Trade Networks and

UNIT 6 THE RISE OF GUPTAS: ECONOMY, Urbanization

SOCIETY AND POLITY*

Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Antecedents
6.3 Political History of the Guptas
6.4 Administration
6.5 Army
6.6 Economy
6.7 Society
6.8 Culture under the Guptas
6.9 Decline of the Guptas
6.10 Summary
6.11 Key Words
6.12 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
6.13 Suggested Readings

6.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will learn about,
political conditions in India at the beginning of the fourth century CE;
expansion and consolidation of the Gupta empire;
order of succession of the Gupta rulers and their military exploits;
administration, economy, society and culture under the Guptas; and
the decline of the Guptas.

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In this Unit, you will become familiar with the political history of the Gupta
period. Compared to the pre-Mauryan and Mauryan periods, the number of
ruling families had increased considerably in the post-Mauryan period. This means
that (i) more and more areas were experiencing the emergence of local states;
these states which may have been small were represented by local ruling families,
(ii) when large state structures arose these small local states either lost their
separate existence or they continued as subordinates within larger areas. One
such large state structure which began to emerge from the beginning of the fourth
century CE was that of the Guptas.

In this Unit, we will look at the political, social and economic aspects of the
Gupta period. We will focus on changes which were taking place in this period
and which greatly changed the character of post-Gupta polity and society.
* Dr. Vinayak, IP College for Women, University of Delhi, Delhi. 93
Guptas and Post-Gupta State
and Society 6.2 ANTECEDENTS
In the beginning of the fourth century CE, no large state structure existed in
India. However, there were minor powers and new families of rulers who were
emerging. In was in this context that the Guptas began to emerge on the political
scene. They were a family of uncertain origins. Let us look at the powers which
were ruling in different parts of the country before the Guptas appeared on the
scene.
Before the middle of the third century CE, the power of the Kushanas was
considerably reduced by the Sassanians of Iran. They subordinated the Kushanas
and the Sassanians’ rule extended to Sindh and other areas. However numismatic
evidence indicates that several branches of Kushanas continued to rule in
Afghanistan, Kashmir, western Panjab and it is possible that some of them were
contemporaries of early Guptas. Several republican states such as Madras (ruling
in Punjab; who have been mentioned in connection with the exploits of
Samudragupta), Yaudheyas (present-day Haryana), and Malavas (Rajasthan) and
many others which find mention in the Gupta records were ruling over small
principalities. Several branches of Nagas who were powerful in Mathura figure
also in the context of north India as rulers who were defeated by the Guptas.
The Kshatrapas were ruling in western India till they were defeated by the Gupta
ruler Chandragupta II towards the close of the fourth century CE. In ancient
Vidarbha, a powerful family known as Vakatakas had emerged by the middle of
the third century CE. Matrimonial alliances between the Vakatakas and Guptas
brought them into close contact with each other.
After the decline of the Satavahanas in Deccan, new royal families emerged in
different parts of the Deccan. In coastal Andhra, the Ikshvakus, the Salankayanas
and others made their presence felt. Kadambas emerged powerful in Karnataka.
The Pallavas in Tamilnadu ruled as a formidable power from the middle of the
third century CE till the 9th century CE.
The above discussion does not exhaust the list of powers that were emerging in
different parts of India. What are described are the most notable ones. It must
however be acknowledged that in many areas like Bengal, Odisha, forest regions
of Madhya Pradesh and elsewhere kingdoms were emerging for the first time.
This new trend was very significant for the later course of political history.

6.3 POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE GUPTAS

Very little is known about the early Gupta rulers. Whatever we know about them
generally comes from the records of later imperial rulers. As a result, there has
always been speculation among historians about the ancestry and family of early
Guptas. Some of the historians try to trace back their ancestry to any person
appearing in the historical records with the name ending with ‘gupta’, such as
Sivagupta who appeared in a Satavahana inscription.

The original core of the Gupta territory lay in eastern UP. This can be surmised
from the fact that Samudragupta’s Allahabad (now Prayagraj) pillar inscription
comes from this region. Besides the coin hoards of the Guptas have been found
from this region. Lastly, the Puranas describe the early Gupta territories in this
region.
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It is possible that in the closing decades of the 3rd century CE, the Guptas were Rise of Guptas : Economy,
Society and Polity
subordinates of a branch of later Kushanas ruling in north-west India. However
inscriptional and archaeological data suggests that they became independent in
the second decade of the fourth century CE.

