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EDITORS IJSRM

EDITORS

Professor Mirko Palić, Ph.D. – Editor in Chief

Marketing Department, Faculty of Economics and Business,
University of Zagreb, Croatia
mpalic@efzg.hr

Professor Claudio Vignali, Ph.D. – Editor for the UK

Professor of Retail Marketing Management
Leeds Metropolitan University, UK
c.vignali@leedsmet.ac.uk

Professor Bernd Hallier, Ph.D. – Editor for Western Europe

Managing Director of EHI Retail Institute
President of The European Retail Academy
pasternak@ehi.org

Professor John L. Stanton, Ph.D. – Editor for the USA

Professor and Chairman of the Food Marketing Department,
St. Joseph’s University, Philadelphia
jstanton123319@comcast.net

Prof. Dr. Laetitia Radder, D.Comm – Editor for Africa & Asia
Professor of Marketing, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University,
South Africa, Laetitia.Radder@nmmu.ac.za

www.ijsrm.com International Journal of Sales, Retailing and Marketing is

published by:

ISSN 2045-810X Access Press UK

1 Hilllside Gardens
Darwen, Lancashire, BB3 2NJ
United Kingdom

EDITORIAL BOARD

Darko Tipuric Zagreb University Croatia Management dtipuric@efzg.hr

G.Orange Circle UK Information systems g.orange0153@gmail.com
Gianpaolo Vignali Manchester University UK Fashion Marketing gianpaolo.vignali@manchester.ac.uk
Daniela Ryding Manchester University UK Fashion Daniela.ryding@manchester.ac.uk
Bernd Britzelmaier Pforzheim University, D Finance bernd@britzelmaier.de
Tomasz Wisniewski Szczecin University Poland Accounting and Finance t.wisniewski.pl@gmail.com
Enrico Bonetti the University 2 Naples Italy Services management enrico.bonetti@unina2.it
George Lodorfos Leeds Met University UK Strategic management G.lodorfos@leedsmet.ac.uk
Alberto Mattiacci La Sapienza Rome Italy Marketing and Business alberto.mattiacci@uniroma1.it
Leo Dana The University of Montpelier France Entrepreneurship professordana@hotmail.com
Hans Rudiger Kaufmann University of Nicosia SME kaufmann.r@unic.ac.cy
Carmen.R. Santos University Leon Spain European consumerism Carmen santos@unileon.es
Dolores Sanchez Bengoa Uni Vilnius Cross Culture management sanchezl@cytanet.com.cy
Michael Fass Uni of Glos. Uk Action Research mfass@glos.AC.UK
Tomasz Bernat Uni of Szczecin Poland Microeconomics kontakt@tomaszbernat.pl
Mitsunori Hirogaki Kushimo University Japan Japanese management hirogaki@Kushiro-pu.ac.jp
Madalena Pereira Uni Beira Interior Portugal European fashion madaper@gmail.com
Iga Rrudawska University of Szczecin Poland Health marketing igita@wneiz.pl
Carsten Barsch HDBW Germany European Business carsten.barsch@unvi.edu.ba
Edyta Rudawska Szczecin University Poland Marketing development edyta@rudawska.pl
Kreiso Znidar Prizma Zagreb Croatia Marketing Research kresimir.znidar@prizmacpi.hr
Martin Samy Leeds Met University UK CSR m.a.samy@leedsmet.ac.uk
Katarzyna Byrka-Kita Szczecin University, Pl Finance in marketing k.byrka-kita@wneiz.pl
S.Henderson Leeds Met University UK Events marketing s.henderson@leedsmet.ac.uk
Aftab Dean Leeds Met UK Statistics a.dean@leedsmet.ac.uk
Dominique Gerber Chur University Switzerland Leisure and tourism dominiquerolnad.gerber@htwchur.ch
Gianpaolo Basile University of Salerno Italy Literature development gibasile@unisa.it
Antonio Feraco Nan yang University Singapore Development Antonio.feraco@gmail.com
Barry Davies University of Gloucestershire UK Research methods bdavies@glos.ac.uk
Vitor Ambrosio ESHTE Portugal Religious Tourism vitor.ambrosio@eshte.pt
Razaq Raj Leeds Met University UK Events and tourism man. r.raj@leedsmet.ac.uk
Tahir Rashid Salford University UK Islamic marketing t.rashid@salford.ac.uk
Juergen Polke Gloucestershire University Project development polke@gbsco.com
Marija Tomašević Lišanin, Univ. of Zagreb Sales mtomasevic@efzg.hr
Charbel M. El Khoury, Holy Spirit Univ of Kaslik Retailing charbelmelkhoury@usek.edu.lb
Ravi Kandhadai Marketing drravikandhadai@gmail.com

Copyright ©2015 by International Journal of Sales, Retailing and Marketing  Vol. 4  No. 9  2015
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Contents

Editorial ...................................................................................................................................................2
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS .................................................................................................................5
Carolin Graue
CASE STUDY METHOD .......................................................................................................................... 15
Paula Aczel
EMBEDDING CASE STUDY RESEARCH INTO THE RESEARCH CONTEXT ................................................. 23
Elisabeth Göttfert
CASE STUDY RESEACH........................................................................................................................... 33
Martina Gog
FOCUS GROUPS .................................................................................................................................... 42
Brigit Kellmereit
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH WITH A FOCUS ON QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS ....................................... 53
Isabella Mayer
CASE STUDY RESEARCH ........................................................................................................................ 68
Simone Tumele
CASE STUDY: AMBITIOUS GROWTH TARGET OF BNP PARIBAS IN GERMANY...................................... 79
Muhammed Güler

Editorial
The current issue of students. We are proud to present a Guest
the International Editor for this special Issue Dr. Stephen
Journal of Sales, Retail Henderson. .
and Marketing is Thank you for taking interest in
dedicated to the publishing and reading The International Journal
research methods of Sales, Retailing and Marketing. We hope it will
from an investigative be a valuable help in your professional and
viewpoint of doctoral academic advancement.

Editor,

Professor Mirko Palić, Ph.D.

Guest Editor Dr. Stephen Henderson

As the internet has issue, there are a number of good pointers for
made researchers seeking the truth in what surround
communication both us.
quick and easy, we It is noticeable that the majority of contributors
find ourselves have chosen to provide papers looking at the
surrounded by vast case study method of research. Taking a
amounts of moment to consider why this might be, it’s clear
information which that the International Journal of Sales, Retail and
purport to be ‘true’. Marketing mainly concerns itself with
Whilst even a casual glance around reveals commercial organisations. In this way, using
information that is clearly untrue, establishing case studies, we seek to find out why we
accurate and useful information is often difficult. observe spectacular success or, indeed,
For academics, part of the role is to establish spectacular failure in these organisations.
working research practices that help us get to As organisations differ widely in a number of
that elusive truth. This special issue has come attributes such as size, complexity, culture; it’s
together to highlight some of the key techniques not surprising that academics in this area turn
that help researchers to achieve this. Though their attention to the case study method looking
not all the answers can be found in this special into situations that appear fascinating to us.

However, I hear you asking ‘why should this paper from Elisabeth Göttfert whose writing
dominate this special issue?’. In response and starts to compare how qualitative and
support of the selection, I would point you to quantitative research methods fit into the case
one of the foremost writers on case study study approach and vica-versa. Given how case
approach when he says “do not underestimate studies lend themselves to immersion of the
the depth of your challenge” (Yin, 2009, p.3). researcher in the phenomenon being
This special issue aims to shed some light on the researched, it’s not surprising that our
depth of the challenge. contributors leaned towards qualitative
Turning to the papers in this special issue, we research. Isabella Mayer and Carolin Graue both
see Valentina Paula Aczel start with Yin’s explore this area in their papers. Graue chooses
definition of what makes a case study and the to compare qualitative up against quantitative
explanation of its roots in particular observed approaches in exploring both their advantages
phenomenon. Aczel continues by explaining and disadvantages. On the other hand, Mayer
epistemological and philosophical standpoints chooses to look at qualitative data analysis and
that support the case study approach before concentrates on methods of gathering the data
exploring the qualitative nature of this and its analysis. Whilst, superficially, these
approach. In the paper from Simone Tumele, papers are covering similar areas, their main
the case study approach is revealed as offering a common ground is the choice of method. In
number of choices. This may surprise the less particular, they emphasise the fundamental
familiar researcher whose initial thoughts might choice of qualitative or quantitative and the
suggest the case study approach is a singular choices within each area. Specifically, these
type of approach without much flexibility. writers point to the choices to strengthen our
Simone Tumele’s paper points to a typology of research outcomes via techniques such as
case study approaches which have an inevitable triangulation and the interpretation of
consequence that there are a variety of research qualitative data via content analysis.
methods that might be chosen. This theme is As noted earlier, case studies are of interest to
picked up in the paper by Martina Gog who those looking into social issues as much as those
points to the different typologies and reminds us aiming to interpret the commercial world of
that the case study might be applied across business. Both of these sectors have seen the
“psychology, sociology, political science, use of focus groups become ubiquitous whether
anthropology, social work, business, education it is political parties seeking out the voters’
nursing and community planning.” Some of opinions or market researchers’ attempting to
these areas might not immediately come to interpret what would make successful product
mind for readers of this journal with its focus of or service offerings. Hence, including the paper
on the commercial world. In doing so, it is from Birgit Kellmereit allows us to consider what
offering a timely reminder of the versatility and has become an increasingly popular research
usefulness of case study research in both social method within the case study approach. This
and commercial situations. Gog continues by look at focus groups takes the reader from the
returning to Yin (2009) and highlighting the philosophical background to choosing the
generalised process to be followed in order to method through the process to its advantages
allow the case study research of some quite and disadvantages. In doing so, it not only
differing circumstances. reveals why this research method has become
Having covered case study research from the so popular but also why we should be careful
different angles of definition, typology and about where and when it is used within a case
overall process; we have chosen to include the study.

To observe some of the key points from the This special issue is revealing in its look at the
preceding papers, it is useful to include the depth and complexity that the quote from Yin
paper from Muhammed Güler as an example of pointed out at the outset of this editorial. We
a case study approach in action. Looking at the trust that the individual papers in this special
ambitious growth target of BNP Paribas in issue of the International Journal of Sales, Retail
Germany, the paper is revealing in its need to and Marketing help you in your quest for ‘truth’
take on board a range of research methods in your research.
under the umbrella of a case study. Of course,
Güler‘s paper uses just one of what can be References
understood to be a range of approaches to case Yin, R. (2009) Case Study Research: Design and
study that could be chosen. However, it does Methods, 4th Edition. London, SAGE
reflect in its approach much of what has been Publications.
revealed by the other authors in this special
issue.

