W16371

BURGER KING FRANCE: ACQUIRING THE QUICK CHAIN1

Rozenn Perrigot and Cheryl R. Babcock wrote this case solely to provide material for class discussion. The authors do not intend to
illustrate either effective or ineffective handling of a managerial situation. The authors may have disguised certain names and other
identifying information to protect confidentiality.

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Copyright © 2016, Richard Ivey School of Business Foundation Version: 2016-06-27

Burger King restaurants in France were developed and operated through master-franchising agreements.2
The majority shareholder of the Burger King France master-franchise was Groupe Bertrand, in which
Restaurant Brands International Inc. held a minority stake. Led by Olivier Bertrand, the family-owned
Groupe Bertrand operated 26 Burger King restaurants in France as of September 2015, with plans to open
more Burger King restaurants in the future.

One of Burger King France’s expansion strategies included acquiring Quick, a chain of 509 fast-food
restaurants operating in France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the French territories (La Réunion, Nouvelle-
Calédonie, and Martinique). Seventy-five per cent of the Quick restaurants were franchised. The French
market contained 390 Quick restaurants, including 287 franchised and 103 company-owned units.3

In the process of acquiring Quick, Burger King France faced a series of challenges: the potential
expansion strategy of acquiring the Quick chain; the conversion and rebranding of Quick restaurants to
Burger King restaurants; the question of how to expand into areas where franchisee-owned Quick
restaurants existed; the consequences, challenges, and opportunities in terms of brand image, chain
internationalization, company culture, and expanding the concept into a foreign market; and the
importance of chain management, local adaptation, marketing, competition, and the role of brands.

OVERVIEW OF BURGER KING

Burger King’s Concept and Origins

Burger King, the second-largest fast-food burger chain in the world, was launched by James McLamore
and David Edgerton in Miami, Florida, in 1954. By 1957, McLamore and Edgerton had introduced the
Whopper, their signature burger, and in 1961, they franchised their concept. Over the years, the Burger
King menu expanded to offer a variety of burgers as well as chicken, salads, a breakfast menu, and kids’
meals. According to the company’s website, Burger King has long been committed to “serving high-
quality, great-tasting, and affordable food” in a family-friendly atmosphere.4

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Burger King as Part of Restaurant Brands International

In October 2010, the Burger King Corporation became a privately held company when it was purchased
by 3G Capital, a global multimillion-dollar investment firm focused on long-term value creation.5 In
December 2014, 3G Capital formed Restaurant Brands International Inc., combining Burger King and
Tim Hortons.6 Governed by the core values of the respective restaurants’ brands, as well as by the
employee-franchise relationship and a long track record of community support, Restaurant Brands
International Inc.’s plans were to make the two brands grow on a global scale. Restaurant Brands
International Inc., with more than US$23 billion in sales and over 19,000 restaurants in 100 countries,
became one of the world’s biggest fast-food restaurant companies.7

BURGER KING’S ACTIVITIES IN THE UNITED STATES

The Extent of Burger King’s U.S. Activities

By October 15, 2015, Burger King operated 7,275 restaurants in the United States, with locations in all of
the 50 U.S. states.8 Ninety-nine per cent of these eateries were owned by franchisees, and many were run
as family businesses that had been in operation for decades. The remaining 1 per cent of the restaurants
were owned and operated by Burger King.9

Among its many service recognitions, Burger King was listed as a top-three industry-changing advertiser
by Ad Week and as one of the 100 Best Global Brands by Interbrand; it was ranked as one of the 1,000
largest U.S. corporations by Fortune magazine.10

The Whopper

Burger King restaurants sold 2.1 billion Whoppers each year, half of them at drive-through windows.11
Every Whopper was made to order and included “a [quarter pound] of savory flame-grilled beef topped
with juicy tomatoes, fresh lettuce, creamy mayonnaise, ketchup, crunchy pickles, and sliced white onions
on a soft sesame seed bun.”12

Values, Diversity, and Corporate Social Responsibility at Burger King13

Burger King’s values were to be bold, empowered, accountable, meritocratic, and fun. 14 The company
strongly believed in equality and inclusion, and its diversity program covered five main areas: employee
recruitment and retention, franchisee relations, supplier diversity, and marketing to [its] guests and
community.15

