate perseverance, encourage
innovation and make decisions with these values in mind.
❑The short-term orientation cultures (STO) emphasize the present and the past and
consider them more important that the future.
❑Members of STOs embrace time-honoured traditions and believe that the social
hierarchy remains adequate. They also fulfill social obligations as necessary (getting
married to someone from the same co-culture…)
 Time orientation
✓Hofstede suggests that the way a culture perceives time will influence
how its members view the world and consequently how they
communicate with others.
✓Think for instance about a company where its employees relate
productivity with time. An LTO member would rather be interested in
long term productivity while and STO member would think of it on a
short term.
✓Work culture can then be influenced by how its individuals view
progress and how they use time to achieve that progress (cultural
incentives should be discussed in this context to enable successful
intercultural communication).
 Context Orientation Theory
- Intercultural communication theorists find that people of different
cultures use context to varying degrees to determine the meaning of
a message.
- Context orientation theory answers the following question: is meaning
derived from cues outside of the message or from the words in the
message?
- The cultures of the world differ in the extent to which they rely on
context. Researchers have divided context into two primary areas:
high-context cultures and low-context cultures.
 Context Orientation Theory
• High-context cultures are those that communicate in ways that are
implicit and rely heavily on context.
• In contrast, low-context cultures rely on explicit verbal communication.
High-context cultures are collectivist, value interpersonal relationships,
and have members that form stable, close relationships.
• In high-context cultures, the meaning of a message is primarily drawn
from the surroundings. People in such cultures do not need to say much
when communicating because there is a high degree of similarity among
members of such cultures (homogeinity).
• That is, people read non verbal cues with a high degree of accuracy
because they share the same structure of meaning.
 Context Orientation Theory
- In low context cultures, communicators find meaning primarily in the
words within the message, not the surroundings. In such cultures,
meanings are communicated explicitely; little of the conversation is left
open to interpretation.

- As a result, non-verbal communication is not easily comprehended. Self-

expression, then, becomes a relational value. Examples, of low-context
cultures include Germany, Switzerland, United States, Canada, and
France.
 Challenges of intercultural communication: Egocentricity
and ethnocentrism
❑People from different groups behave and think differently.
❑Some people are egocentric; seeing the world from their own perspective.
Communication attempts tend to fail in these circumstances.
❑Ethnocentrism refers to perceiving one’s cultural beliefs and customs as superior to
those of other people.
❑When communicating, an attitude of ethnocentrism makes people from other
cultures feel undervalued.
❑Thus, communication is unproductive or even counter productive.
❑Ethnocentrism is not always inherited intentionally. In this case, a speaker may
unintentionally communicate ethnocentric ideas and turn off listeners from other
cultures.
 Challenges of intercultural communication:
Cultural appropriation
❑Individuals who culturally misuse a culture ’s values and practices and employ
them in ways that are incogruent with or unintended by the original culture.
❑Some have called it a form of identity theft in that it is an opportunity for others
to adopt or integrate a cultural custom, practice or behavior with little to no
respect for that culture.
❑In communication encounters, cultural appropriation can be quite problematic.
It occurs when a member of the majority culture trivializes or even disrespects
the ideas, art, and images of a minority culture.
❑Cultural appropriation might be unintentional by nature, but it usually prompts
misunderstanding and meaning crossfires within intercultural relationships.
 Challenges of intercultural communication:
Uncertainty and anxiety
❑ One may feel anxious and uncertain when introduced to people who speak or look differently from
them. In such intercultural encounters, many people wonder what words or phrases to use while
approaching people of different cultural backgrounds.
❑ Most of communicators want to be culturally aware and use language that does not offend. For
instance, one won’t know whether it is appropriate to refer to someone as an African or « Black ».
These cultural references can be unnerving as there are serious disagreements on appropriate and
sensitive word usage.
❑ Our family and friends remain influential on our perceptions. In particular, their observations and
reactions to cultural differences are often passed on to us. They can prompt us to either feel that we
are members of what scientits refer to as an in-group or an out-group.
❑ In-groups are people to which a person feels they belong, and out-groupsare those groups to which a
person feels they do not belong.
 Challenges of intercultural communication:
The assumption of similarity and difference
❑According to scientists, in intercultural encounters, communicators tend to assume
that people from other cultures are either similar or different from them (in terms of
cultural background).
❑Assuming similarity fails to appreciate difference, and assuming difference fails to
appreciate cultural commonalities.
❑Intercultural communication fails if we believe that others cultures should do things
or behave the way we do things.
❑Further, if something is practiced in our culture does not mean that it is similarily
practiced in other cultures. Assuming similarity across cultures, then, is problematic.
Melting pot