Dr Stephen Henderson MBA

Senior Lecturer in Events Management at Leeds Schools at the Universities of Warwick, Surrey,
Beckett University. He has spent over ten years Liverpool, Durham, Bradford and The Open
working within industry moving from a University. His consulting clients have included
technical/production role across to such as Heinz, Tatung, Britvic Soft Drinks, John
sales/marketing. Following a PhD at the West, KPMG, Yorkshire Chemical and many
University of Leeds and during his period in others. Publications from his academic career
industry, he gained an MBA from The University have appeared in a number of international
of Warwick. He has worked for the Business journals.

Copyright ©2015 by International Journal of Sales, Retailing and Marketing  Vol. 4  No. 9  2015
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 5

QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Carolin Graue

INTRODUCTION
Armstrong said: “Research is creating new researcher who is conducting a study. After that,
knowledge.” Therefore conducting research is qualitative research is being introduced and a
the logical consequence to the emergence of a comparison between qualitative and
question that has not yet been answered. quantitative research is being drawn. Chapter 4
Research can either analyse an already about qualitative data analysis gives an
examined phenomenon further or approach a introduction about the general aspects of
completely new one. qualitative data analysis and states types of
qualitative data. After that, four approaches to
If quantitative research is unrewarding to qualitative data analysis (theoretical
answer the question, the choice will be propositions, triangulations, grounded theory,
qualitative research which, according to Flick content analysis) will be presented. This paper
(2009: 14) has the following features: “The finishes with a conclusion on qualitative data
correct choice of appropriate methods and analysis that states the necessities for authentic
theories; the recognition and analysis of research and analysis. Via the following link, you
different perspectives; the researchers' have access to a Prezi-presentation about this
reflections on their research as part of the paper:
process of knowledge production; and the http://prezi.com/4n9kttjb9zco/?utm_campaign=
variety of approaches and methods”. Since share&utm_medium=copy
qualitative research has increased greatly in
importance in recent years and is a widely RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY
accepted research method (cf. Flick 2013: 3) this The research design is influenced by methods,
paper is about the analysis of qualitative data, methodology and philosophy, which are the
which is a very important part of the research design’s components (cf. Birks & Mills 2010: 4).
process. First, we take a look at the research The philosophy consists of ontology and
philosophy that has an impact on the role of the epistemology.
Figure 1: Components of Research Design

Metho-
Methods Philosophy
dology

Research Design

Source: Birks & Mills 2010: 4.

Ontology, epistemology, methodology and because I believe that reality exists but I am also
methods affect the research concerning the role sure that I only perceive some parts of it (cf.
of the researcher himself within the study. My Appendix I).
philosophical background is post-positivist

Copyright ©2015 by International Journal of Sales, Retailing and Marketing  Vol. 4  No. 9  2015
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 6

The ontology influences the selection of the whereas the deductive approach (mainly
research objective, the research questions and quantitative) uses theory or hypotheses to test it
also how the research is conducted. against data (cf. Hesse-Biber & Leavy 2011: 5).
Epistemology and ontology of the researcher are To provide an overview of the difference
the philosophical foundation and therefore have between qualitative and quantitative research,
a big impact on all aspects of the study (cf. table 1 is provided.
Hesse-Biber & Leavy 2011: 4-5). As a post-
positivist, I accept the fact that my observations QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
are influenced by my background, theories,
values and knowledge. Nevertheless, I strive to QUANTITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
be as neutral as possible and try not to influence Whether a researcher decides to follow a
the collection and interpretation of data (cf. quantitative or qualitative research approach
Appendix I, Guest et al. 2013: 6). depends on the researcher’s epistemologically
The researchers methodology is accountable for grounded beliefs (cf. Bryman & Bell 2011: 163).
the approach to using theory. This one can In my case, I tend to follow the qualitative
either be inductive or deductive. Following the research approach. Table 1 shows the main
inductive approach (mainly qualitative) means contrasts between qualitative and quantitative
that new theory is generated out of the data research.

Table 1: Contrast between quantitative and qualitative research

Quantitative Qualitative
Numbers Words
Point of view of researcher Points of view of participants
Researcher distant Researcher close
Theory testing Theory emergent
Static Process
Structured Unstructured
Generalisation Contextual understanding
Hard, reliable data Rich, deep data
Macro Micro
Behaviour Meaning
Artificial settings Natural settings
Source: Bryman & Bell 2011: 410.

Some of the differences that emerge from the better the point of view of the subject of study.
role of the researcher himself are the point of When doing quantitative research, the
view and how distant the researcher is. researcher might have no direct contact with the
Quantitative research is structured by the research subject at all. Often he will use hired
concerns of the researcher while qualitative interviewers or send questionnaires by mail. This
research is structured by the concerns of those lack of involvement can assure that the
who are the subject of the research. Since the researcher does not loose his objectivity (cf.
involvement of the researcher is larger when Bryman & Bell 2011: 410).
doing qualitative research, he can understand

Copyright ©2015 by International Journal of Sales, Retailing and Marketing  Vol. 4  No. 9  2015
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 7

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH writing-up the data. Additionally it helps the

Bryman & Bell (2011: 392) state: “Two researcher to stay close to the object of study
particularly distinctive aspects of the sequence and therefore prevents him from unnecessary
of steps in qualitative research are the highly circuits (cf. Bryman & Bell 2011: 79).
related issues of the link between theory and Since there might be more questions of interests
concepts with research data”. than can be answered, a selection of the most
An open-ended research can be complicated important needs to be done. A good research
because it might lead to an overload of question is clear and researchable, it links up
information and fosters an unfocused approach. with theory and the other research questions.
Therefore it is advisable to formulate some Furthermore it should participate to knowledge
research questions at the beginning (cf. Bryman and not be either too narrow or too broad (cf.
& Bell 2011: 79). Formulating an appropriate Bryman & Bell 2011: 81-83). Selecting the right
research question or questions will have the research question(s) is just one step of
following impact: It gives guidance for literature qualitative research. The whole process is show
search, research design, which data needs to be in figure 2.
collected and from where, for the analysis and

Figure 2: Main steps of qualitative research

1. General research questions

2. Selecting relevant site(s) and subjects

3. Collection of relevant data

5b. Collection of further data
4. Interpretation of data

5. Conceptual and theoretical

work 5a. Tighter specification of the research question(s)
6. Writing up findings/conclusions

Source: Bryman & Bell 2011: 390.

After formulating one or more target-aimed researcher can write up findings and derive
research questions, the relevant site(s) and conclusions.
subjects need to be selected. Now the collection The next chapter takes a look at qualitative data
of relevant data can start. After collecting data, analysis. First it clarifies what qualitative data
the researcher will interpret these data. This are, then what types of qualitative data there
interpretation of data will lead to conceptual are, after that in introduces four approaches for
and theoretical work. This on the other hand will analysing them and finally concludes in the four
lead to a tighter specification of the research key steps of qualitative data analysis.
question(s) and therefore to a collection of
further data which needs to be interpreted. QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
After all relevant data is collected, the
WHAT IS QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS?

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QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 8

Qualitative data analysis is a process of the some phenomena by describing the way other
description, classification and interconnection of things correspond to this phenomena. Put
phenomena with the researcher’s concepts. another way, a theory is a formal, testable
First, the phenomena under study needs to be explanation of some events that includes
described precisely. The researcher needs to be explanations of how things relate to one
able to interpret and explain the data; therefore another.” Furthermore, Zikmund et al. (2009: 42)
a conceptual framework needs to be developed define propositions as follows: “Propositions are
and data classified. After that, concepts can be statements concerned with the relationships
built and connected to each others (cf. Dey among concepts. A proposition explains the
1993: 31, 41, 48). logical linkage among certain concepts by
Qualitative data analysis has the following asserting a universal connection between
general aims (Flick 2013: 4): concepts.”
Describe a phenomenon in some or greater detail Usage
Comparing several cases on what they have in If the researcher assumes e.g. a specified
common or on the differences between them reaction as a result of an action, he can approach
Develop a theory of the phenomenon under the study with a theoretical proposition. The
study from the analysis of empirical material counterparts of this proposition are hypotheses
that shall be answered. It is the proposition that
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE DATA can be tested during the research. Since there is
When analysing qualitative data, the researcher usually more than just one theory available, the
deals with meanings and not with plain researcher can confirm the theory that fits best
numbers. Qualitative research can be conducted by collecting empirical data or making
by using different sorts of sources like observations (cf. Zikmund et al. 2009: 42-43).
observation, unstructured interviews, group Zikmund et al. (2009: 43-44) state: “One task of
interviews, collection of documentary materials science is to determine if a given theoretical
and so on. Conducting interviews or collecting proposition is false or if there are inconsistencies
materials causes the production of field notes, between competing theories. Just as records are
transcripts from interviews, documents, videos made to be broken, theories are made to be
and the like (cf. Dey 1993: 11, 15). tested”.
Whereas there are rules how to analyse
quantitative data, there are no such explicit rules
for qualitative ones (cf. Bryman & Bell 2011:
571). Following, some general approaches to
qualitative data analysis will be introduced.
These approaches help the researcher to apply a
more systematic strategy to the study. The first
one being introduced in this paper is theoretical
propositions.

APPROACHES TO QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

THEORETICAL PROPOSITIONS
Definition
Zikmund et al. (2009: 39) define theory as
follows: “A theory consists of a coherent set of
general propositions that offer an explanation of

Copyright ©2015 by International Journal of Sales, Retailing and Marketing  Vol. 4  No. 9  2015
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 9

TRIANGULATIONS There are four different types of Triangulation as

Definition defined by Denzin (1970 cited in Bryman 2003:
Triangulation means that the researcher uses 1142):
data from a variety of sources applying a variety Data triangulation (collecting data by using
of methods (cf. Bryman & Bell 2011: 397). Doing different sampling strategies)
so, the researcher gains knowledge that is more Investigator triangulation (data collection and
reliable due to the variety of approaches (cf. analysis is done by at least two researchers)
Bryman 2003: 1142). Theoretical triangulation (data is interpreted by
Usage using at least two theoretical positions)
Triangulations look as follows: the researcher Methodological triangulation (collecting data by
uses one measurement process and compares using at least two methods).
the findings with the ones using another Methodological triangulation is the most
method. If the second method confirms the commonly used type.
findings of the first one, triangulations Figure 3 clarifies the triangulation of different
strengthen the reliability of the finding. If it does qualitative methods. Qualitative method I could
not hold, it can be seen as proof that using just be for example interviews and qualitative
one method or measure is not always reliable method II focus groups.
(cf. Bryman 2003: 1142).