Inscriptions tell us that Chandragupta was preceded by Srigupta and Ghatotkacha

before being mentioned as the first independent king with the title
maharajadhiraja. He started an Era in 319-20 CE known as Gupta Samvat.This
is also confirmed from the account of Al-Biruni,who had visited India in the first
part of 11th century CE. Historical records do not give us a clear picture about the
territories under his control. Though a passage of Vishnu Purana gives us some
details about the territories ruled by him. According to this passage the territories
of Prayagraj (present-day Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh), Saket (around present
day Ayodhya in Uttar Pradesh) and Magadha were under the control of
Chandragupta I. But the authenticity of this passage is still not established, thus
it is not sure whether these areas were actually controlled by Chandragupta I.
The Chandragupta-Kumaradevi (king-queen type) type gold coins of
Chandragupta I inform us about the matrimonial alliance between the Gupta king
Chandragupta I and Lichchhavis princess Kumaradevi.These coins have
Chandragupta and his queen Kumaradevi engraved on the obverse and a seated
goddess on the reverse with the legend Lichchhavayah (i.e. the Lichchhavis).
The Lichchhavis were ruling in the region of Vaishali (Muzaffarpur in north
Bihar) since the 6th century BCE. This alliance not only enlarged his kingdom
but also legitimized his rule. The fragmentary information received about the
territorial expansion and marriage alliance with Lichchhavis indicate that
Chandragupta I might have come to have firm control over the middle Ganga
valley, in areas both to the north and south of the river.

Samudragupta (335-75 CE)

During Chandragupta I’s successor, Samudragupta’s reign, the kingdom grew
into an empire. The most important source which gives us information about his
accession and conquests is Prayagraj Prashasti (till now known as the Allahabad
Prashasti). It was composed by his court poet Harishena who composed 33 lines
which were engraved on a pillar. It is a possibility that there may have been a
war of succession to the throne before Samudragupta became the king. This is
largely due to the discovery of coins bearing the name of Kacha. These coins in
many respects are similar to Samudragupta’s coins. Many interpretations have
been given about these coins. Some historians considered Kacha as the elder
brother of Samudragupta, who might have been killed in the war of succession.
Other scholars maintain that these were the coins which were issued by
Samudragupta in the memory of his bother Kacha. The third interpretation
suggests that Kacha was the initial name of Samudragupta and latter name was
acquired by him after the conquest of the South. Except these coins not much is
known about Kacha from other sources; this name does not even appear in official
Gupta inscriptions. Prayagraj Prashasti depicts Samudragupta as an extraordinary
person and an ideal king.

Samudragupta adopted an aggressive policy of conquests. Regarding his

campaigns in Aryavarta, some scholars believe that he carried his conquests of
Aryavarta at one time only. However, some other historians believe that there
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Guptas and Post-Gupta State were two campaigns in Aryavarta. This is so because the Prashasti first mentions
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the subjugation of three Aryavarta kings, being followed by his southern
campaigns, and then again mentions the defeat of nine Aryavarta kings. The
kings of Aryavarta that were defeated by him were Achyuta (ruling over
Ahichchatra), Nagasena (ruling over Gwalior region) and Kota-Kulaja (the ruler
of the Kota family in east Punjab and Delhi). By defeating them Samudragupta
established firm control over the Ganga valley and some adjacent regions.

Regarding his campaigns in south India, twelve rulers were defeated by him
which included:
1) Mahendra of Kosala (Raipur, Durg, Sambalpur and Bilaspur districts)
2) Vyaghraraja of Mahakantara (Jeypore, forest region of Odisha)
3) Mantaraja of Kaurata (Sonpur area in Madhya Pradesh or Plain country to
the north-east of Mahendra hill)
4) Mahendragiri of Pishtapura (Pithasuram, East Godavari district)
5) Svamidatta of Kottura (Ganjam district)
6) Damana of Erandapalla (Chicacole or West Godavari district)
7) Vishnugopa of Kanchi (Chingelput district)
8) Nilaraja of Avamukta (Godavari valley)
9) Hasti-varman of Vengi (Cellor in the Krishna-Godavari delta)
10) Ugresena of Palakka (Nellore district)
11) Kubera of Devarastra (Yellamanchiti in Visakhapatnam district)
12) Dhananjaya of Kushthalpura (in North Arcot district in Tamilnadu)

Regarding the kings of south India or Dakshinapatha, Samudragupta first captured

them (grahana) and then released them (moksha). However, he followed a
completely different policy with regard to the kings of Aryavarta. He subjugated
them and annexed their territories. The north Indian kings defeated by
Samudragupta were: Rudradwa, Matila, Nagadatta, Chandravarma, Ganapatinaga.
Nagasena, Archyuta, Nandi, Balavarman, and others. The Prashasti further states
that Samudragupta reduced the states in the forest regions to servitude. The frontier
kings defeated by him included: Samatata (in southeast Bengal), Kamarupa
(Assam), Nepala (Nepal) and others; republican states of the Malavas, Yaudheyas,
Madrakas, Abhiras etc. All these rulers paid rich tributes to him and accepted
his suzerainty. The foreign rulers of north-western India like the later Kushanas
and the Saka chief and residents of different island countries including Sinhala
or Sri Lanka not only surrendered to him but also offered their daughters in
marriage.