The end
 S2 Oral Communication
Prof. BOUTABSSIL
11 06/05/2024
Week 8

The self in interpersonal

communication
« The way we communicate is greatly influenced
by our self-concept and self-esteem ».
 How does self-concept affect our communication?
• Communication becomes smooth when we become part of it, not through physical
involvement, but attributes of our self, i.e, how we see ourselves, what type of
feelings and thoughts we hold about our strengths and weaknesses and what kind of
sustained perceptions we hold about ourselves, our emotional states, our likes,
dislikes, values,…how we want others to see us, how we think others should see us
and how we want to see ourselves.
• All these attributes determine our communication habits.
• Our self-concept continuously develops and re-develops through constant
reflection of our own images through others by variety of processes such as social
comparisons (superior/inferior, same /different); cultural teachings and our own
interpretations and experiences. Cultural influences on self-concept differ greatly
 Self-concept: a definition
• The term self-concept (sometimes called identity) refers to your own
ideas about who you are.Your self-concept develops and expands
over time as you learn more about yourself and your motivations.
While your self-concept is cultivated from early childhood, it
continues to grow throughout your lifetime. At the same time, there
are many dimensions to our self-concept.

• A term sometimes used to describe the various ideas we hold about

ourselves is self-schema. A schema is a cognitive framework (idea or
concept) that helps us to organize and interpret information about
ourselves and the world around us. Our self-concept is made up of
numerous self-schemas
 Self-concept: a definition
• In other words, Self-schemas are beliefs we hold about ourselves and how we
will feel or act in certain situations. Everyone's self-schemas are different and just
one portion of our self-concept. They're formed by our experiences and
relationships with others.
• Self-schemas are important because they influence our behaviors. The more we
believe that a self-schema applies to us, the better we will perform on that
dimension.

• As an example, if you have to give a speech, your self-schema might be that you
are shy in situations where you have to speak in public. Because you have an
overall belief about your personality, as well as past experiences talking in public
situations, you probably have a fairly good idea of how you will feel, think, and
act in this situation.
 Three components of self-concept
❑ A humanistic psychologist, Carl Rogers (1959) defined self-concept using three distinct
but related components: self-image, self-esteem and ideal self.
- Self-image is the way we see ourselves. This may include our physical attributes, social
roles and personality traits. Unfortunately, our self-image can be inaccurate. When you
were a child, did you ever think you were really good at something only to find out later
that it wasn’t true? This type of situation (which can happen at any time in life) is an
example of how our self-image may not match reality.
- Self-esteem is the way we evaluate ourselves and the importance we place on that
evaluation. When we compare ourselves to others, is the result more positive or negative?
For some people, the answer may be as simple as: a positive comparison equals improved
self-esteem and a negative comparison equals decreased self-esteem. But for others, the
answer may be more complicated. For example, a negative comparison may lead a person
to work harder to improve and could actually improve self-esteem.
 Three components of self-concept

• While our self-image is the descriptive side of our self-concept, the self-
esteem is the evaluative side, which means the side that assigns value and
worth to those traits and characteristics.
• The third component is the ideal self. Our ideal self is who we want to be.
We typically describe our ideal self in terms of our goals and ambitions in
life. However, this concept is not static, meaning it can change over time as
we change and grow.
• If there is a mismatch between how a person see himself (e.g. Self-image)
and what he’d like to be (e.g. ideal self ) then this is likely to affect how
much he values himself (self-esteem).
 Self-disclosure

• Self-disclosure is the act of giving your personal information to another person.

You need to disclose information about yourself in order for others to get to
know you. Self-disclosure is a key building block in interpersonal relationships
because,
“When one individual takes a risk by disclosing to another individual, the receiver
feels as though he or she is trusted. In return, the receiver is more likely to disclose
information as well. Trust and security are developed when two people respond to
one another positively over repeated interactions, which continually strengthens the
relationship” (Bruss & Hill, 2010, p. 3).
• However, effective disclosure of personal information is done slowly and over a
long period of time.
 Self-disclosure
➢ Our name, size of our family, hometown, high school activities, basic interests,
and academic major are typical topics for self-disclosure on a college campus.
Some initial self-disclosures are appropriate or inappropriate depending on the
region of the country where people live.
➢ Self-disclosure will be different from culture to culture. Japanese students self-
disclose less than American students in many different types of romantic and
friendship relationships (Kito, 2005). In individualistic cultures like the United
States, people celebrate uniqueness and are more likely to share what they believe
distinguishes them from others. In collectivistic cultures like Japan, people prefer
to blend in and are less likely to talk about themselves.
(Information that can be shared in culture A might not be appropriate in culture B,
like for instance asking someone about their age, religion, marital status, etc…)
 Self-disclosure
➢ We have choices about how much we disclose and the amount of intimate self-
disclosure we provide for others. There is no specific formula for what is
appropriate and what is inappropriate. For example, very few students in a college
classroom would volunteer information about a family member’s personal
problems, how much money their parents make, or their ultimate sexual fantasy.
How do we know what information is appropriate to share with strangers?
➢ When self-disclosing, think about the following:
- Is the information shared sensitive? (like giving opinions on sensitive issues)
- What is the motivation behind self-disclosing? will self-disclosure have a direct
impact on my interpersonal relationships?
 Self-disclosure