Figure 3: Triangulation of different qualitative methods

Qualitative Qualitative
method I method II

Object of
research

Source: Flick 2011: 41.

Advantages always be compared with each other. Bryman

Originally Denzin suggested that the usage of (2003: 1143) states: “Such a view fails to take
more than on method and different sources to account of the different social circumstances
derive data drives a higher confidence in the associated with the administration of different
results. Nowadays Flick (2011: 111) states: “The research methods (…)”. Another disadvantage
gain of the triangulation is not as strong in the might be that it is more expensive due to the
mutual checking of results, but in expanding the high effort of the researcher. Therefore costs
learning opportunity by extension of and benefits for the study must be carefully
perspectives on the studied subject”. weighed (cf. Flick 2011: 111).
Disadvantages/Limitations
Critics find fault with triangulations since data, GROUNDED THEORY
that is collected using different methods, cannot

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QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 10

Besides Theoretical Proposition and analysis to ensure a consistent application of

Triangulations there are more qualitative grounded theory. Since the collection of data
research designs available. Following grounded and their analysis are an interrelated processes,
theory shall be introduced. as soon as the first data is collected, it is time to
analyse it because it will influence future
Definition interviews or observations. Concepts are the
Strauss and Corbin (1998 cited in Bryman & Bell Basic Units of Analysis, because during the
2011: 576) define grounded theory as “theory process of analysis the researcher needs to
that was derived from data, systematically conceptualise the data to work with it.
gathered and analysed through the research Furthermore, categories must be developed and
process. In this method, data collection, analysis, related to each other. For that reason, clustering
and eventual theory stand in close relationship related concepts forms categories. Corbin and
to one another”. Bryman and Bell (2011: 576) Strauss (1990: 8) also state that “sampling in
conclude, that “two central features of grounded grounded theory proceeds on theoretical
theory are that it is concerned with the grounds and analysis makes use of constant
development of theory out of data and the comparisons”. By comparing incidents with
approach is iterative, or recursive (…) meaning other incidents, differences and also similarities
that data collection and analysis proceed in can be worked out. To ensure a consistent data
tandem, repeatedly referring back to each set, “patterns and variations must be accounted
other.” for”. The “process must be build into the theory”
Usage to bring it into the analysis. It is impossible for
Grounded theory is one of the most common the researcher to keep in mind all categories,
research designs worldwide. Birks and Mills hypotheses, generative questions and
(2010: 1, 9) list the following methods for data properties, therefore “writing theoretical memos
collection and analysis: “initial coding and is an integral part of doing grounded theory” to
categorization of data; concurrent data keep track of all study aspects. “Hypotheses
generation or collection and analysis; writing about relationships among categories should be
memos; theoretical sampling; constant developed and verified as much as possible
comparative analysis using inductive and during the research process” to study it
abductive logic; theoretical sensitivity; repetitively until it holds true for all aspects of
intermediate coding; selecting a core category; the study object. Since the collaboration of
theoretical saturation; and theoretical researchers will foster ideas and productive
integration.” discussions, “a grounded theorist need not work
The data used can be derived from a number of alone”. The last point Corbin and Strauss make
sources like interviews, observations, (1990: 11) is that “broader structural conditions
documents, videos, newspapers, letters or must be analysed, however microscopic the
books. All this data can be coded to ensure a research”.
valid analysis (cf. Corbin & Strauss 1990: 5). Advantages
By applying grounded theory and its methods in Corbin and Strauss (cf. 1990: 6-7) point out some
a study, the researcher will be able to “explain a advantages of grounded theory. They consider
process or scheme associated with a the systematically and sequentially collection
phenomenon” (Birks & Mills 2010: 12). and analysis of data as one big advantage of
Corbin and Strauss (1990: 6-11) specify the grounded theory. This “enables the research
following eleven canons and procedures that process to capture all potentially relevant
need to be followed during data collection and aspects of the topic as soon as they are

Copyright ©2015 by International Journal of Sales, Retailing and Marketing  Vol. 4  No. 9  2015
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 11

perceived. This process is a major source of the inductive, the researcher does not need to work
effectiveness of the grounded theory approach.” with hypotheses but can also follow open-ended
Moreover, it hinders the researcher to interfere questions. Therefore he can adjust his research
with the study. Since every concept in use needs questions and the categories while reading
to be proved as relevant for the object of study through the text, if he notices concepts and
during the inspection, the researcher needs to patterns which he did not think of before (cf.
abandon it no matter of his preferences. White & Marsh 2006: 34). Krippendorff (2004
Disadvantages/Limitations cited in White & Marsh 2006: 34) calls “the
Although grounded theory is very often applied, process off recontextualizing, reinterpreting, and
there are some limitations as well. Following, redefining the research until some kind of
some of the limitations and criticism are satisfactory interpretation is reached” a
described which Bryman and Bell gathered: hermeneutic loop.
Applying grounded theory is a relatively time Advantages
consuming process. Furthermore, it does not Stemler (2001) says: “Content analysis is a
always result in theory because in the end, the powerful data reduction technique. Its major
research looks only at a specific social benefit comes from the fact that it is a
phenomenon and not at a wide scope. Some systematic, replicable technique for compressing
also criticise that coding the data causes a loss of many words of text into fewer content
the context (cf. Bryman & Bell 2011: 583-584). categories based on explicit rules of coding. It
has the attractive features of being unobtrusive,
CONTENT ANALYSIS and being useful in dealing with large volumes of
Definition data”. Additionally, the research method is
Although content analysis was originally a transparent since coding scheme and the applied
quantitative technique, it can also be applied to sampling can be exposed. It is also flexible
qualitative data analysis (cf. Franzosi 2007: 1). because it can be used for different unstructured
Bryman and Bell (2011: 717) define it as “an information (cf. Bryman & Bell 2011: 305).
approach to documents that emphasizes the role Disadvantages/Limitations
of the investigator in the construction of the Usually it is impossible to prevent the coding
meaning of and in texts. There is an emphasis on manual to be influenced by interpretations of
allowing categories to emerge out of data and the researcher. Furthermore, if the researcher
on recognizing the significance for aims to impute latent content, there is always
understanding the meaning of the context in the risk to make invalid conclusions.
which an item being analysed (and the Additionally, content analysis might be
categories derived from it) appeared”. A more atheoretical in some cases. Researchers might
general definition by Krippendorff (cited in tend to analyse what is measurable instead of
White & Marsh 2006, 23-27) defines content what is theoretically important (cf. Bryman &
analysis as “a research technique for making Bell 2011: 308).
replicable and valid inferences from texts (or
other meaningful matter) to the contexts of their KEY STEPS OF QUALITATIVE D ATA ANALYSIS
use”. There are four key steps most qualitative data
Usage analysis approaches have in common: Data
Data to be analysed can be any material, either collection, data reduction, data displays and
written down or recorded (cf. Treadwell 2014: conclusion drawing/verification. Data is collected
215). First, a research question needs to be by conduction interviews or observation. The
formulated. Since qualitative content analysis is amount can be overwhelming and therefore

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QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 12

needs to be documented. After that the data can CONCLUSION

be reduced to manageable amounts that still This paper introduced four approaches of how to
need to be meaningful. Categorizing or coding analyse qualitative data - theoretical
the data are ways to organise and prepare the proposition, triangulation, grounded theory and
data and make it usable for the analysis (cf. content analysis.
Schutt 2012: 326, 328). Doing the coding, it is When analysing the data for a phenomena, the
crucial to assure that observation and resulting researcher needs to ensure credibility of the
conclusion are reliable (cf. White & Marsh 2006: study results and the study process in general.
36-39). The coded data allows the researcher to Therefore, the researcher should ask himself, as
draw conclusions and he is able to present his recommended by Denzin (2002 cited in Adams
findings (cf. Zhang & Wildemuth 2009: 5). The et al. 2007: 355), following questions:
core of the analysis is examining relationships. At Do they illuminate the phenomenon as lived
this point, the researcher stops describing and experience?
starts explaining why things are as they are. Are they based on thickly contextualized
When displaying the data, it needs to be clear to materials?
the reader. The research process finishes with a Are they historically and relationally grounded?
conclusion. The conclusion should include Are they processual and interactional?
information about the creditability of the Do they engulf what is known about the
informant, whether statements where made phenomenon?
spontaneous and if the informant influenced the If the researcher can answer all questions
group members (cf. Schutt 2012: 330-331). positively, he reached his aim of authenticity.

LITERATURE
Adams, J., Khan, H. T. A., Raeside, R., and White, http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF0
D. (2007). Research Methods for Graduate 0988593
Business and Social Science Students. Thousand Dey, I. (1993). Qualitative Data Analysis. A User-
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Birks, M., and Mills, J. (2010). Grounded Theory. Routledge.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Flick, U. (2009): An Introduction to Qualitative
Bryman, A. (2003). Triangulation. Encyclopaedia Research. 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
of Social Science Research Methods. Thousand Publications.
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Available at: 3rd edition. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag.
http://www.sagepub.com/chambliss4e/study/ch
apter/encyc_pdfs/4.2_Triangulation.pdf Flick, U. (2013). The SAGE Handbook of
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Dottorale/2011/allegato/Content_Analysis_- Treadwell, D. (2014). Introducing Communication

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Practice of Qualitative Research. 2nd edition. Zhang, Y., and Wildemuth, B. M. (2009).
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Qualitative analysis of content. In B. Wildemuth
Schutt, R. K. (2012). Investigating the Social (Ed.), Applications of Social Research Methods to
World. The Process and Practice of Research. 7th Questions in Information and Library Science
edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. (pp.308-319). Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited.

Stemler, S. (2001). An overview of content Zikmund, W. G. et. al. (2009). Business Research
analysis. Practical Assessment, Research & Methods. 8th edition. Stamfort, CT: Cengage
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Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. No. 2 – June 2000. Available at:
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Topics. International Journal of Management
Reviews, Vol. 15, 123–131 (2013).