At the end of his reign, most parts of north India were directly under the control
of Samudragupta, except Kashmir, western Punjab, Rajasthan, Sindh and Gujarat.
He also directly controlled the highland of central India to the east of Jabalpur,
Chhattisgarh, Odisha and the area on eastern coast at least up to Chingleput.
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 Rise of Guptas : Economy,
Society and Polity

Allahabad Prashasti of Samudragupta. Source: Inscription of the Early Gupta Kings and
Their Successors, 1888. Text: John Fleet, CIE (1847-1917). Image: Thomas A. Rust, circa
1870. Wikimedia Commons.

Chandragupta II (375-414 CE)

Under Chandragupta II, the son and successor of Samudragupta, the growth and
spread of Gupta power reached its peak. Coins, inscriptions and some literary
sources give information about Chandragupta II’s reign. The Gupta inscriptions
mention Chandragupta II as the successor of Samudragupta. However, a 7th
century dramatist Vishakhadatta in his drama Devichandraguptam mentions that
Chandragupta II killed his elder brother, Ramagupta. This was so because
Ramagupta was facing defeat at the hands of the Sakas and in order to save the
kingdom, Ramagupta had agreed to surrender his wife to the Saka king.
Chandragupta opposed this and went to the Saka camp in the guise of queen
Dhruvadevi I, the wife of Ramagupta. He was successful against the Saka king.
However, in the ensuing hostility between Chandragupta II and his brother
Ramagupta, he killed the latter and married his widow Dhruvadevi. Certain other
texts like the Harshcharita and Kavyamimansa also refer to this episode.Thus,
Chandragupta II came to the throne to re-establish the supremacy of Guptas. He
established matrimonial relations with the Nagas by marrying princess Kubernaga
whose daughter Prabhavati was later married to Rudrasena II of the Vakataka
family. He established matrimonial alliance with Kadambas of Karnataka as well.
He defeated the Saka Kshatrapa king Rudrasimha-III and brought an end to their
rule in western India. As a result, the regions of Gujarat, Kathiawad and western
Malwa were added to the Gupta Empire. Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription is
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Guptas and Post-Gupta State identified by many scholars with Chandragupta-II. According to this inscription
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Chandra crossed the Sindhu region of seven rivers and defeated Valhikas (Balkh
in Afghanistan).This inscription also mentions about his victory over enemies
from Vanga (Bengal).

On the basis of these evidences it can be suggested that Chandragupta II was

able to extend the frontiers of Gupta Empire in western, north-western and eastern
India. Chandragupta II ruled till 415-16 CE.

Kumaragupta I (414-54)
At the time of the death of Chandragupta II, the Gupta empire extended from the
greater part of north India to the Kathiawad peninsula. As a result, there was no
one who could challenge their power. Hence, the reign of Kumaragupta I, son
and successor of Chandragupta II, was marked by only a few military campaigns.
From his inscriptions it seems that he certainly retained firm control over the
core area of the empire. His reign was also known for political consolidation and
prosperity. However, at the end of his reign, the Gupta empire faced Huna invasion
in north-west region which was checked by his son Skandagupta.

Skandagupta (454-467)
Skandagupta is generally considered the last important ruler of Gupta Empire,
who ruled over a vast territory. From the beginning of his reign he started facing
various troubles in his realm. The Bhitari inscription informs us that at the very
beginning of his reign Pushyamitras posed trouble. Though he was successful in
averting the onslaught of Hunas, these campaigns cost the kingdom dearly.
Scholars maintain that his gold coins were not only limited but also had less gold
in them as compared with the earlier rulers. He was the last Gupta ruler to mint
silver coins in western India.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Fill in the blanks:
a) At the beginning of the 4th century CE there were ............ (many/no)
small kingdoms in North India.
b) Chandragupta-I had a matrimonial alliance with ............ (Sakas/
Lichchhavis).
c) The Prayaga-prashasti refers to the victories of ........... (Pravarsena/
Samudragupta).
2) Discuss the efforts made by Samudragupta for the expansion of Gupta empire.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

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3) List five minor powers in north India at the beginning of 4th century CE. Rise of Guptas : Economy,
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.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
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.......................................................................................................................