• The more personal the information you choose to share, the greater the
trust you must have in the other person. While intimate self-disclosure can
make personal relationships closer, it also makes you vulnerable should the
other person choose to violate your confidence.You should take only
acceptable risks when you share intimate information with another person.
The lesson of what is an acceptable risk is learned through life experience.
You will get burned occasionally, but it’s a risk you must take when you feel
someone is worth knowing. All trust involves risk. If your trust is violated,
you will at least know that you were willing to participate in open, honest
communication. Although withholding information may be prudent in some
circumstances, silence will not lead to close relationships.
 The Johari Window
• The Johari Window is a diagram of what we know about
ourselves and what others know about us. The symbolic
representation of that knowledge consists of four areas:
information known to others, unknown to others, known to self,
and unknown to self. Think of the areas as panes in a window that
will vary in size depending on the individual. The Johari Window
helps us understand how open or closed we are with others and
how aware or unaware we are of information about ourselves.
 The Johari Window

• Your willingness or unwillingness to share personal information with

others increases or decreases the size of the “known by others” area.
The more you reveal, the more others know about you. People who
self-disclose easily are more open; people who rarely self-disclose
keep aspects of themselves hidden. If we process feedback from
others by listening carefully to what they are saying about us, we can
learn information about ourselves that we never knew, and our blind
area will be smaller.
 The Johari Window
- The Johari window comprises main four areas, the open area, the
blind area, the hidden area, the unknown area.
❑The open area refers to what we know about ourselves and what
other people know about us: information you have disclosed and
information you have learned about yourself from others. As you self-
disclose and as you accept feedback, your open area will grow larger.
It takes trust to open oneself up to feedback and self-disclosure, but it
is necessary for healthy interpersonal relationships.
 The Johari Window
❑The blind area refers to qualities or characteristics about yourself that others are
aware of but that you are not. These elements may include mannerisms, an unusual
posture, a unique way of walking, or what your language choices say about you. The
best way to discover the image you project (thereby decreasing the blind area) is to
listen to and consciously evaluate the feedback others give to you. If you play with
your hair when you give a speech and are unaware of your behavior, you will learn
about yourself through feedback from classmates and/or your teacher. People who
have a large blind area typically overuse self-disclosure. They desire social
relationships but are often unaware that they are talking too much to accept the
feedback of others. They are unaware of listener feedback and keep talking because
they are socially nervous, self-centered, or refuse to acknowledge the value of the
ideas and thoughts of others. A good way to reduce the size of your blind area is to
elicit feedback from others through conversation. If you listen to others as they
respond to your questions and process their information, your open area will
become larger and your blind area smaller.
 The Johari Window
• The hidden area refers to information you know about yourself but choose not
to share with others. This is private information you never discuss with anyone.
For most people, certain thoughts or actions remain hidden, such as an
embarrassing incident or a mistake you made in the past. If you have a large
hidden area, you are low in self-disclosure.
• People who choose not to self-disclose certain information do so for a number of
reasons: low self-esteem, trust issues based on a previous betrayal, embarrassment
about past behavior, or a high need for privacy.
• People with a large hidden area can listen to the feedback of others and actively
participate in the communication process. They simply never share anything
personal about themselves. Since self-disclosure is a key to building a relationship,
the person with a large hidden area is very difficult to get to know on a personal
level.
 The Johari Window
• Finally, the unknown area refers to information neither you nor anyone else knows
about you. For example, a parent who, with a sudden burst of adrenaline, is able to
rescue her small child from a burning car may surprise herself and everyone else by
performing an action she may not have thought she could do. Each person has
unknown potential that is occasionally released when triggered by stress, an
unexpected event, a burst of creativity, or through self-exploration. Communication
can expand the open area and contract the blind area but it can’t do much to change
the unknown area. The synergy created in meaningful exchanges of self-disclosure
and feedback could, however, set the stage for better understanding.
• Reducing your unknown area is a journey of self-discovery. The more you self-
disclose and the greater your willingness to listen to feedback from others, the
smaller your unknown area will be.
 The Johari window and interpersonal
communication/relationships
• The four areas of the Johari window can be a good analytical tool for improving your
interpersonal communication skills.
• These areas differ from one person to another depending on how much information the person
is willing/not willing to share. (the ability to self-disclosure varies from one person to another).
• If you analyze yourself and your relationships, you may be able to see whether you need to self-
disclose more or less information and process more or less feedback to maintain a positive
relationship.You may realize that you haven’t been telling your significant other or close friend
enough about yourself so she can get to know you. Relationships end when people don’t share
information about themselves. Maybe you are the socially inept person who can’t seem to fit in
with others, but you’re not sure why. It’s possible you might be revealing too much or
inappropriate information about yourself. This information or behavior might make other
people uncomfortable.
The end
 S2 Oral communication
12 Prof. BOUTABSSIL
Week 9
13/05/2024