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QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 14

APPENDIX I

CASE STUDY METHOD

Paula Aczel

Purpose and Structure

“A case study is an empirical inquiry that scientific work the key task of a science also
investigates a contemporary phenomenon includes the progress of knowledge. Any possible
within its real-life context, especially when the questions that may arise refer to how to operate
boundaries between phenomenon and context the business administration from a scientific
are not clearly evident” (Yin 2003, p. 13). perspective for promoting new insights. This
This definition shows the importance of the case cannot be answered unequivocally, since each
study as a research design. It represents in business has different opinions of researchers
foreground the qualitative orientation and the epistemology, because depending on the
great importance of a methodological and represented position different approaches and
conceptual pluralism. Case study as a research methods are available and assign different roles
design is especially suitable when there are large or tasks. The epistemology of qualitative
numbers of variables in a small number of empirical research is based on the radical
applied units of analysis and when the context constructivism. The representatives of
plays an important role (Vaus 2001, p. 231). constructivism to which I also belong to denied
that one of "us" independent reality is visible,
Epistemological approaches for the design of which will again contradict the realism. In
scientific work chapter 2 deals in detail about the different
In business research there are two approaches research philosophies. The reality is subject-
the positive and the normative, both related to dependent and thus a construct of the brain that
the scientific argumentation and the question of constructed all our knowledge about the reality
the scientific work itself, which are equally on sensory perception (Haug 2004, p. 97; Roth
important (Fülbier 2004, p 267). 1995, p. 306). From this position it can be
The basic question of scientific work can be conclude, that the constructivism don’t denies "a
based on the theory of concepts and economic world out there". Rather, he toned that reality is
theory that tries to fathom how or why accessible only by observation - and thus
something is the way it, referring to the positive inevitably and subjectively interpreted. People
research approach or the philosophy of gain knowledge through information from
economics when you ask how should be "constructed" data, which is delivered from their
something, this is the normative research sense organs. So consequently, since knowledge
approach. The normative oriented economic or knowledge acquisition is tied to people, it
research is particularly efficiency-oriented and cannot describe a subject-independent reality.
seeks to identify the efficiency benefits to justify The results of empirical research provide
the positive research approach of evaluation of therefore no objective knowledge, but
the existing data. "subjective constructs" that are formed by "self-
In addition to the main types of questions that referential processes" researchers brain or in the
can be derived from the target system of system of science (Haug 2004, p. 97). One reason
business administration used for the design of for using methods and different approaches is to

handle and simplify the enormous wealth of of the attached situation, the researcher must
available information and to solve the research try to interpret and understand them (Saunders
problem rational. Therefore due to cognitive et al. 2003, p. 84). Therefore, in such cases
and/or motivational constraints the researcher especially qualitative methods such as
seeks mostly to use different simplification observations are to be used.
strategies (Slovic, et al.) and tries to rationally The realism finally assumes that there is a
decide the construct of the "bounded reality, which exists independently of human
rationality", so he must simplify reasoning, beliefs or thinking. Thus, there are for example,
shorten lines of argument, accuse the superficial in social and economic influences and
conclusions arrived etc. to: interactions, without the awareness of the
• oversized wealth of information, affected persons. Thus, the researcher has to
• qualitative information deficit and individually interpret the investigated
• lack of time phenomenon in order to understand larger
to make decisions (Simon 1976, p. 79). In social structures or effects (Saunders et al. 2003,
complex decision situations, or if there is a lack p. 84-85). Therefore, here qualitative or
of time, money or in-depth information, a quantitative methods or combinations can be
detectable manager has access to "cognitive more useful.
heuristics" to bound the decision making The research methodology chosen by Yin is a
process. But there are also other reasons why research strategy which is attributable to the
researchers don’t handle or decide not strict realism, as it focuses on the deeper depth
rational: he pursued consciously or understanding of the knowledge of management
unconsciously certain motifs or his own processes through which can be described and
preferences and interests, all this in the service interpreted in different ways by various people.
of staging his self and his world view
Research approach
Research approach and methodology The choice of research approach is determined
Research philosophy by how clearly an applied theory is already
The research philosophy describes the available at the beginning of the research:
fundamental attitude of the researcher for the In the case of the deductive approach the
generation of knowledge. Three research available theories has to be verified on their
philosophies after Saunders et al. should be causal relationships of variables. For this
highlighted: positivism, realism and the purpose the hypotheses, which is the basis of
constructivism. quantitative (statistical) methods need to be
Positivism (positivism) assumes that insights validated (Robson, 1993, p. 19). Therefore it can
from observation of the phenomena can draw be called the theory of the proven or
new information and these can be generalized. quantitative approach.
This approach is taken in particular for the For the inductive research approach initially
natural sciences, which attempt to deduct available empirical data of the problem has to be
quantitatively general laws on the basis of the collected and analysed and based on their
method results (Saunders et al. 2003, p. 84). results new hypotheses are to be derived
Representatives of constructivism argue that in (Eisenhardt, 1989 p. 533). The objective of this
economics and other sciences the relationships approach is to better understand the problem
are often complex and unique, so that no and its influencing factors better and thus to
regularities can be derived. Due to the contribute to the development of new theories.
heterogeneous views of the various individuals

This Approach refers to a theory of developing the mapping of quantitative studies of

or qualitative approach. essentialism and the critical rationalism,
qualitative designs are typically attributed to be
Methodological considerations empirical (induction).
The analysis of case studies provides a certain The qualitative methodology is in relation to
type of qualitative research, which is to be another perspective also in contrast to the
distinguished from the so-called quantitative quantitative designs: the former is based on the
research. While the stated is one of the most hermeneutic or constructivist position of a
important conceptual distinctions of the methodological dualism between the natural
empirical research (Flick 2002, p. 11; Kleining and social sciences. So it is a feature of the
1995, p. 40; Bortz / Döring 1995, p. 49) it is qualitative methodology that emphasized the
nevertheless noted that both don’t form uniform function context of social action. At this end, an
"research programs", but are to be understood attempt is made on the basis of "ideographic"
more in the sense of collective nouns. Flick like the unique descriptive methods to detect
(2002, p. 33) characterized the qualitative the object of study in its entire diversity and
research for example through very different consider in particular, the relationship of
research perspectives (e.g. description of social characteristics of the examined subject matter
action vs. reconstruction of interpretation and among themselves and to his context.
action generating structures) or heterogeneous
theoretical foundations (e.g. the symbolic The case study approach as a research strategy
interactionism as the basis for the 'grounded The case study as a research approach is often
theory' or psychoanalysis or structuralism as a critically discussed. Many authors see it as a
background of objective hermeneutics). weak variant of social science research
The quantitative research refers to such research approaches. Yin (2003, p. 10) states that a case
concepts, which are ideal for the social sciences study is reputed, because of its often-qualitative
providing a close alignment with the natural character. Therefore the case study is criticized
sciences and general nomothetic statements for less objectivity, quantification, representative
(like legislative acts) by determining probabilistic significance or robustness than other
laws and their quantitative formulation approaches such as the experiment, purely
describing their development. Quantitative quantitative surveys of very large samples in the
methods associated with a strategy of form of standardized surveys, the analysis of
hypothesis testing are based on the so-called archived data or historical consideration.
"deductive-nomothetic paradigm" (Popper Social research authors like Shavelson & Townes
1989). It shows out the need of using established 2002, who even favour different approaches for
theories for the development of study each individual phase of a research project,
hypotheses, through their confrontation with a consider the case study an appropriate method
possible representative data set and their for the exploratory phase of an investigation.
argumentative generalization. All statements of And for the descriptive phase they consider
empirical experience need to be proven and also surveys and "storytelling" to be more
need the basically possibility to fail the reasonable, because the causal relationships
experience (Stier, 1996, p. 6). between the observed phenomena are just in
Qualitative methods are typically called "phase the explanatory phase and in the context of an
models" and played a reduced and just experiment possible to be explored.
supporting role in terms of relevance as a However each of these research approaches
precursor for quantitative studies. According to provides an alternative empirical research

strategy. For any approach there are many Just because the phenomenon and its conditions
different ways of collecting and interpreting the cannot always be separated in real-world
empirical evidence but a mix of various research observations, the following second level of
strategies in a study is not advisable in any case. definition describes other more technical
When conducting case studies there is a risk features of a case study:
according to the allegation of lack of objectivity, The case study research
quantification, representative significance or deals with specific situations in which more
robustness. Nevertheless, the case study is high variables of interest than obvious data points
popular also for not purely social science should be added.
research questions (Eisenhardt 1989, p. 535). Therefore, they must be supplied from a
Essentially it depends on the objective of the plurality of different data sources, so the data
research undertaken and the specific research obtained are combined by means of
questions, which shows whether a case study triangulation on several individual points.
can be an adequate approach. In addition the This is done with the help of the pre-defined
structure and methodology of a case study theoretical assumptions, which characterize the
define over the quality of the insights regarding process of data collection and analysis them
validity and scientific gain. First, I want to derive relevant.
a definition of the case study approach as a In other words, the case study as a research
research strategy and identify the possible areas strategy embodies a comprehensive approach,
of application in comparison to other research which includes the logic of design, data
strategies against a historical background. collection techniques and analytical approaches.
Finally, I will define the quality requirements for The researcher is required in this type of
the implementation of a case study. procedure to choose a bespoke design for each
case study, which carries the respective research
Definition of Terms objectives and empirical circumstances into
For the definition of terms according to Yin account. Consequently, there is no "one best
(2003, p. 3) there should be distinguish between way" for the case study research.
two definition levels: In the context of the discussion the researcher
The case study is an empirical inquiry that takes into account not only the statements and
describes perspectives of the direct participants in the
a contemporary phenomenon in a real-world observed situation, but he also incorporates the
context under consideration, particularly if environment of the participants and the
the boundary between the observed interaction between them, to immerse them as
phenomenon and context is not clear. deep as possible in the context of the
This first level of definition describes the field of investigated phenomenon. This gives the case
view of the case study. It should be emphasized, study researchers unlike for a survey or
that in this case the conditions of the observed experimental research, the normally unheard
phenomenon are included, because the context participants a relevant voice (Tellis, 1997a, p. 6).
of substantial information is suspected there. Exactly these voices are the ones who often
Other research strategies such as the bring the unsuspected aspects of a case and
experiment exclude explicit this exact area, in make the investigation in an entirely new light.
order to focus on a few well-defined variables.
The conditions are defined by the experimental Justification for the choice of a case study as a
situation in the experiment and they are research strategy
considered to be fix.