6.4 ADMINISTRATION
Guptas as a political power ruled in north India for about two and half century
and out of this period they functioned as an empire for almost 150 years. The
Gupta power at its peak extended from Kathiawar peninsula in Gujarat in the
west to Bengal in the east and from north-west India in the north to Madhya
pradesh in south. This however does not mean that the entire area was directly
ruled by the central authority; there were areas like Bengal, Bihar and Uttar
Pradesh which the Guptas administered through officials appointed by them;
even in far-flung Saurashtra in Gujarat, governors were appointed by the Gupta
rulers like Skandagupta. Elsewhere in the Malwa region, the Guptas maintained
their suzerainty through political and matrimonial alliances with various
autonomous powers.

In administration the Guptas borrowed various features from their predecessors

such as Mauryas, Kushanas and Satavahanas. King was the central figure of the
administrative system and it was reflected by the titles held by them, such as
maharajadhiraja, parama-bhattaraka, parmeshvara, samarat and
dharmmamaharaja. They were considered divine rulers on earth. The duties of
the king were the following:
1) Despite the supreme power vested in him, he was expected to follow a
righteous path.
2) He was supposed to decide the policy of the state during war and peace.
3) He should always protect his countrymen from any invasion.
4) He led the army in case of war.
5) He should support the brahmanas, Sramanas and others who needed his
protection.
6) He was supposed to venerate the learned and religious people and give them
every possible help.
7) As the Supreme judge he was to look after the administration of justice
according to religious precepts and customs.
8) He appointed his central and provincial ministers.
9) As a reigning king he appointed the successor to the throne.
The king was thus the focus of administration. He was assisted by princes,
ministers and advisors. The princes also held positions like viceroys of provinces.
The king used to issue written instructions to officials on all important matters.
In some cases, the office of the functionaries became hereditary. Inscriptions
suggest that Gupta administration was more decentralised as compared to that of 99
Guptas and Post-Gupta State the Mauryas. The Gupta administration made some efforts at restructuring the
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agrarian economy. This is indicated by land grants where the donees were expected
to augment agricultural potential of the region. It was in this way that cultivation
of fertile, irrigated lands was improved, and settlement of wasteland was
encouraged. The initial land grants were not in the centre but the areas beyond.
Thus, this initiative brought peripheral regions into the larger agrarian economy.

The high-ranking officers included the Mahadandanayaka (Chief Justice) who

assisted the king in the matters of justice. In the provinces this work was entrusted
to the Uparikas and in the districts to the vishayapatis. In the villages the headman
and the village elders used to decide upon petty cases. The other high officials
included the Mahapratihara (chief of the palace guards), Pratihara (regulated
ceremonies and granted necessary permits for admission to the royal presence),
Dutakas (implemented gifts when gifts of land were made to the brahmanas and
others). There existed an espionage system as well.

For facilitating the efficient functioning of administration, the kingdom was

generally divided into a number of regions or provinces, headed by governors
appointed by the king. These provinces were known as the deshas, rashtras or
bhuktis. Some of the provinces mentioned in Gupta inscriptions are Tirabhukti
(corresponded to north Bihar), Nagarabhukti, Magadhabhukti and
Pundravardhanabhukti (corresponded to north Bengal). The bhuktis were
governed by Uparikas directly appointed by the king. The territorial units under
the provinces (bhukti/desha) were known as vishaya (governed by vishayapati
or in some cases by Ayuktaka). He was appointed by provincial governor. The
inscriptions from Bengal indicate that the vishayapati associated himself with
Nagarsresthi (head of city merchants), Sarthavaha (caravan leader), Prathama-
Kulika (head of the artisan community) and Prathamakayastha (head of the
kayastha community). Apart from these Pustapalas were officials who managed
and kept records.

The administrative units below the district were referred differently in different
regions, such as — vithi, ashtakuladhikarana, bhumi, pathaka and petha. It seems
that these units were placed above several villages and were administrated by
different officials such as ayuktakas and vithi-mahattaras. The lowest unit of
administration was known as the grama which was headed by a gramika or
gramadhyaksha. It is not very clear whether these officials were appointed by
higher authorities or selected with the permission of villagers.