Universals of Interpersonal
relationships
 A definition
- The term interpersonal relationship is explained in different ways by
various and many authors, but they all are pointing to the same meaning:
- Devito (2004) defines interpersonal relationship as communication that takes place
between two persons who have established a relationship, the people are in one way
or the other connected. Thus, relationship can occur between romantic partners,
business associates, doctors and patients, counselors and counselees, and so on, it
permeates our lives.
- Berschield (1999) defines interpersonal relationship as a strong, deep or close
association and acquaintance between two or more people that may range from
duration to enduring. This association may be based on love, inference or solidarity.
The context can vary from family or kinship, friendship, work, clubs,
neighborhood and places of worship.
 Classification of interpersonal
relationships
• Interpersonal relationship can be classified according to different spheres of life in
which human beings could encounter problems.
• These are:
(a) Love or marital relationship
(b) Family or kinship relationship
(c) Workplace relationship
(d) Neighborhood relationship
(e) Places of worship relationship.
All these relationships may be regulated by law, custom or mutual agreement, as
they form the basis of social groups and the society as a whole.
 Values of interpersonal relationships
- The values of interpersonal relationship include
the following:
• Knowing and being known - seeking to understand
the partner;
• Accepting and respecting empathy and social skills;
• Maintaining reciprocity- active participation in
relationship enhancement
 Advantages of interpersonal relationships
1- To lessen loneliness;

2- To gain in self-knowledge and self-esteem;

3- To enhance emotional health;