The selection of the appropriate research comprehensive research strategies, but they can
strategy should be deducted from the aim of quite overlap and complement each other. The
review, which limits the possible research selection of an appropriate research strategy
alternatives. The survey can be seen, as an depends on three conditions according on the
alternative to case study and it is actually his different actual situation. The considered
fiercest competitor. It is often the criticism of framework of the situation should take into
the case study due to his insufficient objectivity, account first the form of the research questions,
quantification, representative validity or secondly, the need for control and access to
robustness of a research strategy, which behavioural situations, and finally the study of
attempts thus to eliminate the heighted fixed current or historical events in terms of a time
number of respondents of a case study. To horizon.
personally interview hundreds of people as part
of a case study means a huge time or personnel Form of research questions
investment for the whole research project and The first condition deals with the occurrence and
with the obtained flood of data is impossible to thrust of the research questions. A simple
manage the case studies typical instruments and categorization provides the distinction in a
it threatens to obscure the view for the number of typical question words: "who",
significant observations away. In such a situation "what", "where", "how" and "why", which lead
the standardized survey is the best alternative to one of the applicable strategies.
than a case study, because it enables the If the research questions rather has the
collection of data from such a large sample. character of "who", "what", "where" there are
Once the researcher wants to go deeper into two possibilities, either it is an exploratory
qualitative background of the answers from the question, which can justify an exploratory study
respondents in order to discover more with the aim of hypotheses and assumptions for
interesting aspects of the collected data, or even on going research development. In this case, all
wants to ask new questions, the survey comes to five strategies for the study come into question
their limit and a going back in the former because they hold all the exploratory potential.
situation of data collection is impossible. In such Or the expression of what-questions moves
a case the researcher can help his self for more toward a "how much" or "what"
example by doing downstream targeted investigation. In such a question, the survey is
interviews, which illuminate deeper a suspected better than a full case study. "Who" and "where"
issue. There are several instruments of data questions can typically be better answered with
collection within the framework of a surveys and the analysis of archival material.
comprehensive case study that could figure These strategies are of advantage, if the aim of
represents the methodological framework of the analysis is the detection of the occurrence or
study. spread of the phenomena.
In contrast, the "how" and "why" questions are
Systematic selection of an appropriate research rather descriptive and the use of a case study, an
strategy experiment or a historical study are more
Yin (2003, p. 3) sees the case study not in a appropriate in these situations. This is mainly
hierarchical arrangement with other methods, because that questions deal with such issues
but it assumes a pluralistic point of view. He according to the compounds of operational
regarded the experiment, the survey, the elements observed over time and thus available
analysis of archival material, the historical via the detection of the occurrence or its
investigation and the case study as equal and dissemination beyond.

Establishment of appropriate operational

Necessity of control, access to behavioural measures for the issues to be examined or the
situations and the temporal horizon phenomena.
In the case of questions with "how" and "why", Internal validity
this questions lead to a need of control or of Prove or demonstrate the assumed causal
access to behavioural situations. Historical relationships between observations.
studies are the preferred research strategy when External validity
the researcher has no access to the actual Generalizability of the results available via the
behaviour situation. This approach remains the direct case out through replication of the results
only choice when e.g. no persons can be to other cases within the same research domain.
interviewed anymore, historical finds or Reliability
artefacts are not available or not at the disposal When applying the same theory and application
as study objects. The case study is selected when of the same investigative steps, the re-execution
contemporary events represent the research of the case study must have the same results.
aim, but this situation cannot or does not affect
the research. There are some similarities to Design and methodological background of the
historical investigation. However, the case study case study
takes usually two additional data sources into The structure and the design of a case study
the research design, which cannot be use by the describes a kind of logic with which the retrieved
historical investigation: the direct and data and the conclusion that one draws from
participant observation of the events under them, are associated with the underlying
investigation and the conversation with involved research questions of the case study. This can be
people in the form of interviews. considered as a logical model and as a kind of
plan that leads through the process of collection,
Quality necessity to the case study research analysis and interpretation of the available data.
The data obtained through qualitative research This model also reflects the theoretical
in the context of a case study gain advantage constructs and assumptions of the design of the
over the purely quantitative data high because underlying project or research. In a way, such a
they give researchers more opportunities to logical model is similar to the construction of an
understand the meaning of observed actions and experiment (Yin, 2003 p. 39).
events. The analysis of qualitative data provides Before we could afford the proper treatment of
insights; the "hard" data will never be exposed the question description of what we call "case",
alone (Mintzberg 1979). But this precisely "object of analysis" and what we see as relevant
"softness" of the qualitative data, it is what "context" within a case study, we had to commit
makes the case study so vulnerable as a research ourselves to a basic methodological form of
strategy. The measurability of the quality of a study design. Basically in the case study research
case study can be deducted logically and the question of the number and arrangement of
structurally from four criteria’s of a case study cases has to be examined within the research
made by Yin (2003, p. 33): design. To be able to approach a case study
Construct validity operational structure Yin develops a 2x2 matrix
for the classification of different types of case
study among others.

Figure 4: Basic types of designs for case studies (Yin 2003, p. 40)

The classification of basic types for the elements "object for analysis", "case" and
development of case study design by Yin takes "context". As the limit of the whole case study it
together with the help of two dimensions the is understand the separation between those
distinction between holistic and integrated on objects which treat the research questions
the one hand and the individual case and multi- indirectly (context) or directly (case) and are
case study on the other hand. He differentiated relevant and those that are neither directly nor
in holistic case studies according to the relevant indirectly relevant. The number of cases and
context of the data to be examined for the case objects of analysis within the entire case study
and the defined case itself, so the simplest form may vary depending on the problem and
of construction provides the holistic single case objectives of the study.
study. Such a structure depends only on a one
clearly defined case and on its relevant context. Conclusion
Combining multiple holistic cases within a case To answer the research questions the case study
study investigation, it refers of a holistic multi- analysis by Yin is particularly suitable. This allows
case study. Looking inside a case - for example, the realistic associated research strategy an
in a company - different analysis objects - e.g. inductive approach to win explorative new
several departments - referred to the case study insights available for the quality assurance of the
building an "integrated" construct and the knowledge management. The applied
combination of several integrated case studies investigation as a cross-sectional study is in
finally represents the integrated multiple-case particular carried out by the use of expert
study. interviews and allows both a broad overview
Against this background the question arises abut over the available possible quality assurance
the principle of distinction of the approaches as well as deeper insights overt the

available methods used. In the case study is a qualitativen Heuristik. Published in Belz,
holistic, high-yield and at the same time very Psychologie VerlagsUnion.
sophisticated research design and out of the mix Mintzberg, Henry (1979): An Emerging Strategy
of methods of business economics and of “Direct” Research. Published in Administrative
management the theory has become Science Quarterly, P. 580-589.
indispensable. When researchers base in the
development on case studies on the same Popper, Karl R. (1989): Logik der Forschung. 9th
methodological principles and use similar Edition, Published in Akademieverlag.
heuristics approach to case studies this allow a Robson, Colin (1993): Real World Research, 2nd
better comparison of the cases and they can be Edition, Blackwell Publishing.
linked together. A reinforced cumulative Roth, Gerhard (1995): Das Gehirn und seine
alignment of business management research Wirklichkeit. 3rd Edition, Suhrkamp Publications.
makes sense from both an epistemological
Saunders Mark; Lewis, Philip & Thornhill, Adrian
research and economic point of view.
(2003): Research Methods for Business Students,
3rd Edition, Pearson Publishing.
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Reinbek Publishing. Published in Annual Review of Psychology.
Fülbier, Rolf U. (2004): Wissenschaftstheorie und Stier, Winfried (1996): Empirische
Betriebswirtschaftslehre. Published in Forschungsmethoden, 1st Edition, Springer
Wirtschaftswissenschaftliches Studium, 33 Publishing.
Edition, Nr. 5, P. 278-292. Tellis, Winston (URL): Application of a Case Study
Haug, Sonja (2004): Wirtschaftstheoretische Methodology, The Qualitative Report. URL:
Problembereiche empirischer Wirtschafts- und http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR3-
Sozialforschung: Induktive Forschungslogik, 3/tellis2.html. (28.07.2014).
naiver Realismus, Instrumentalismus, Vaus, David A. de (2001): Research Design in
Relativismus. Wissenschaftstheorie in Ökonomie Social Research, Sage Publications, Inc.
und Wirtschaftsinformatik Theorienbildung und
Yin, Robert K. (2003): Case Study Research:
–bewertung, Ontologien,
Design and Methods: (Applied Social Research
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Methods, Volume 5), Third Edition, Sage
Kleining, Gerhard (1995): Lehrbuch Entdeckende Publications, Inc.
Sozialforschung. Volume 1: Von Hermeneutik zur

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EMBEDDING CASE STUDY RESEARCH INTO THE RESEARCH CONTEXT 23

EMBEDDING CASE STUDY RESEARCH INTO THE

RESEARCH CONTEXT

Elisabeth Göttfert

Introduction

The case study is a frequently used form of focus is drawn on case study research, which is
research (cf. Fiegen, 2010, p. 393). Especially in described in more detail and is embedded in the
social science, academics of different disciplines research context following the analysis scheme
argue in its favour (cf. Patton & Appelbaum, of qualitative and quantitative research. On basis
2003, p. 69; Zucker, 2012, p. 183). However, of this analysis in the end a conclusion is drawn.
embedding the case study in the broad field of
research is contradictory. Zucker (2012, p. 171)
states that research textbooks categorise the The Basics of Research
case study as a neither quantitative nor The Research Process
qualitative tool. Controversially she adds, that it
is taught among the qualitative methods in According to Bettis and Gregson (2001, p. 52)
research courses. This ambiguity within the research is a systematic, objective process,
literature raises the question how to classify the which includes gathering and analysing valid and
case study among the types of empirical reliable empirical data. Valid data captures and
investigation. Analysing this inquiry is the aim of answers the posed research question, while
this paper, which is written from a constructivist reliable data reproduces the same result in every
perspective. This means that it is believed, that trial, unconcerned of the researcher (cf.
reality exists independently from the researcher, Economic & social research council, N/A).
but the meaning that is given to the reality is Research either aims on the creation of theory
individual construction, which demands and addition to existing knowledge or it is used
interaction between the researcher and the to solve actual problems (cf. Bettis & Gregson,
object of research (cf. Guba & Lincoln, 1994, p. 2001, p. 52). Due to the novelty of the results
110f). Therefore first the phases of research are the first one is called basic research, while the
explored and the main differences among latter one is applied research, as it uses basic
quantitative and qualitative research are research in a more specific context. The
highlighted. Along these emphasised differences systematic research process is constituted by
two research methods, the survey and the four phases, which are depicted in Figure 1.
interview, are categorised exemplary. Then the

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EMBEDDING CASE STUDY RESEARCH INTO THE RESEARCH CONTEXT 24

Figure 5: The four research phases

Research question

Research design

Data collection

Data analysis and interpretation

Source: Adapted from Kellett, 2005, p. 8.