6.5 ARMY
Without any doubt, the army functioned as one of the important elements of the
state during this period. Normally divided in various divisions (chariots, infantry,
cavalry and elephants), it was headed by different chiefs and commanders. Though
in some contemporary texts (such as Kamandakiya Nitisara) the chariot division
was generally considered an integral part of the army, but, by this time their use
in warfare had become rare. It is not very clear whether the officer named
dandanayaka functioned as a military commander or a judicial officer. Officers
named asvapati and pilupati respectively commanded the cavalry and elephant
divisions. The senapati, mainly synonymous with the military commander, quite
frequently functioned as local administrator. Engaging in constant war might
have created some new designations such as sandhivigrahika (officer-in-charge
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of war and peace). Chata-bhata were known as the regular and irregular troops Rise of Guptas : Economy,
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and most probably performed the task of local police.

One individual could hold multiple offices; for example the posts of kumaramatya,
sandhivigrahika and mahadandanayaka were held by Harishena, the court poet
of Samudragupta. The army was paid in cash and its needs were well looked
after by an officer-in-charge of stores called Ranabhandagarika. This officer
also looked after the supply of weapons such as battle-axes, bows and arrows,
spear pikes, swords, lances, javelins et.

6.6 ECONOMY
Though agriculture was the mainstay of economy, there were other occupations
as well such as commerce and production of crafts. Different social groups were
engaged in these occupations. It is important to realise that certain changes had
started taking place in the pattern of economic production and consequently in
relations between different social groups. We will be discussing these changes
below.

The revenue generated from agriculture was the main source of income for state.
For collecting this revenue, a large section of officials was appointed.
Contemporary sources (such as Amarakosha) give information about the diverse
type of crops produced in this period such as paddy, cotton, oil-seeds, indigo,
mustard seeds etc.The people of this period had good knowledge of agriculture
and they were aware about the different types of soils. In this regard Amarakosha
give us information about twelve types of soils — urvara (fertile), ushara (dry),
maru (desiccated), aprahata (untilled), sadbala (grassy land), pankila (covered
with mud), jalaprayamanupam (land located near a source of water), kachcha
(marshy), sarkara, sarkati, nadimatrika (well-watered by rivers) and devematrika
(area well fed by rain). The cultivated land was called as kshetra and uncultivated
land was called by various names such as khila or aprahata.

Land grants not merely give us information about different types of lands given
to different donees but also provide information about land measurement. The
Gupta land grant records from Bengal inform us about a unit known as vapa
which was used for measuring land in the region (adhavapa, dronvapa,
kulyavapa). It is derived from root vap (to sow).The exact size of this unit is not
clearly mentioned. Same grants mention a rod (nala), that might have been used
for linear measurement. Though evidence indicates that there was diversity in
land measurement, occasionally at some places we also find some standardization.
In addition to type and systems of land measurement, the land records from
Bengal also provide information about the price of plots. The price of agriculture
and non-agriculture plots varied according to the quality of soil, fertility, location,
region and so on.

Irrigation was considered important. Locally managed irrigation devices like the
ghati-yantra also called the araghatta were in vogue. Different irrigation practices
existed in the Gupta kingdom. Mention may be made of Sudarshana reservoir
(tadaga) in Saurashtra in Gujarat. Originally built in the Mauryan period, this
reservoir was thoroughly repaired when it was extensively damaged in the time
of Mahakshatrapa Rudradaman (middle of the second century CE). It was again
damaged in the time of Skandagupta; Purnadatta, his newly appointed governor
of Saurashtra and his son, Chakrapalita, undertook the repair of the reservoir at 101
Guptas and Post-Gupta State this time. Copper plates of this period clearly mention tanks and ponds (tadaga
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and pushkarini), marshy areas and ditches (jola, hajjika and khata) and
embankments along rivers (ali, brihadali) as mediums of irrigation. State was
not wholly responsible for providing irrigation facilities. Much of agriculture
was also rain dependent.

Certain changes can be witnessed in the agrarian society at this time. The land
system was becoming more complex. Grants of land were being made to religious
and ritual specialists or to officers. In those cases when the land granted to
brahmanas was a wet land or forest, the donees took on the role of a pioneer in
introducing agriculture. The brahmanas became proficient in supervising agrarian
activities, helped by manuals on agriculture, such as Krishiparashara, which
may be dated to this or the subsequent period. The textual records of earlier
period (like Arthashastra) talk only about tax-paying cultivators (karada) and
the ruler, but the textual records of Gupta period talk about three tiers, mahipati
(the king), svami (landowner) and karshaka (cultivator) which indicates that
landed intermediaries were starting to emerge in this period. By the end of Gupta
period donees were not only gifted with rights over land but also with some
important administrative and judicial rights. Not only the practice of gifting land
was becoming common but also remuneration was received in the form of land
by officials of different categories. Thus, instances of a class of people who
owned land but did not cultivate it increased. People who had superior rights
over land increased. Brahmanas by virtue of being the highest varna and as part
of the majority of landed beneficiaries, became powerful. The other village
landholders who also occupied an important place in rural society were the
Gramikas, Kutumbins and Mahattaras.