Burger King communicated its corporate social responsibility by specifying that it was “looking beyond a
strong bottom line to consider the impact of everything [the company does]. It is about doing the right
thing as a corporate citizen in today’s global marketplace while successfully meeting business goals and
objectives.”16 Burger King also mentioned that corporate social responsibility was not a “final
destination” but an “ongoing journey.”17 The company took into consideration the need for updating its
policies and procedures according to the evolution of the industry and the business. Burger King was
aware of the advantages of being socially responsible. For example, “it can help [the company] manage
risk, enhance employee morale and retention, strengthen brand loyalty, build goodwill and strengthen the
communities in which [the company] operates and can directly affect the bottom line in terms of energy

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savings and waste reduction.”18 The company also knew that a socially responsible approach to its
business was “a way of thinking” that had to be “fully embedded within [its] brand.” 19 Burger King’s
approach to social responsibility focused on four issues: food, people, environment, and corporate
governance. Moreover, the objectives of the Burger King McLamore Foundation, whose board of
directors was comprised of the company’s own executives and franchisees, were to aid in “the
advancement of education around the world” and “make a positive impact in [the] communities by
building brighter futures through education and providing hardship assistance to members of the [Burger
King] family.”20

BURGER KING’S INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES

In 2014, Burger King operated around 15,000 restaurants in more than 70 countries worldwide: 7,406
restaurants in the United States and Canada; 3,802 in Europe, the Middle East, and Africa; 1,698 in Latin
America and the Caribbean; and 1,466 in Asia Pacific.21 About 90 per cent of these restaurants were
franchised; the others were owned by Burger King.22 Every day, at the worldwide level, 11 million guests
visited a Burger King restaurant.23

BURGER KING’S ACTIVITIES IN FRANCE

Entering the French Market in 1980 and Exiting in 1997

Burger King entered the French market in 1980—one year after McDonald’s and the same year as
Quick—by opening its first restaurant in Paris on the famous Champs-Élysées. The development of the
chain was very slow, with few openings compared to the two other competitors. The total sales were also
low: F770 million24 versus F2.6 billion for Quick and F7 billion for McDonald’s.25 The small size of the
chain did not allow for economies of scale and/or investments in advertising, and thus, Burger King did
not benefit from a strong brand image.

In 1997, Burger King announced that it would exit the French market, closing 39 restaurants (16
company-owned and 23 franchised), mostly located in Paris and the surrounding area. Some Burger King
restaurants, when closing their doors, were acquired by Quick, a European chain. The main reasons for
the failure of Burger King in France were determined to be the small size of the chain and the low
profitability of its activities in the French market. The competition from McDonald’s and Quick was also
a factor. Various experts and consultants pointed to other reasons for Burger King’s failure in France,
including strategic mistakes, too much focus on Paris, too few openings in the countryside, bad location
choices, delays in setting up innovations (e.g., drive-through windows), and not taking into account the
competition from Quick, which did not exist in Burger King’s other markets.26

The Return to France in Late 2012

Burger King decided to return to the French market and opened its first restaurant in December 2012 in
the Marseille Airport. The second and third locations were opened in 2013 on a highway service area near
Reims and in Paris at the Saint-Lazare train station.27

Burger King restaurants were developed and operated through master-franchising agreements in France.
The majority shareholder of the Burger King France master-franchise was Groupe Bertrand, with
Restaurant Brands International Inc. holding a minority stake. Led by Olivier Bertrand, the French,

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family-owned Groupe Bertrand, established in 1997, developed and operated restaurants, hotels, and
beverage distribution companies. It managed about 250 units in luxury dining, traditional dining, fast-
food restaurants, and concession stands under the brands Au Bureau, Café Leffe, Angelina, Brasserie
Lipp, and Bert’s. In the hotel sector, Groupe Bertrand operated the Saint James Paris hotel and the Relais
Christine.28 Groupe Bertrand’s total annual sales were €600 million in 2015.29

In 2012–2013, the restaurant chain announced some ambitious objectives. Burger King France planned to
achieve 20 per cent of the fast-food market, and it expected to have 350 to 400 restaurants in the French
market within 10 years, with 25 franchised restaurants opened in the first year. One year later, however,
the chain had opened only 13 restaurants.30