The research question represents the aim of the effect relationships between the study objects
study and can best be derived from a mixture of (cf. Sreejesh, et al., 2014, p. 82). Lincoln and
detailed, systematic literature review and Denzin (2011, p. 14) state that research design
experience (cf. Hulley, et al., 2011, p. 25). links the research question with the empirical
However, it is important to be very specific in data, among other via a research strategy. A
the question, as it determines the further research strategy comprises all the further
development of the research, for example which proceedings of the study to accomplish the goal
data to collect (cf. Kellett, 2005, p. 38) or the of answering the research question (cf. Punch,
feasibility, in terms of time required for the 2013, p. 115). It encompasses the general data
research (cf. Hulley, et al., 2011, p. 20) sources, the rough sample size and the method
In the next phase the research design is chosen. for analysis (cf. Punch, 2013, p. 115). Besides, in
This is the framework used to carry out the study the design phase, all these factors are specified
efficiently (cf. Sreejesh, et al., 2014, p. 27). The further: the method, the data to be collected,
design can be exploratory, descriptive or causal the measurement and scaling of this data, the
(cf. Sreejesh, et al., 2014, p. 27).While sampling procedures and the exact sampling size
exploratory research aims on problem analysis, are determined (cf. Lincoln and Denzin, 2011, p.
evaluation of alternatives or finding new ideas, 14; Sreejesh, et al., 2014, p. 27). A possible
descriptive research intents to identify research design could be: By interviewing five
characteristics, behaviours and patterns (cf. female top managers of multinational
Sreejesh, et al., 2014, p. 31; p. 58). For these two companies, their attitude to women in
types of research design the research questions management positions is examined. The sample
need to be transferred to propositions, derived is determined by asking 50 multinational firms
from literature and further evidence (cf. Rowley, for participation. The resulting interviews are
2002, p. 17). Causal research, the third option of analysed with content analysis to detect ostacles
research design, intends to unravel cause and

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EMBEDDING CASE STUDY RESEARCH INTO THE RESEARCH CONTEXT 25

and opportunities for women to rise in In general research, research methods and the
hierarchy. resulting data are divided into quantitative and
Data collection, as the third step, is crucial for qualitative (see for example the contents of
the validity and reliability of the following Punch, 2013, p. ix-xi). The choice for one of
research. Only if gathering data is performed these positions unravels the researcher’s view
correctly the subsequent analysis and conclusion on reality, affecting the objectivity of research,
can be perceived as accurate and reliable (cf. the way of drawing conclusions and the types of
Sreejesh, et al., 2014, p. 115). The selected research questions (cf. Perry, 1998, p. 786;
method during the design phase frequently Riege, 2003, p. 77). The view on reality can be
determines what type of data is collected. For described by two extreme positions, however
example a survey or an experiment produces there are shades and nuances in between them
numerical data, such as ages, sizes and (cf. Guba & Lincoln, 1994, p. 109, Niglas, 2003, p.
distributions, while interviews, focus groups or 10). For quantitative research a positivist view
observation provide richer data in form of on reality applies (cf. Guba & Lincoln, 1994, p.
opinions, narratives or feelings (cf. Sreejesh, et 109, Niglas, 2003, p. 10), believing that there is
al., 2014, p. 47). one homogenous reality for all people (cf. Guba
During the last phase, the data analysis and & Lincoln, 1994, p. 109). Thus the researcher
interpretation phase, the researcher gains cannot influence reality resulting in objectively
deeper understanding of the material to measurable phenomena (cf. Guba & Lincoln,
enhance judgement and to draw appropriate 1994, p. 109). For researchers with this
conclusions (cf. Sreejesh, et al., 2014, p. 163). worldview deduction is the preferred method of
The analytical methods for numerical data are drawing conclusions (cf. Perry, 1998, p. 786),
based on statistics such as simple or multiple meaning that the behaviour from a broad
regression (cf. Sreejesh, et al., 2014, p. 202), sample is applied to the individual (cf. Punch,
while methods for non-numerical data are more 2013, p. 348). On the other hand qualitative
diverse and allow the researcher to consider the research relates to the most extreme with
same data from different perspectives by using constructivist view (cf. Guba & Lincoln, 1994, p.
different techniques (cf. Punch 2013, pp. 168). 109, Niglas, 2003, p. 10). This worldview
Such techniques could be content analysis, considers reality as being individual to all people
objective hermeneutics (cf Mayring, 2002, pp. (cf. Guba & Lincoln, 1994, p. 109). Thus the
114-126) or grounded theory (cf. Punch, 2013, p. researcher infuences the phenomenon, which is
179). There are however two analytical methods, examined, resulting in hardly measurable
abstraction and comparison, which can be subjective results (cf. Guba & Lincoln, 1994, p.
applied to both data types (cf. Punch, 2013, p. 109). Applying this view induction is used to
178f). Data analysis is the basis for interpretation draw conclusions (cf. Perry, 1998, p. 786).
of the data and finally for the generation of new Induction, contrary to deduction generalizes
knowledge. At this point the researcher tries to from an individual to a broad population (cf.
explain the results of the analysis. Those might Punch, 2013, p. 350). Table 1 lists these
be justifications or causes of the development of characteristics for quantitative and qualitative
data and the resulting implications. research along with the milestones of a research
process.

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EMBEDDING CASE STUDY RESEARCH INTO THE RESEARCH CONTEXT 26

Table 2: Characteristics of qualitative and quantitative research

Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
exists independently from is influenced by the
Reality
the researcher researcher
Interaction with
low, objective high, subjective
research object is
quantitative answers
in-depht information
numerical change
Research questions developing hypotheses and
relationships between
aim on theories
variables
meaning of situations
testing hypotheses
exploratory, descriptive or
Research design descriptive or causal
causal
non-numerical
Data collected numerical
(opinions, feelings, words)
Abstracting, comparing
coding
memoing
Data analysis mathematically based
content analysis
(statistics)
grounded theory
hermeneutics
Interpretation/
deductive inductive
conclusions

Source: adapted from Guba & Lincoln, 1994, p. 109; Perry, 1998, p. 786; Mayring, 2002, pp. 114-126,
Muijs, 2004, pp. 1-8, Punch, 2013, pp. 167-179

Along this scheme methods can be assigned to a specific sequence usually in form of a
each type of resesarch and therefore be questionnaire (cf. Sreejesh, et al., 2014, p. 58).
categorised as quantitative or qualitative Thus standardization is achieved, leading to a
methods. Exemplary this is performed on the higher degree of objectivity. The survey can be
survey and the interview, however the focus will conducted face-to-face, by telephone, by email
lie on the case study in section 3, as embedding or via computer aided programs (cf. Saris &
case study research is the main aim of this work. Gallhofer, 2014, pp. 5f). The specific methods of
The assignment to one research approach does interviewing differ from the level of interaction
not necessaryly exclude characteristics of the of the researcher with the research objects and
other, it is only the predominant characteristic. thus in the degeree of interviewer bias (cf.
Sreejesh, et al., 2014, p. 78). This is the
influential effect of the interviewer on the
Example 1: The Survey interviewee due to physical appearance, mimic
or tone (cf. Sreejesh, et al., 2014, p. 78). While a
A survey is a quantitative instrument, gathering face-to-face survey has a relatively high risk of
empirical data by asking a representative sample this type of bias, the email or web surveys have
of a population (cf. Sreejesh, et al., 2014, p. 58). not, leading to the email or web survey being the
The questions are pre-formulated and ordered in most objective type of survey. This method is

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EMBEDDING CASE STUDY RESEARCH INTO THE RESEARCH CONTEXT 27

frequently used for descriptive research designs structured interviews this facts stimulates
(cf. Saris & Gallhofer, 2014, pp. 4) and the data is interviewer bias (cf. Sreejesh, et al., 2014, p. 51).
numerical, as even attitudes can be coded The interview bias in this case is additionally
numerically by using a Likert scale or a semantic increasing subjectivity, as the same results can
differentiation scale (cf. Sreejesh, et al., 2014, p. hardly be reproduced by another researcher,
127). Methods for the analysis of data are due to the smallest differences of conducting the
tabulation, cross-tabulation or data mining (cf. interview. Interviewing people is an exploratory
Sreejesh, et al., 2014, p. 173; p. 176), all being research design (cf. Sreejesh, et al., 2014, p. 47),
mathematical or statistical instruments of whose data results from verbal sometimes
analysis (cf. Sreejesh, et al., 2014, p. 179). These narrative communication (cf. Lewis &
characteristics toghether with the deductive McNaughton Nicholls, 2013, p. 55). Such type of
approach of a survey (cf. Gray, 2013, p. 31) are data can be analysed for example by
arguments for classifying the survey as a hermeneutics (cf. Mayring, 2002, p. 121) or
quantitative method, which is in line with the grounded theory (cf. Spencer, et al., 2013, p.
categorisation of this method in literature (cf. 335). Conclusions on basis of these analytical
Muijs, 2004, p. 3). tools are usually inductive (cf. Mayring, 2002, p.
123, Gray, 2013, p. 166). The depicted
characteristics classify the interview as
Example 2: The Interview qualiltative research, being in accordance with
the categorisation that can be found in literature
An interview usually is a one-to-one (cf. Muijs, 2004, p. 3).
conversation between the researcher and a
participant (cf. Lewis & McNaughton Nicholls,
2013, p. 55; Sreejesh, et al., 2014, p. 47). The Case Study Research
aim of an interwiew is to gain deeper
understanding about feelings, motivations and According to Yin (1994, p. 13) a case study is an
beliefs of the interviewee (cf. Gill, et al., 2008, p. “empirical enquiry that investigates a
292). In general there are three types of contemporary phenomenon within its real-life
interviews: standardized, semi-structured and context, especially when the boundaries between
unstructured (Sreejesh, et al., 2014, p. 47). The phenomenon and context are not clearly
standardized interview disposes of ordered, evident.” This definition aims on researching an
standardized, open-ended questions, while object that is part of an open system and which
semi-structured interviews are more flexible in both interacts with and is influenced by its
terms of order of the questions and environment. This leads to the context and its
standardization, meaning the researcher can relationship to the case also being considered by
rephrase inquiries or interrogate in more depht, researchers (cf. Dooley, 2002, p. 335).
if it suits the research questions (cf. Sreejesh, et The ideal research question of a case study
al., 2014, p. 48f). The third type the unstructered identifies “how” or “why” events ocurr, that are
interview is not standardized or ordered in any beyond the control of the researcher (cf. Yin,
form, allowing the interviewee to guide the 1994, p. 9). According to Yin (1994, p. 15) this
conversation in any direction and narrate leads to an application of case study research
everything that is considered relevant (cf. especially if:
Sreejesh, et al., 2014, p. 48). In all three types,
the researcher is in direct contact with the  there might be complex cause and effect
object of research and especially in un- or semi- relationships between real-life events