Conversely the position of cultivators declined. Ordinary cultivators known by

the names of Krishibala, Krashaka now came to acquire low economic and social
status. Slaves worked on the fields of their masters. Even domestic female slaves
were cruelly exploited as indicated by a text like Kamasutra. Inequalities in
society increased and thus burden on the actual tillers of the soil increased. The
number of taxes imposed by the state on the producers also went up in this period.
Further, the practice of vishti or unpaid labour made the position of ordinary
cultivators miserable.

Craft production covered a very wide range of items.There were items of ordinary
domestic use such as earthen pots, items of furniture, baskets, metal tools for
domestic use. Luxury items included jewellery made of gold and silver, precious
stones, objects made of ivory, fine silks and cotton cloth. Contemporary sources
refer to potters (kumbhakara), carpenters (sutradhara or vardhaki), textile dyers
(chimpaka), ivory-makers, distiller (kallara), brick manufactures (ishtakapalli),
salt-makers (lavanatailika) and oil millers etc.These sources also inform us about
the different categories of craftsmen. For example, different varieties of silk cloth,
called kshauma and pattavastra are mentioned in the texts of this period. The
craftsmen were generally organized into various guild-like professional groups
(sreni or nigamas). These guilds played a crucial role in craftsmen’s life. Texts
like Amarkosha and Brihat Samhita refer to different categories of craftsmen.
Sites like Taxila, Ahichchhatra, Mathura, Rajghat, Kaushambi and Pataliputra in
the Ganges valley have yielded many craft products like earthen wares, terracotta,
beads made from different stones, objects of glass, metal items etc. However, the
analysis of archaeological remains from various sites of this period indicates a
102 declining trend in craft production.
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production was not easily available everywhere. They were made available
through trade. The term used for commercial transactions was known as kraya-
vikraya. For smooth function of this transaction various types of coins were
issued by different rulers. In ancient India, the Guptas were known for issuing
the largest number of gold coins, which were called dinaras in their inscriptions.
However, in gold content the Gupta coins are not as pure as the Kushana ones
and most probably not used by ordinary peoples in their daily transactions. Daily
transaction mostly was done in copper coins or other modes of currency. But in
contrast to those of the Kushanas, the Gupta copper coins are very few. Thus, it
seems that commercial activities in this period were not as flourishing as they
were in Kushana period. Moreover, in comparison to the earlier period, decline
was noticed in long-distance trade in this period. This happened because around
550 CE people of the eastern Roman (Byzantine) empire gained knowledge of
growing silk from the Chinese. This adversely affected India’s position as India
had played an important role in the earlier Silk trade. The archaeological remains
of the urban centres of this period also point towards decline.

6.7 SOCIETY
The position of brahmanas in the social order was already high before the Gupta
period. They came to be related to the royal power. The royal patronage and land
grants by individuals and institutions to brahmanas made them even more
powerful. Not only individual brahmanas but also a group of brahmanas were
encouraged through land grants to settle on virgin lands. Thus, the number of
brahmana settlements which were called agraharas or brahmadeyas increased.
The kings patronised the brahmanas irrespective of the former’s religious
affiliation. This was one of the main reasons for the economic prosperity and
prestige of the brahmanas.

The idea of the varna divided social order became the norm. Though the varna
system was the ideal social order there were many whose varna identity could
not be determined. Thus, the law books or Dharmashastras tried to determine
the status of various jatis or castes in society by giving fictitious explanations
about their origins. They suggested that various jatis or groups had originated
through varnasamkara or inter marriages between the various varnas.

The castes proliferated into numerous sub-castes or jatis. Many foreigners had
been assimilated into Indian society, and each group of foreigners was given a
semi-kshatriya status (vratyakshatriyas) because they could not be considered
to be of pure kshatriya origin. Due to the absorption of various tribal groups into
the Brahmanical society and due to the expansion of agriculture into forest
territories, fictitious titles were thought of for tribal groups. Various other groups
like the untouchables or antyajas were considered impure. Similarly, chandalas,
charmakaras and similar groups were considered as outcastes. Fa-hsien informs
us that the chandalas lived outside the village and dealt in meat and flesh. Thus,
such groups continued to be miserable in the Gupta period. The position of
shudras, however, improved slightly during this period. They were now permitted
to listen to recitations of the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas but not the
Veda, which was still considered sacred.
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Guptas and Post-Gupta State The position of women of higher varna was low. The woman in a family was
and Society
expected to function as an ideal wife and mother. In texts, women were even
considered to be of the same category as the shudras.