Part of Burger King’s communication strategy appeared to be to proceed slowly in terms of expanding
operations, as some luxurious and well-known brands do. Indeed, some luxury brands have a
communication strategy of building interest and anticipation by taking their time in opening stores. This
strategy proved to be effective for Burger King because, due to the scarcity of its restaurants in the
marketplace, the Burger King brand became more desirable, and as the result of an active presence in
social media, customers eagerly anticipated the openings. Moreover, relying only on franchising was
time-consuming in the context of an economic crisis, fierce competition, and pressure already existing in
the best locations.31

By September 28, 2015, Burger King France was operating 26 Burger King restaurants.32 The chain’s
total sales were equal to €100 million in 2014.33 On average, a Burger King restaurant in France had total
annual sales of €4.8 million.34

THE BURGER MARKET IN FRANCE

A Consumption Perspective

Burgers represented an important part of the fast-food market in France, with 1.07 billion burgers sold in
2014, corresponding to an increase of 10 per cent compared to the previous year.35 Approximately one out
of two sandwiches sold in France was a burger, while in 2000, that ratio had been one burger out of nine
sandwiches.36 In France, burger prices ranged between €5 and €20.37

Due to this growing demand from customers, specialized chains in the burger segment became fiercely
competitive, above all in terms of locations, prices, quality, and services.38 For instance, McDonald’s
served its customers at their tables, while Big Fernand and Steak ’n Shake focused on quality, offering
fresh daily preparation of its food. Other more traditional restaurant chains launched new additional
concepts based on burgers; for example, Quick opened its “Burger Bars by Quick,” and Buffalo Grill
opened its “Buffalo Burgers.”39 Even in independent traditional restaurants, burgers were on 75 per cent
of the menus, and most of these eateries declared burgers to be their best-selling items.40

A Competition Perspective

McDonald’s

In 1954, Ray Kroc, a multi-mixer salesman, visited a restaurant in San Bernardino, California, that had
purchased several multi-mixers. He was impressed by the effectiveness of Dick and Mac McDonald’s
operations, which maintained a limited menu (i.e., burgers, fries, and beverages) and focused on quality

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and quick service. Kroc proposed to the brothers that the concept should be reproduced all around the
United States. He founded McDonald’s System, Inc. in 1955, and that early concept went on to become
the McDonald’s Corporation. Kroc bought the exclusive rights to the name in 1961, operating by the
slogan “In business for yourself, but not by yourself.” He ran his company on the philosophy that the key
to the success of McDonald’s was reliance on McDonald’s franchisees, McDonald’s suppliers, and
McDonald’s employees.41

In October 2015, McDonald’s had 14,339 restaurants in the U.S. market.42 The brand was present in more
than 100 countries and operated more than 36,000 restaurants. The restaurants served 69 million
customers a day. Eighty per cent of the restaurants were franchised.43

McDonald’s entered the French market in 1979, with the opening of its first restaurant in Strasbourg; the
chain opened its first restaurant in Paris in 1984.44 In October 2015, McDonald’s was the leader in the
burger segment in France, with 1,285 restaurants, 69,000 employees, and 1.8 million meals served daily. 45
Eighty per cent of the 1,285 restaurants were franchised and owned by 290 franchisees. 46 McDonald’s
total sales in the French market in 2015 were €4.6 billion.47 On average, one McDonald’s restaurant had
total sales of €3.4 million in France.48

McDonald’s best-selling item was the Big Mac. The chain sold 29 Big Macs each second and more than
900 million Big Macs worldwide each year,49 including 550 million in the United States, 170 million in
Japan, and 120 million in France.50

Quick

Founded in 1967 and headquartered in Antwerp, Belgium, Quick was a chain of fast-food restaurants that
operated in France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the French territories (La Réunion, Nouvelle-Calédonie,
and Martinique). By September 28, 2015, Quick was operating a total of 509 restaurants, 75 per cent of
which were franchised. A total of 19,000 people worked for the chain. Two hundred million customers
were served, and a total €1.029 billion was generated in 2014.51

Qualium Investissement (QI) owned 94 per cent of Quick, with 6 per cent being held by the management
team. QI, established in 1998,52 was the foremost private equity firm in France and a subsidiary of the
French state investment fund La Caisse des Dépôts. Since its founding, QI had invested in approximately
60 active companies in various industries.53

QI bought Quick in 2006 from the Belgian billionaire Albert Frère for a price between €750 million and
€800 million. In 2010, QI tried to sell the Quick brand but did not succeed in matching its price
expectations.54