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EMBEDDING CASE STUDY RESEARCH INTO THE RESEARCH CONTEXT 28

 description of an event in its actual Yin (1994, p. 51) demands, that there is either
environment is sought literal or theoretical replication. The first term
 description of themes within an aims on cases with the exact same results, while
evaluation is pursued the latter implies contrasting results for
 situations are explored, whose outcome predictable reasons. In literature there are
is unclear known seven more specific techniques to select
 it is the assessment of an evaluation representative cases (cf. Levy, 2008, pp. 10-13
study Seawright and Gerring 2008, pp. 297f). Table 2
depicts these techniques with a short definition
Depending on the application, the case study and the appropriate research design. A closer
design can be understood to be causal, look on the table reveals that especially for
descriptive and exploratory. Consequently the exploratory research an analysis of some cases is
next steps in the research design are selection of necessary during the sample phase to determine
the sample size and the sample itself, which is whether the case is appropriate. When the
called “the case”. A case is the unit of analysis of sample of cases is defined, the data collection
case study research (Yin, 1994, p. 21) such as an methods can be chosen. Yin (1994, p. 80)
individual person, an organisation or part of an suggests six sources: documentation, archival
organization. Considering the sample size single records, interviews, direct observation,
cases as well as multiple cases are possible (cf. participant observation and physical artefacts.
Yin, 1994, p. 38), however according to literature However, he suggests using more than one of
a maximum of 15 cases should not be exceeded these sources of evidence, to enhance the
(cf. Perry, 1998, p. 794). According to Seawright quality of the research (pp. 91f). Depending on
and Gerring (2008, p. 294) the decision which the mixture of methods chosen by the
case(s) to choose in particular is the “primordial researcher, the interaction with the research
task of the case study research”. The authors object varies. For example a construction of a
also note that in case study research the case on basis of document analysis and a survey
sampling cannot be separate from analysis, as of a representative amount of employees of a
the selection of appropriate cases is crucial for company bear low interaction with the object,
representativeness. Seawright and Gerring therefore enhancing the objectivity of research.
(2008, p. 295) demonstrated via a Monte Carlo On the other hand a case study guided by
simulation that for the small amount of cases, observation and in-depth interviews with few of
that should be used in case study research, the the employees provide high interaction,
results are not representative and therefore not consequently increasing subjectivity.
appropriate. For the selection of the right cases

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EMBEDDING CASE STUDY RESEARCH INTO THE RESEARCH CONTEXT 29

Table 3: Case selection techniques

Case is Appropriate for
typical for examined
Typical confirmation
cross-case relationship
diverse in cause and
Diverse exploration
effect variables
unusual values for cause
Extreme exploration
or effect
deviate from cross-case
Deviant exploration
relationship
stronger influence of
Influential confirmation
independent variable
similar in all other but the
Most similar exploration
cause and effect variables

different in all other but

Most different the cause and effect exploration
variable
Source: Following Seawright & Gerring, 2008, pp. 297-298

The proposed use of several methods for case Seawright and Gerring, 2008, p. 294), advocating
study research leads to the conclusion, that the the term research strategy. This understanding
case study itself cannot be a method on its own, of case study research as a strategy is shared
but that it has to be classified differently. The among different authors (cf. Dooley, 2002, p.
correct labelling of the term should imply the 338; Punch, 2013, p. 120).
selection of data collection methods, sample Although the data produced by the methods
procedures and first analytical steps. This suggested by Yin (1994, p. 80) is usually
description is similar to the definition of a qualitative also a quantitative case study design
research strategy that was presented earlier by is possible (cf. Feuer, 2011, p. 14). Thus the data
Punch (2013, p. 115), indicating that case study produced in the context of a case study can be
research is a research strategy. This is in line either numerical or non- numerical (cf. Yin, 1994,
with the opinion of Yin (1994, p. 4), also p. 14). The data analysis in a case study research
classifying surveys and interviews as a strategy offers various approaches, however in all of
(p. 6). In a later edition of his book (see Yin, them the usage of all relevant evidence,
2008, p. 3) he terms the case study as a research consideration of important rival interpretations,
method still along with the other instruments. communication of the major characteristics of
Nevertheless surveys or interviews, do not the case study and unbiased usage of the
provide methods for analysis inherently, rather researchers knowledge is required (cf. Rowley
different ones can be used on one instrument. 2002, p. 24). Yin (1994, p.106) proposes seven
Additionally methods for analysis have to be general techniques to analyse a case study, from
selected separately from the data collection which four are dominant and three are weaker
method itself. This qualifies surveys or practices of analysis. Those techniques with a
interviews as method, while for the case study short explanation are depicted in Table 3.
first an analysis is necessary for sampling (cf.

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EMBEDDING CASE STUDY RESEARCH INTO THE RESEARCH CONTEXT 30

Table 4: Analysis techniques for case study research

Explanation
Pattern-matching comparison of empirical pattern with predicted one

dominant form
specific type of pattern-machting including
Explanation building
stipulation of a cause and effect relationship
examination of the development of variables over
Time-series-analysis
time
combination of pattern-matching and time-series-
Program logic models analysis
stipulation of a pattern over time
Analyzing embedded applying any of the above techniques on units of

weaker form
units the case
repeating the study sequencially to smoothen
Repeated observation
results
Secondary analysis
Survey of the cases already existing for the topic
across cases
Source: adapted from Yin, 1994, pp. 106-123

A closer look on the techniques reveals that they

could be used in the context of both, qualitative
and quantitative research. Pattern-matching for Conclusion
example represents a type of comparison, which This work first examined the general research
is generally used in both types of research. process to establish criteria on which to
Explanation building, used to generate ideas and differentiate between quantitative and
theories about potential cause and effect qualitative research and embedded exemplary
relationships, is also possible for an interview, as one quantitative and one qualitative method
an exploratory research design. Thus it is along this scheme. The resulting classification is
specifically aiming on development of new in line with the academic perception of each
theories (cf. Sreejesh, et al., 2014, p. 31). On the method. In the following the same procedure
other hand time series are frequently used in was applied on the case study revealing, first
quantitative research, if a large amount of data that the case study is a research strategy and not
is available (cf. Yin, 1994, p. 113). as categorised by many scholars a research
As a result of the mixture of qualitative and method (for example Levy, 2008, p. 2; Yin, 2008,
quantitative data collection and analysis p. 3) and second, that it cannot be grouped into
methods, the conclusions drawn on basis of case either quantitative or qualitative research, but
studies can be either inductive or deductive (cf. that the classification depends upon the
Dooley, 2002, p. 349f). Thus it is to say that case researchers approach to investigating the case.
study research strategy cannot be categorised in
either qualitative or quantitative research (cf. For a presentation of this topic see:
Dooley, 2002, p. 338), but that this http://prezi.com/tbjqn0gpuer_/embedding-
categorization fully depends on the design of the case-study-in-the-research-context/.
case study itself.

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EMBEDDING CASE STUDY RESEARCH INTO THE RESEARCH CONTEXT 31

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CASE STUDY RESEACH

Martina Gog

Introduction

“[…] first, that science should have generalizing claims. Second, the explanation of social phenomena
by revealing the causal mechanism which produce them is the fundamental task of research.”

Danermark et al. (2002, p. 1)

The quote by Danermark et al. highlights that and disadvantages of case study research and
the explanation and understanding of one or the last sub-chapter describes the case study
multiple instances – cases – is basic interest of research process.
doing research and that by generalising derived Finally, a conclusion of case study research will
findings from the instances to contribute to be drawn.
knowledge. Therefore, Danermark et al.
emphasise the importance of cases in social Research methodology
science. The approach which focuses on cases is Methodological approaches
called case study research and the main aim of The term research methodology is often used as
this paper is to present case study as one overall heading for doing research and for all
possible research tool or rather as research associated procedures which are illustrated in
strategy.

The paper is divided into two main chapters. The

first chapter covers research methodology to
introduce the foundation of research and
fundamental knowledge. The three sub-chapters
focus on methodological approaches,
quantitative and qualitative research as well as
research design and research methods.
The second main chapter focuses on case study Figure 6. However, the research pyramid by
as research strategy for doing research. Jonker and Pennink (2010, p. 23) indicates that
Therefore, the first sub-chapter provides some doing research follows a particular hierarchy and
definitions on case study followed by advantages sequence of process steps.

Figure 6: The research pyramid

Research
paradigm

Research
methodology

Research method

Research techniques

Source: Illustration based on Jonker/Pennink (2010), p. 23.

The research onion as illustrated in Pogreška! of philosophical assumption which build the
Izvor reference nije pronađen.on page foundation of how research should be
Pogreška! Knjižna oznaka nije definirana. by conducted. Consequently, methods emerge from
Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill is used as symbol the methodology and refer to techniques and
for doing research. In accordance to Jonker and procedures to analyse data.
Pennink’s research pyramid, research is
described a step by step process. Accordingly, The impetus for conducting research builds a
conducting research begins by defining the certain research question. Initially, it is necessary
(research) philosophy, the approach, the to position one’s research philosophy which is
strategy, the choice of quantitative, qualitative also referred as research paradigm according to
research or mixed methods, the time horizon the research pyramid. (Jonker/Pennink 2010,
and finally techniques and procedures are p. 23; Creswell 2009, p. 5) The research
chosen. Consequently, research represents a philosophy describes the underlying worldview
systematic approach to find something out or of a researcher. According to Stokes (2011, p.
rather to resolve the research question. 159) the worldview derives from the
(Saunders/Lewis/Thornhill 2012, p. 4) philosophical German word Weltanschauung
The term methodology describes the and expresses a specific view of each individual
“understanding of how to proceed from the or rather approach towards the world. Against
findings of empirical research to make inference this background, one’s research philosophy
about the truth”. (Perri 6/Bellamy 2012, p. 1) cannot be chosen but rather is inherent and may
The terms methodology and methods require a change and develop over time. Consequently,
precise differentiation. Saunders, Lewis and research tools, research designs and standards
Thornhill (2012, pp. 3-4, 674) define to judge the research quality are chosen
methodology more precisely as theory and basis according to each individual’s world view.