4- To maximize please and minimize pain

 Stages of relationships

• Interpersonal communication becomes

more complex as relationships mature.
Family, colleagues, close friends, and
significant others depend on competent
communication to sustain and/or increase
the closeness of the relationship.
 Stages of relationships
• Some people allow the daily routine of life to alter their
connection to others. They may concentrate on their careers
and assume that relationships can wait until they have more
time. Or, they may move and spend more time making new
friends than communicating with those left behind.
• Physical distance is not an excuse to end communication
with people who matter to you. Emotional ties with your
friends can continue, but there must be a personal
willingness on your part to show others they mean
something to you.
 Stages of relationships
• U.S. culture values loyalty and credibility. Whenever you make a decision to call
someone a friend, you should be committed to the relationship. Use words
wisely as you build relationships. If you don’t want to be hurt or disappointed by
another person, be sensitive to any behavior on your part that might hurt others.
• The definition of friendship is rapidly changing. We used to reserve that term for
people who were very close to us and who would support us. Now, with the
advent of social networking sites, we use the term friend to mean even the most
casual of acquaintances.
• As you analyze the relationships that are strong and those that have failed in your
own life, you may not be aware there are various behavioral stages throughout a
relationship. This lack of awareness makes it difficult for you to realize what is
going on in a relationship, how to progress, or how to effectively end one.
 Stages of relationships
Knapp and Vangelisti(2009) provide a model for relationship stages:
• Contact
•Involvement
•Intimacy
•Deterioration
• Repair or Dissolution
 First stage
• Contact:
Stage one is the contact stage. This is where you meet someone for the
first time. You usually decide right away whether a person meets your
criteria for someone you would want to get to know better.
Sometimes we miss good potential relationships because our initial
perception of another person dissuades us from pursuing a
conversation. If we are in a hurry, we might not take the time necessary
to learn if we have correctly assessed whether someone would be likely
to develop into a friend. Or we could be too judgmental about artifacts,
deciding someone isn’t wearing the right clothes or driving the right car.
 First stage
• Remember that sometimes we draw the wrong conclusion from
limited information. If you get to know a person, you may be
able to overlook their conflicting political or religious affiliation.
But knowing that information up front may convince you to
never approach the person.
 Second stage
• Involvement
In this stage, we continue to get to know another person. We may
start to see or contact him or her on a regular basis. We start to do
some initial self-disclosure about our likes and dislikes, our
hobbies, and our backgrounds. Remember our discussion about
appropriate self-disclosure during this phase. It is important to
move at a reciprocal rate. We may also experiment a little in this
stage to see how the other person reacts to certain behaviors. For
instance, we may not call when we say we will, or we may show up
late to an event or try a public display of affection to see how the
other person reacts. We call this testing the relationship.
 Second stage
• The concept of involvement is changing with the online world of social networking, blogs, and
journals. Individuals are building personal relationships without being in the physical presence of
others.
• They become attracted to numerous personalities based on their writing, posted pictures, and
written responses to the communicator’s personal problems and thoughts. Eventually, some
communicators meet with one another. It is at this point that individuals begin to deal with the
traditional issues of relationships and conflict. A computer gives an individual the opportunity to
respond to someone’s questions/thoughts with time to think of the proper words to use to keep
an online relationship going. However, what’s missing in the online relationship is paralanguage
and nonverbal cues during the response. A face-to-face meeting with someone flushes out the
missing pieces of social interaction.
• Technology has made participating in the involvement stage much easier. We can text someone a
quick note to let them know we are thinking about them. We can post a public announcement on
social networking about our new friend—confirming to others that we are hanging out with our
new gal/guy. We might write notes to them to share information about our likes and dislikes. As
we become closer through the self-disclosure process, we begin to move forward to the next
phase.
 Third stage
• Intimacy:
This can be either romantic intimacy or friendship intimacy. People commit to each other
in different ways depending on their circumstances. Many people model themselves on the
family relationships with which they are familiar.
- Some people commit through verbal exchange, expressing thoughts about what the other
person means to them. Others commit by doing things for the other person. This is
another area where males and females often misunderstand one another. In gender theory,
the research demonstrates that the majority of females generally feel closer when they talk
about a relationship, whereas males demonstrate closeness by doing things for others
(Wood, 2011, p. 219). For example, Tom and Patricia are friends. Tom checks Patricia’s car
on a regular basis to make sure her tires are safe and her oil level is fine to show he cares
about her. Patricia doesn’t really notice his actions. She wants to talk about their feelings
for each other. Without understanding the communication rules the other person is using,
they may totally misunderstand each other. Their friendship could easily fall apart rather
than grow and develop.
 Fourth stage
• Deterioration:
- It is important to understand that most people try not to
enter this stage if they truly care about the other person.
However, it takes two people to sustain a relationship, and if
one gives up, it is next to impossible to save the relationship
even if the other partner wants to save it. However, it is
possible to repair a relationship and move back to the
intimacy stage if partners are willing to make adjustments.
All relationships will fluctuate through the stages at various
times. There are two types of deterioration: intrapersonal
dissatisfaction and interpersonal dissatisfaction.
 Fourth stage
• Intrapersonal dissatisfaction occurs whenever we feel dissatisfied
with a relationship. This can happen for a variety of reasons. For
example, one of your friends tells you their significant other is
planning a surprise trip for them. Suddenly, you feel your significant
other should do the same thing for you even though surprises have
never been a part of your relationship.You begin to feel some
dissatisfaction with your partner.You must try to determine if your
dissatisfaction is real or imaginary. Sometimes we fall into the “grass is
greener” syndrome when we look at other people’s relationships or
fantasize about others with whom we might have been involved.
 Fourth stage
• Interpersonal deterioration occurs when personal dissatisfactions
affect both parties. Partners make decisions to isolate or distance
themselves. Little habits or quirks that we previously overlooked
suddenly become annoying. Comparisons with other people, usually
reflecting negatively on the partner, become more frequent.
• Conflict situations become more numerous. It is important to
remember that even at this stage of deterioration, if there is
commitment from both individuals to save the relationship, they can
repair it.
 Fifth stage
• Repair or dissolution:
- Following stage four, there are two options: repair or dissolution. If
you choose to move to the repair stage, then you have intrapersonal
or interpersonal repair options.
- At this stage, problems occuring within the relatioship could either
be resolved intrapersonally or interpersonally.
- For instance, Johan and Marry have been married for 4 years now.
- Since she was a child, Marry got used to play videos games with her
family. It has been a family custom ever since she was a young girl. As
a married woman, John, her husband, is not able to understand his
wife’s habit.
 Fifth stage
- At this stage, Marry has two options. She can either solve this problem
intrapersonally by convincing herself that, for instance, it is high time she
changed this habit because she is now a married woman. This means that
Marry will solve the problem without involving her husband. In this case,
their relationship can go back to the intimacy stage.
- If you are going to do intrapersonal repair and adjust your own
expectations, it is imperative that you truly feel that way. Otherwise, your
decision may come back to haunt you.
 Fifth stage
• Another option would be for Mary to try some interpersonal repair. She
might explain to John how important game playing is to her. She could try
to get him to understand it isn’t just a game—it’s an activity that makes her
feel very close to the important people in her life. She might ask him if
there was some way he could try to incorporate this activity into their
relationship on a semi-regular basis. They might negotiate which games are
acceptable and how often they would play them. In this case, both people
are working to resolve the problem.
 Fifth stage
• There might be another solution too (compromise). Maybe they could invite some
friends over on the weekend who enjoyed game playing. John could then hang out
with the group while others did the actual game playing. There are always creative
solutions (choices).
• If you don’t choose to repair the relationship, you have two options:
- (1) remain in an unfulfilling, dysfunctional relationship or (2) dissolve it. This is the
moment in a relationship where you move away from each other physically and
emotionally. Dissolution should be a conscious choice. First, be honest with yourself;
decide if you truly feel you no longer want to be in a relationship with someone. Then,
you need to be honest with the other person so he or she knows there is no possibility of
repair. Be sure to use the appropriate channel for this communication. Many people
choose the option of becoming antagonistic, hoping the other person will do the dirty
work of breaking off the relationship. As an effective communicator, you should always
take responsibility for your feelings and act appropriately.
The end
 S2 Oral communication
13 Prof. BOUTABSSIL
Week 9
13/05/2024