In 1980, Quick opened its first restaurant in the French market in Aix-en-Provence. By 2015, the business
had grown into a chain of 379 restaurants, among which 287 were franchised and 103 were company-
owned.55 In France, on average, a Quick restaurant had total annual sales of €2.3 million. 56 The locations
of the restaurants were spread over the whole territory.
Quick restaurants offered burgers, salads, sides, desserts, special menus, and drinks. Quick’s best-selling
item was a burger called the Giant, which was well-known for its inimitable Giant sauce, made with
mayonnaise, ketchup, and capers. This burger included two pure beefsteak patties, melted cheddar,
onions, and crunchy salad on warm bread.57

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As the main European brand in the burger segment, Quick was considered the leading brand, with its
success in adapting the U.S. fast-food model to European consumption habits and tastes but retaining the
European atmosphere of conviviality, where customers took their time.58 In 1986, Quick’s slogan was
“Quick, the burger that wows the Americans.”59 Quick’s values were quality, nutrition, environment,
contributions to progress, and talents.60
Quick faced some serious issues over the years. On January 22, 2011, a 14-year-old teenager died of food
poisoning after eating at a Quick restaurant in Avignon in the South of France. This incident not only
affected the sales of this specific restaurant location but also the sales of the whole chain. Moreover, in
2015, Quick was €600 million in debt.61 Finally, Quick’s total sales decreased by 4.2 per cent between
2013 and 2014.62

Small Burger Chains in France

Besides big chains like McDonald’s, Quick, and Burger King, other smaller burger chains provided some
additional competition. The first was 231 East Street, which was founded in collaboration with the creator
of the Flam’s, Nooi, and Wazawok brands63 in 2011 and franchised in 2012. In its 15 units in France, 231
East Street offered American traditional burgers with a French touch. The name of the company was a
reference to Andy Warhol’s address and to the claim that food, much like art, should be available to
everyone.64

The second of these smaller chains, Big Fernand, was established in 2011 and franchised in 2013. It had a
turnover of €6 million in 2014. Big Fernand operated 14 units, two of them located outside France. The
company took advantage of the “Made in France” cachet and served quality burgers in a typical French
atmosphere, including the waiters’ attire and restaurant decor. Big Fernand claimed to be a leader in the
burger market, as the creator of gourmet burgers.65

The third competitor, King Marcel, a concept created in 2013 in Lyon, opened its first franchised
restaurant in Paris in 2015. The founders promoted a product with a unique taste that combined the best of
American fast food and the best of French cuisine. King Marcel had five restaurants in 2015 and planned
to open 50 restaurants over the course of the next five years, among which 30 would be franchised.66

The fourth, Mythic Burger, which was created by the same group that debuted La Boîte à Pizza in 2014,
offered premium burgers for delivery, at drive-throughs, and in restaurants. In 2015, Mythic Burger had
15 units in the French market. The chain’s “d’Artagnan burger” was awarded “Saveur de l’année 2015”
by customers.67

The fifth chain, Steak ’n Shake, was created in the United States in 1934 and offered quality burgers and
milkshakes to its customers at its two restaurants in France.

Five Guys also planned its own entry into the market, along with other brands with a few units that would
open at the same time.

THE CHALLENGING ROAD AHEAD

In a September 28, 2015, press release, Burger King France shareholders announced that the restaurant
chain planned to acquire the Quick group, with the intention to convert the Quick restaurants into Burger
King restaurants over time.68 The company’s vision was to become the second-largest fast-food chain in

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 Page 7 9B16M109

France. Subject to competition authority, staff representatives, and bondholder approvals, it was estimated
that the anticipated transactions in these exclusive negotiations would take place by the end of 2015.

Burger King France faced numerous challenges with the conversion and rebranding of Quick restaurants
to Burger King restaurants. What would be the best method of expansion for Burger King into areas
where franchisee-owned Quick restaurants already existed? What consequences and challenges would
Burger King encounter pertaining to brand image, chain internationalization, and company culture?
Alternatively, what opportunities might it encounter in the rebranding and conversion pertaining to brand
image, chain internationalization, and company culture? Why are chain management, local adaptation,
and brand important?

The authors sincerely thank Charline Bernier for her assistance in the preparation of this case.