6.8 CULTURE UNDER THE GUPTAS1

The Gupta period has often been referred to as the “Golden Age” due to its
cultural heritage. This applies to great accomplishments in the field of art and
architecture, language and literature. The Gupta age, thus, stands out as a
significant and noteworthy departure from previous historical periods, particularly
in the cultural history of India due to impressive standards achieved by artistic
and literary expressions of this time.

It has been rightly commented that the Gupta art represents ancient Indian art at
its best. From the vantage point of architecture, the Gupta period reflects creative
enthusiasm and deep sense and awareness of beauty. These are evident in the
Dashavatara temple at Deogarh in Jhansi district (UP), Bhitargaon temple near
Kanpur (UP), Vishnu temple at Tigawa (Jabalpur district, MP), Shiva temple at
Bhumara (Satna district, MP), Parvati temple at Nachna-Kuthara (Panna district,
MP) etc. Some of them are adorned with beautiful sculptural panels. The Gupta
temple-building activity represents evolution from the earlier tradition of rock-
cut shrines which now reached a whole new level. However, the high and
elaborately carved sikharas (towers) on top of the temples were yet to register
their appearance. Therefore, Gupta period marks the formative phase of temple
construction in India, but it was a significant phase that continued to influence
temple-building activity right up to the medieval period.

What we now refer to as “Classical Sanskrit” developed during the Guptas.

Sanskrit was widely patronized by Gupta rulers, making it the official language
of their court. All their inscriptions are written in Sanskrit. Ignored earlier under
the influence of Buddhist and Jaina traditions that encouraged vernacular dialects
like Pali, Prakrit and Ardhamagadhi, Sanskrit saw its revival under the Guptas. It
became a widespread language in entire north India during the Gupta period.
Even Buddhist scholars, particularly those of Mahayana Buddhism, began
composing their scriptures in Sanskrit. Great poets, dramatists, grammarians and
playwrights of Sanskrit are known from this period.

The epics Ramayana and Mahabharata are believed to have been compiled and
given their final form around 4th-5th century CE. The great Sanskrit writer-poet
Kalidasa — one of the Navaratnas (nine gems) of the court of Gupta king
Chandragupta Vikramaditya — wrote dramas like Abhijnana-Shakuntalam,
Malavikagnimitram, Vikramorvashiyam and poetic works such as
Raghuvamsham, Kumarasambhavam and Meghadutam which show the excellent
literary standards achieved during the Gupta period. Besides these, Varahamihira
wrote Brihat Samhita that deals with scientific subjects like astronomy and botany.
Aryabhatta wrote Aryabhattiyam: a famous work on geometry, algebra, arithmetic
and trigonometry. The notable creations on medicine include Charaka Samhita
and Sushruta Samhita. An all-round progress in literature was manifest during
this time.

1
This section on Culture has been written by Dr Abhishek Anand

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Check Your Progress Exercise 2 Rise of Guptas : Economy,
Society and Polity
1) Which of the following statements are right ( ) or wrong (×)?
a) The king no more remained a central figure under the Guptas. ( )
b) The king was to lead the army in case of war. ( )
c) Mahadandanayaka was the minister of revenues. ( )
d) One-sixth of the produce was claimed as royal revenue. ( )
e) The highest unit of administration was the village. ( )
2) Write about the society and culture under the Guptas.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
3) Write about the duties of the Gupta king.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

6.9 DECLINE OF THE GUPTAS

After Skandgupta’s reign the Gupta power weakened. Soon many subordinate
rulers became independent. The later Gupta kings ruled between 475-530 CE.
They ruled over small territories and functioned as petty rulers. The Gupta rule
finally came to end by the middle of the sixth century CE. There were various
reasons why the Gupta power weakened towards the end.