Conflict in interpersonal
relationships
 Conflict in interpersonal relationships
• Interpersonal communication is comprised of the elements we
discussed in the previous chapter. However, interpersonal
communication doesn’t always go smoothly even when you are
skilled. When you are listening, making language choices, self-
disclosing, or engaging in conversation, conflict can often
surface unexpectedly. Understanding the nature of conflict and
how it affects interpersonal relationships will help you to be
successful in your personal and business life.
 Conflict in interpersonal relationships
• Conflict occurs any time there is a disagreement between two or
more people. While many people think conflict is undesirable, it
is actually essential to any growing relationship. What is
important is how you resolve the conflict that occurs. Resolving
conflict can be ineffective or effective. In interpersonal
communication, ineffective conflict resolution involves yelling
and screaming, manipulating, issuing ultimatums, silence, or
refusal to discuss issues. These strategies leave people feeling
angry, used, scared, and/or frustrated.
 Conflict in interpersonal relationships
• Effective conflict resolution employs a variety of styles namely active inquiry, effective
listening skills, critical thinking, and problem solving. All these components are
considered effective conflict resolution strategies.

• The potential for conflict exists everywhere in daily communication, from small
choices like how to clean your apartment or where to eat dinner to larger decisions
like whether to spend thousands of dollars on a car or house.You will encounter
conflict in daily life. So will you employ the skills to resolve conflict effectively? Or
will you use ineffective strategies? All conflicts, once they are recognized, can escalate
or de-escalate. When we use ineffective strategies, we cause escalation. For example, if
you mouth off to a parent, superior, or sometimes a partner, you may escalate a
conflict tenfold. What other choices do you have? Think carefully about how to respond
to someone. If you choose the right words and tone, you can de-escalate a conflict
immediately.
 Conflict in interpersonal relationships
• In their classic work on conflict-resolution styles, Ralph Kilmann and
Kenneth Thomas (1977) identify five different styles and suggest you should
have all five styles in your repertoire so you can select the most appropriate
resolution style for any given disagreement. These five styles are as follows:

- Competing;
- Avoiding;
- Accommodating;
- Compromising;
- Collaborating
 Competing style
• When it is important to “win” the conflict at all costs, the competing style is
appropriate. This style is effective when you truly believe in something or in
a crisis situation where the conflict must be resolved immediately. One
aspect of this style is a refusal to listen to the arguments of others; the goal
is to prevail, not to share decision making.
• For example, when a 5-year-old says he doesn’t want a coat and the
temperature is 12 degrees outside, some parents say, “You’ll do it because
I’m the parent, and I said so!” This style is, however, ineffective in most
interpersonal relationships. Most people do not want to be dominated, and
competitive responses close the door to further discussion. A competitor
does not listen to others and is not concerned with their thoughts or needs.
Even children absorb this message when parents always use the competing
style.
 Competing style
• What happens when you have a friend or partner who uses
the competitive style all the time? Are you willing to be in a
relationship with someone who always has to win or be right?
Sometimes in interpersonal relationships, the competitive
style can turn into the subcategory of bullying. Bullying
occurs when a person must be right no matter what, and they
railroad you into doing or believing as they do.You may go
along with the bully or end the relationship.
 Competing style
• If someone has told you to “choose your battles,” they might be
indicating that you are unreasonably aggressive. Monitor your
behavior to assess whether you could be perceived as someone
who has to win every argument. The competing style works
depending on the situation (in the courtroom or in debates, for
example) and the parties involved. If two people are naturally
assertive, they can enjoy a spirited discussion of an issue and
competing to win. They relish the verbal sparring and
appreciate good arguments supported with evidence.
 Avoiding Style
• When people walk away from conflict, they are using an avoiding style. When a heated argument begins,
some people’s reaction is to leave; they physically remove themselves from the situation. This style is
useful whenever there is any threat of physical or verbal abuse—either to you or from you. Unless
abuse is an issue, the avoidance style is one of the least useful styles because nothing is resolved. One
person leaves, but the problem remains.
• There are two subsets of avoidance. Someone might withdraw from a conflict for one of two reasons:
(1) He or she has no opinion on the topic or no vital interest in the outcome; there is no reason to
engage in the conflict. (2) The person is truly afraid of conflict. If he or she can’t handle the negative
emotions they feel when people start raising their voices and arguing, withdrawal is a means to avoid
those uncomfortable feelings. The second subset of avoidance is delaying.
• Delaying happens when someone is too upset to continue with the conflict at that moment. Whenever
you feel that you might say or do something that you’ll regret later, it may be best to delay the conflict
until you calm down and can express yourself appropriately. In this case, it is best to let your partner or
friend know what is going on. Saying something like, “I need to talk about this tomorrow,” or “I’ll come
back in an hour to discuss it,” lets the other person know that you aren’t simply walking out”.
 Accommodating Style
• When people give in to someone else to promote harmony in the relationship,
they are using an accommodating style. This occurs if people are afraid of conflict,
afraid to voice an opinion, or are so easygoing that they do not have a strong
opinion one way or the other. However, if you have an opinion, you should not use
this style. People who repress their own opinions in relationships may become
hostile or depressed. Sometimes they even play the martyr role, which can be
annoying to others. If Maureen asks Erik where he wants to go for dinner and he
says he doesn’t care, he should not then reply “Oh I hate that place” after she picks
the diner in town. When you have an opinion, learn to articulate your position.
For example, Erik could have said, “Let’s go anywhere except the diner.” If Erik has
a list of places he dislikes, then he should not imply that he is willing to let
Maureen choose. The accommodating style is useful only if someone does not have
an opinion and is willing to do what the other person wants to do without
question or comment.
 Compromising Style
- When both people give in slightly, they are using a compromising
style. Let’s say you and your friend want to go out to dinner together.
Your friend craves Kentucky Fried Chicken, but you crave a Big Mac.
Neither of you is willing to budge. As a compromise solution, you might
go to a local diner where your friend could get a three-piece chicken
dinner, and you could order a huge hamburger. In this case, neither of
you is getting what you really want, but you are both getting a little of
what you want. A compromise can work well in some situations where
there is no other resolution, but in this example, both individuals would
probably feel cheated.
 Collaborating Style
-When people work through the problem-solving process
to come to the best solution for each of them, they are
engaging in a collaborating style. The collaborating style
mirrors a problem-solving model called the standard
agenda (Young, Wood, Phillips, & Pedersen, 2007) that we
cover in chapter 13. By slightly changing the terminology
of that model and applying it to conflict resolution, we get
a six-step collaboration process:
 Collaborating Style
• 1. Define the problem: In this step each party needs to identify that there is indeed a
problem requiring attention.
• 2. Explore the facts: Each party identifies their needs. Even more importantly, they must
listen carefully to learn the needs of the other party. If you cannot get through this step,
collaboration cannot take place. Both parties must self-disclose honestly and completely.
• 3. Brainstorm for possible solutions: In this phase, people generate a list of solutions off the
top of their heads—as many as possible without stopping to analyze.
• 4. Set criteria to determine the best solution: Generating a list of what satisfies each person
helps to determine the best solution. The first criterion should always be, “Any solution
must be acceptable to both of us.” (There is more in-depth discussion of this concept in
chapter 13.)
• 5. Evaluate and select a solution. Here each solution is evaluated against the list of criteria
to determine which solution might work best.
• 6. Finally, test the solution to see whether it will work. Put the solution into action and
see if it is effective.
 Reasons for Styles
• No style is appropriate for all the situations.
• The best communicators are those who are aware of these
styles, and those who know where to use the most
appropriate style.
• Therefore, it is important to take the context into
consideration. (adaptability is the key).
The end
 S2 Oral communication
Prof. BOUTABSSIL
Week 10
13/05/2024
14
Power in interpersonal
relationships
 Power: a definition
• Power is the degree that a social agent (A) has the ability to get
another person(s) (P) to alter their thoughts, feelings, and/or
behaviors. First, you have a social agent (A), which can come in a
variety of different forms: another person, a role someone embodies,
a group rule or norm, or a group or part of a group. Next, we have
the person(s) who is being influenced by the goal to be a specific
change in thoughts, feelings, and/or behaviors.
• In other words, it is the degree of influence a person can have on
another one.
 The five bases of power
• Probably the most important people in the realm of
power have been John French and Bertram Raven.
In 1959, French and Raven identified five unique
bases of power that people can use to influence
others (coercive, reward, legitimate, expert, and
referent).
 Informational