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ENDNOTES
1
This case has been written on the basis of published sources only. Consequently, the interpretation and perspectives
presented in this case are not necessarily those of Burger King or any of its employees.
2
Franchising was defined as “a contractual arrangement between two independent firms, whereby the franchisee pays the
franchisor for the right to sell the franchisor’s product and/or the right to use [the franchisor’s] trademark at a given place and
for a certain period of time […]. [T]he relationship between franchisor and franchisees includes not only the product, servic e,
and trademark, but the entire business format itself—a marketing strategy and plan, operating manuals and standards,
quality control, and continuing two-way communication,” F. Lafontaine, “Agency Theory and Franchising: Some Empirical
Results,” Rand Journal of Economics 23, no. 2 (1992): 263–283.
3
French Franchise Federation, Toute la Franchise, les Textes, les Chiffres, les Réseaux, March 2015.
4
“About Us,” Burger King, accessed November 6, 2015, www.bk.com/about-bk.
5
Ibid.
6
“About,” 3G Capital, accessed November 6, 2015, www.3g-capital.com/about.html.
7
“About Us,” Restaurant Brands International Inc., accessed November 6, 2015, http://rbi.com/en/about-us.
8
“Complete List of Burger King Locations,” AggData, accessed November 6, 2015, www.aggdata.com/aggdata/complete-
list-burger-king-us-locations.
9
J. Parigi, “Mc Donald’s Va Vendre 3500 Restaurants À Des Franchisés,” LSA, May 4, 2015, accessed November 6, 2015,
www.lsa-conso.fr/mc-donald-s-va-vendre-3500-restaurants-a-des-franchises,209179.
10
“International Locations,” Burger King, accessed November 6, 2015, www.bk.com/international.
11
“About Us,” Burger King, accessed November 6, 2015, www.burgerking.co.za/company/about-us.
12
“Whopper Sandwich,” Burger King, accessed November 6, 2015, www.bk.com/menu-item/whopper-sandwich.
13
“BK Corporate Responsibility,” Burger King, accessed November 6, 2015, www.bk.com/corp-respon.
14
“Diversity,” Burger King, accessed on November 6, 2015, www.bk.com/diversity.
15
Ibid.
16
Ibid.
17
Ibid.
18
“BK Corporate Responsibility,” Burger King, op. cit.
19
Ibid.
20
Ibid.
21
“Number of Burger King Restaurants Worldwide from 2009 to 2014 By Geographical Region,” Statista, accessed
November 6, 2015, www.statista.com/statistics/222987/burger-king-restaurants-worldwide-by-geographical-region.
22
“International Locations,” Burger King, op. cit.
23
“About Us,” Burger King, op. cit.
24
F = FRF = French francs; the franc was the currency used in France before the euro.
25
M. Di Rosa, “King D’Un Jour, Burger Toujours,” Stratégies, March 23, 2012, accessed November 6, 2015,
www.strategies.fr/etudes-tendances/tendances/184173W/king-d-un-jour-burger-toujours.html.
26
J. Coignard, “Burger King Se Boute Hors De France - Le N2 Mondial Du Fast-Food N’A Pas Su S’Imposer Face À McDo
Et Quick,” Libération, July 30, 1997, accessed November 6, 2015, www.liberation.fr/futurs/1997/07/30/burger-king-se-boute-
hors-de-france-le-n2-mondial-du-fast-food-n-a-pas-su-s-imposer-face-a-mcdo-et-q_209770.
27
“Burger King Accélère Son Développement En France,” Le Monde, November 4, 2013, accessed November 6, 2015,
www.lemonde.fr/vous/article/2013/11/04/burger-king-negocie-son-developpement-en-france_3507787_3238.html;
“Burger King Va Ouvrir 400 Restaurants En France,” Challenges, November 27, 2013, accessed November 6, 2015,
www.challenges.fr/entreprise/20131127.CHA7532/hamburger-burger-king-veut-s-arroger-20-du-marche-francais.html.
28
“Burger King France Shareholders Announce the Proposed Acquisition of Quick Group; Will Become the Second Largest
QSR Chain in France,” Restaurant Brands International Inc., accessed November 6, 2015,
http://investor.rbi.com/en/investor-information/press-releases/2015/09-28-2015-120338747.aspx.
29
“Le Groupe Bertrand S’Offre Les 500 Restaurants Quick,” Hospitality On, September 28, 2015, accessed November 6,
2015, http://hospitality-on.com/actualites/2015/09/28/le-groupe-bertrand-soffre-les-500-restaurants-quick and www.groupe-
bertrand.com; 1.00 euro = 1.11305 U.S. dollar on May 30, 2015, www.xe.com/fr/currencyconverter/convert/?From=EUR&To=USD.
30
F. Miguet, “Pourquoi Burger King Se Déploie-T-Il Si Lentement En France?” Capital, January 22, 2015, accessed
November 6, 2015, www.capital.fr/enquetes/strategie/pourquoi-burger-king-se-deploie-t-il-si-lentement-en-france-1007304.
31
Ibid.
32
“Burger King France Shareholders Announce the Proposed Acquisition of Quick Group; Will Become the Second Largest
QSR Chain in France,” Restaurant Brands International Inc., op. cit.
33
M. Brigand, “Burger King Prêt À Avaler Son Concurrent Quick,” Le Figaro, September 29, 2015, accessed November 6,
2015, www.lefigaro.fr/societes/2015/09/28/20005-20150928ARTFIG00156-burger-king-en-negociations-exclusives-pour-
racheter-quick.php.
34
V. Duhaut, “Longuenesse: Le Restaurant Quick Ne Tardera Pas À Adopter L’Enseigne Burger King,” La Voix du Nord,
September 29, 2015, accessed November 6, 2015, www.lavoixdunord.fr/region/longuenesse-le-restaurant-quick-ne-tardera-
pas-a-adopter-ia37b0n3074234.
35
“Plus D’un Milliard De Burgers Vendus En France,” Le Figaro, June 29, 2015, accessed November 6, 2015,
www.lefigaro.fr/flash-eco/2015/06/29/97002-20150629FILWWW00215-plus-d-un-milliard-de-burgers-vendus-en-france.php;