1) Huna Invasions
The successors of Chandragupta II had to face the Huna onslaught. Hunas
were from Central Asia. They were a branch of the White Huns, the
Hephthalites from Central Asia, known in the Indian sources as the Hunas.
Before attacking the north-western Indian frontier, they had occupied Bactria
and were threatening to cross the Hindu Kush mountains. Initially the Gupta
rulers were successful in fighting them back. However, the successors of
Kumaragupta could not defend their kingdom. Each wave of Huna invasions
made the Gupta rule weaker. A major blow came at the end of the fifth
century when the Hunas successfully broke through northern India. The
first Huna king in India was Toramana who claimed conquest over northern
India as far as Eran in central India. Thus, the Huna attacks caused a major
blow to Gupta authority particularly in northern and western regions of the
empire.
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Guptas and Post-Gupta State 2) Administrative Weaknesses
and Society
Skandagupta was facing domestic problems also. This involved court
rivalries and the breaking away of the feudatories whose political integration
into the metropolitan area of the Gupta state was tenuous. This was because
the Guptas had always adopted the policy in the conquered areas to restore
the authority of local chiefs or kings once they had accepted Gupta suzerainty.
In fact, no efforts were made to impose a strict and effective control over
these regions. Hence, it was natural that whenever there was a crisis of
succession or a weak monarchy within the Gupta empire these local chiefs
would re-establish their independent authority. This created a problem for
almost every Gupta king who had to reinforce his authority. The Guptas lost
western India as after the reign of Skandagupta, in CE 467, hardly any Gupta
coin or inscription has been found in western Malwa and Saurashtra. This
must have deprived the Guptas of the rich revenues from trade and commerce
and crippled them economically. Secondly, the constant military campaigns
were a strain on the state treasury. Towards the end of the 5th century CE and
beginning of 6th century CE, taking advantage of the weak Gupta emperors,
many regional powers reasserted their authority, and in due course declared
their independence.

Besides these, there were many other reasons which contributed to the decline
of the Guptas. For example, it has been argued that the Guptas issued land-
grants to brahmana donees and in this process surrendered the revenue and
administrative rights in favour of the donees. This practice was bound to
reduce revenues. The migration of a guild of silk weavers from Gujarat to
Malwa in 473 CE and their adoption of non-productive professions show
that there was no great demand for the cloth produced by them (Sharma,
2005). The advantages from Gujarat trade gradually disappeared. Further, it
is believed that the samanta system in which the samantas (minor rulers),
who ruled as subordinates to the central authority, started to consolidate
itself in the Gupta period. This is also believed to be the reason why Gupta
administrative structure became so loose. There is diversity of opinion as to
how the system originated and regarding the details of the system, but the
presence of many Samantas within the empire does show that they wielded
power almost independently of the Gupta authority.

Towards the end of their rule, the Gupta kings made desperate attempts to
maintain their gold currency by reducing the content of pure gold in it, but
this was not very helpful. Although the Guptas continued to rule till the
sixth century, their imperial power had vanished a century earlier.

6.10 SUMMARY
In the beginning of the fourth century CE, north India was divided into many
small kingdoms and chieftaincies. It was in this political scenario that the Guptas
rose as a powerful family of rulers. Successful military campaigns, robust
administration, sound economic and social footing made them one of the strongest
in north India. However, from the later part of the Gupta period and in the post-
Gupta period certain changes began to accelerate which transformed the economic
and social set up. This is clearly seen from the practice of land grants which
became very common in the post-Gupta period. The position of outcastes and
106 slaves became very miserable though some improvement in the position of the
shudras could be seen. Craft activity delined though great achievements in the Rise of Guptas : Economy,
Society and Polity
realm of art and architecture could be seen.

6.11 KEY WORDS

Aryavarta: Literally meaning “abode of the Aryans”, it is the region where the
Vedic Aryans settled after their migration into the Indian subcontinent. It covers
parts of north-western and northern India.

Chandala: One of the lowest rungs of the Varna order of ancient times. They
were regarded as untouchables and supposedly engaged in disposal of corpses.

Dakshinapatha: Ancient south region of the Indian subcontinent below

Uttarapatha. It also connotes the great route linking Magadha and Pratishthana
(present-day Paithan in Maharashtra) in ancient times.

Charmakaras: Those involved in tanning leather.

Prashasti: Panegyric/Eulogy.

Puranas: Encyclopaedic Hindu texts on a variety of topics.

Sramanas: Literally meaning “one who toils, labours or exerts himself”, it refers
to the ascetics; those in pursuit of spiritual liberation.

Terracotta: The Italian word meaning “baked earth”. It is a type of ceramic

pottery made by baking terracotta clay. It was also widely used in ancient times
to make sculptures.

6.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) (a) many (b) Lichchhavis (c) Samudragupta
2) Write your answer by reading Section 6.3, under the heading ‘Samudragupta’
3) Yaudheyas, Malavas, Nagas, Madras, Later Kushanas. See Section 6.2
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) (a) × (b) (c) × (d) (e) ×
2) See Section 6.7 and 6.8
3) See Section 6.4

6.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

Gupta, P.L. The Imperial Guptas. Varanasi.
Thapar, Romila (1983). A History of India. Penguin.
Thapar, Romila (2002). The Penguin History of Early India. From the Origins to
AD 1300. Penguin Books
Sharma, R.S. (2005). India’s Ancient Past. Oxford University Press.
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