• The first basis of power is the last one originally

proposed by Raven. Informational power refers to a
social agent’s ability to bring about a change in thought,
feeling, and/or behavior through information. For
example, since you initially started school, teachers have
had informational power over you. They have provided
you with a range of information on history, science,
grammar, art, etc.
 Coercive and reward
The second base of power is coercive power, which is the ability to
punish an individual who does not comply with one’s influencing
attempts. On the other end of the spectrum, we have reward
power (3rd base of power), which is the ability to offer an individual
rewards for complying with one’s influencing attempts. We talk about
these two bases of power together because they are two sides of the
same coin. Furthermore, the same problems with this type of power
apply equally to both. Influence can happen if you punish or reward
someone; however, as soon as you take away that punishment or
reward, the thoughts, feelings, and/or behavior will reverse back to its
initial state. Hence, we refer to both coercive and reward power as
attempts to get someone to comply with influence, because this is
the highest level of influence one can hope to achieve with these two
forms of power.
 Legitimate
• The fourth base of power is legitimate power, or influence that occurs
because a person (P) believes that the social agent (A) has a valid right
to influence P, and P has an obligation to accept A’s attempt to
influence P’s thoughts, feelings, and/or behaviors. French and Raven
argued that there were two common forms of legitimate power:
cultural and structural. Cultural legitimate power occurs when a change
agent is viewed as having the right to influence others because of their
role in the culture. For example, in some cultures, the elderly may have
a stronger right to influence than younger members of that culture.
Structural legitimate power, on the other hand, occurs because
someone fulfills a specific position within the social hierarchy. For
example, your boss may have the legitimate right to influence your
thoughts, feelings, and/or behaviors in the workplace because they are
above you in the organizational hierarchy.
 Expert
• This is when you're seen as having expert knowledge
over a specific subject. For example, when you're sick
you go to the doctors because you know they have
expert knowledge in that field.You wouldn't go to a
mechanic for answers about surgery risks and benefits.
Your power increases when you're seen as an unbiased
person with nothing to gain personally from helping
others. On the other hand, you're seen as less powerful
when you are biased or have something large to gain.
 Referent

• If you can make others want to be like you or want

to be identified with you, you'll gain compliance
easily. This would be like the power an older
sibling has over a younger sibling. Once a person
decides they want to be like you, then it'll take
less effort to influence the other person.
 How does power influence interpersonal
communication?
• Power is manifested by the exhibition of what we may call dominant behavior
the purpose of which is to control somebody else's behavior or at least
presupposes that somebody else limits their behavior in order to yield to the
wielder of power. The converse type of behavior - subordinate power behavior
is manifested by letting one's behavior be controlled or by in different ways
limiting one's behavior to accommodate the wielder of power.
• A power relation is most clearly manifested when one or more persons
behave dominantly and one or more persons behave in a subordinate fashion
at the same time. A little less clearly it can be manifested through the
appearance of only subordinate or only dominant behavior.
 How does power influence interpersonal communication?

• To be a little more specific a power relation can determine how a

communicative interaction is established. Often a person who holds
a power relation to another person in one field will make use of this
in another field by retaining the right to decide whether interaction
should be started, what the purpose should be, what the context
should be and what types of roles and behavior would be the most
appropriate. Since many particulars of the interaction are partly
determined by these factors, control of them is desirable. One
should therefore expect a certain competition between people to
control these factors.
The end