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 Page 9 9B16M109

“Le Marché Du Burger En France,” Gira Conseil, June 29, 2015, accessed November 6, 2015,
http://bboutboul.canalblog.com/archives/2015/06/29/32286542.html.
36
“La Guerre Du Burger Est Engagée,” Les Echos, February 19, 2016, accessed November 6, 2015,
www.lesechos.fr/industrie-services/services-conseils/0204013274576-la-guerre-du-burger-est-engagee-1075672.php.
37
“Plus D’Un Milliard De Burgers Vendus En France,” Le Figaro, op. cit.
38
“Le Fast-Food: Un Secteur En Pleine Évolution En France,” France TV Info, October 18, 2015, accessed November 6,
2015, www.francetvinfo.fr/economie/tendances/le-fast-food-un-secteur-en-pleine-evolution-en-france_1134247.html.
39
Les Echos, op. cit.
40
“Plus D’un Milliard De Burgers Vendus En France,” Le Figaro, op. cit.
41
“The Ray Kroc Story,” McDonald’s, accessed November 6, 2015, www.mcdonalds.com/us/en/our_story/our_history/
the_ray_kroc_story.html.
42
“Number of McDonald’s Restaurants in North America from 2012 to 2014, by Country,” Statista, accessed November 6,
2015, www.statista.com/statistics/256040/mcdonalds-restaurants-in-north-america.
43
“Our Company,” McDonald’s, accessed November 6, 2015, www.aboutmcdonalds.com/mcd/our_company.html.
44
“Notre Histoire,” McDonald’s, accessed November 6, 2015, www.mcdonalds.fr/entreprise/historique.
45
“Nos Chiffres,” McDonald’s, accessed November 6, 2015, www.mcdonalds.fr/entreprise/entreprise/qui-sommes-nous/chiffres.
46
“La Franchise,” McDonald’s, accessed November 6, 2015, www.mcdonalds.fr/entreprise/entreprise/franchise.
47
B. Zagnoud, “Infographies - Burger King, Quick, McDonald’s: Le Marché Très Déséquilibré De La Restauration Rapide En
France,” France TV Info, September 30, 2015, accessed November 6, 2015,
www.francetvinfo.fr/economie/entreprises/infographies-burger-king-quick-mcdonald-s-le-marche-tres-desequilibre-de-la-
restauration-rapide-en-france_1106165.html.
48
V. Duhaut, op. cit.
49
“Ventes Mondiales De Big Mac McDonald’s,” Planetoscope, November 6, 2015, accessed November 6, 2015,
www.planetoscope.com/mcdonalds/477-ventes-mondiales-de-big-mac-mc-donald-s.html.
50
“900 Millions De Big Mac Vendus Chaque Année,” Journal du Net, August 23, 2011, accessed November 6, 2015,
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