Furthermore, one’s philosophical approach understanding of social action in order to arrive

affects how to find a solution to the research at a causal explanation of its course and effects”.
question. Research philosophies distinguish (Bryman/Bell 2011, p. 16)
between epistemology and ontology.
Epistemology focuses on required knowledge to The philosophical approach has impact on the
solve the research question and ontology refers research methodology which is defined in the
to the nature of social entities and the following step.
perception of reality which is researched.
(Bryman/Bell 2011, pp. 15, 20) Specifying clearly Quantitative and qualitative research
and being aware of one’s research philosophy is The distinction between quantitative and
important because different philosophies may qualitative is widely used by researchers.
generate different solutions. (Bryman/Bell 2011, Quantitative research highlights the
p. 24) Positivism is associated as the quantification in data collection and is referred
epistemological position par excellence, whereas as a deductive approach by testing theories.
interpretivism represents the opposite. Between (Sauders/Lewis/Thornhill 2011, pp. 26-28)
these two philosophical approaches further Qualitative research, in contrast, entails an
positions are distinguished. The different inductive approach and aims to generate
research philosophies are shown in following theories. Quantitative data is predicated on
classification: numerical data and quantified data. By contrast,
qualitative data is based on non-numerical data
 Positivism and rather meanings expressed by words.
 Post-positivism Consequently, qualitative research investigates
 Critical theory on the understanding and interpretation of
 Scientific realism/Critical realism individuals regarding their social world which
 Constructivism leads to the epistemological position of
 Interpretivism interpretivism. (Bryman/Bell 2012, pp. 26-28)
According to research conducted by David and
A clear distinction between these philosophies Bitektine (2011, pp. 167-168) qualitative
as well as an explanation is given in Pogreška! research methods prevail in organisational
Izvor reference nije pronađen.on page studies which furthermore leads to acknowledge
Pogreška! Knjižna oznaka nije definirana.. them in terms of research.

This paragraph aims to exemplify the research Research design and research methods
paradigm. The current paper underlies the According to Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill
epistemological position of an interpretivist. The (2011, p. 160, 680), the research design
researcher emphasises the subjective meaning represents the framework for data collection
of social action and views the nature of reality as and data analysis and comprises the following
socially constructed. Therefore, doing research five types: experimental design, cross-sectional
among people or objects differs. Furthermore, or social survey design, longitudinal design, case
an interpretivist seeks to obtain understanding study design and comparative design. Research
by adopting an emphatic position and overtaking methods, however, depict the particular
the world view of the research subject. techniques how to collect data and thus a clear
(Saunders/Lewis/Thornhill 2011, p. 137) This is distinction is required. (Creswell 2009, p. 15)
also expressed in Max Weber’s Verstehen There is a great variety of research methods to
approach which describes an “interpretive be chosen such as experiment, survey, archival

analysis history or case (Yin 2014, p. 9) which can 2014, pp. 17, 241) Yin’s twofold definition covers
be furthermore broken down to research the scope and the features of case study.
techniques which describe tools and instruments Consequently, Yin aims to describe an “all-
to collect data. These are interviews (structured encompassing method”. (Yin 2014, p. 17)
or semi-structured), questionnaires, Dul and Hak (2008, pp. 4-5) prescribe case study
observations, focus groups, content/data as “[…] a study in which (a) one case (single case
analysis. (Bryman/Bell 2011, pp. xxxv-xxxvi; study) or a small number of cases (comparative
Creswell 2009, p. 5; Fitzgerald/Dopson 2011, p. case study) in their real life context are selected,
478; Jonker/Pennink 2010, p. 34 ) and (b) scores obtained from these cases are
analysed in a qualitative manner.” Especially Dul
The application of a research method is and Hak indicate that the case study does not
determined by three aspects such as the type of manipulate the object of study which prescribes
the research question, the extent of control the a “real life context”. This is the main
researcher has over the actual behavioural characteristic of the differentiation of case study
events as well as the degree of focus on the and experiment which manipulates instances.
contemporary as opposed to the entire historical Gerring however, defines case study as “an
events. (Yin 2014, p. 9) Additionally, a mix of intensive study of a single unit for the purpose of
quantitative and qualitative methods can be understanding a larger class of (similar) units”
applied which is called a mixed method (Gerring 2004, p. 342) and views case study as a
approach. (Bryman/Bell 2011, p. 28) method to define cases and not as a method
describing how to analyse cases. (Gerring 2004,
Finally, a research sample has to be defined. A p. 341)
sample is a sub-group or rather a part of the Stake (1995, p. xi) defines case study as “the
whole population. (Saunders/Lewis/Thornhill particularity and complexity of a single case,
2012, p. 681) Sampling prescribes the process to coming to understand its activity within
choose units from the whole population. It has important circumstances.”
to be noted that results derived from the sample
can be generalised to the population. (Social By providing these definitions of case study, it
Research Methods, URL) can be derived that the definition can differ
Case Study Research considerably. There is a substantial difference of
Definitions of “Case Study” reviewed literature in terms of considering case
Yin (2014, p. 16) describes case study as “an study as a method or as a research strategy.
empirical inquiry that investigates a
contemporary phenomenon (the “case”) in
depth and within its real-world context, Table 5 shows reviewed literature that allowed a
especially when the boundaries between classification of the authors. The authors
phenomenon and context may not be clearly describe case study either as a research method
evident.” The features of a case study comprise or as a research strategy.
three aspects. The first aspect is that it deals
with technically distinctive situations. The On the basis of given table, it can be derived that
second describes that there are several literature is not clearly defined if case study
informational resources which merge by describes a method or a strategy. Despite Yin’s
triangulation and thirdly that the case study book of case study research which was latest
method can direct the collection and analysis of published in 2014 as fifth edition but relates to
data by setting up theoretical propositions. (Yin the first publication in 1984, the latest authors

tend to describe case study as a research in 2011, Jonker/Pennink in 2010, Creswell in

strategy and not as a research method (see 2009 and Dul/Hak in 2008).
Saunders/Lewis/Thornhill in 2012, Bryman/Bell

Table 5: Classification of reviewed literature

Case study as research method Case study as research strategy

Ellet 2007, p. 5 Bryman/Bell 2011, pp. 59-64
Gerring 2004, p. 341 Creswell 2009, p. 13

Stake 1995, p. xi Dul/Hak 2008, pp. 3, 13, 24-25

Yin 2014, p. 3 Eisenhardt 1989, p. 534
Zucker 2009, p. 2 Jammal 2000, book title “case study
method” but described as research
strategy
Jonker/Pennink 2010, p. 83
Saunders/Lewis/Thornhill 2012, p. 666

Furthermore, the paper requires a definition for

the term case which describes an instance of an Case study types
object of study according to Dul/Hak (2008, p. 4). The case study method differentiates four types
The term study prescribes a research project which rely on the specific purpose of the case
(practice- or theory-oriented research object). study. Yin (2014, pp. 238-241) differs between
Referring to Dul and Hak (2008, pp. 30-31) most explanatory, descriptive and exploratory case
case studies are practice-oriented. Dul and Hak study. These types are in line with Eisenhardt’s
(2008, p. 23) count 454 case studies as practice- and Dul/Hak’s distinction. According to
oriented beside 212 case studies as theory- Eisenhardt (1989, p. 535) and Dul and Hak (2008,
building and 23 case studies as theory-testing pp. 9-10) case studies can be descriptive, test
which totals to 689 conducted case studies in theory and additionally can provide theory which
business research between the period of 2000 is referred as theory-building.
and 2005. The business fields strategy,
operations and human resource management Quantitative and qualitative case studies
predominantly use case study research. With reference to the steps introduced in
chapter two regarding the research process, a
Regarding the term case study, there are even distinction of quantitative and qualitative
further specifications such as the case review research approach is required. The case study
and the case report. A case review is a critical method can be applied in both quantitative and
reappraisal of a case. A case report, in contrast, qualitative research. However, case study is
comprises a summary of cases or as a usually classified as qualitative method by
documentation of considered cases. (Zucker highlighting the in-depth understanding acquired
2009, p. 1) predominantly by qualitative methods. (Yin

2009, p. 19; Zucker 2009, p. 1; Eisenhardt 1989, nursing and community planning. (Yin 2014, p. 4)
p. 538) Applying the case study method allows to gain a
holistic and real world perspective. (Yin 2014,
Sampling cases pp. 4, 237) Another advantage is that the case
Regarding the selection of cases the case study study research can be used retrospectively as
research is not described as a sampling research well as prospectively. (Zucker 2009, p. 1; Stake
according to Stake. (1995 p. 4) The purpose of 1995, p. 133)
the case study research is to get an in-depth
understanding and the complexity of at least one However, dealing with case study research also
case. However, the challenge is to select requires to consider following issues. Regarding
appropriate cases. Accordingly, Stake a single-case design, reliability as well as the
emphasises balance and variety when choosing generalisation of the findings is subject of
cases as well as cases which are rich in content. critique. Furthermore, criticism arises because of
(Stake 1995, pp. 6-7; Perri6/Bellamy 2012, pp. the deep involvement of the researcher in the
104-105) study which may affect the results. (Yin 2014,
Following Stake’s approach (1995, p. 3) to the pp. 20-21)
number of cases to be conducted, he concludes Some criticise that case study lacks systematic
not to define a finite number. The number procedure and therefore the case study research
rather depends on the research question and its may be despised as empirical method. (Yin 2014,
purpose. Eisenhardt (1989 p. 545), however, p. 19; Jonker/Pennink 2010, pp. 88-89) One of
suggests conducting more than four cases in the biggest criticisms of qualitative research
order to derive generalizable finings. According which also refers to case study research is that it
to Yin (2014, p. 63) even one case is enough to would be too subjective. Derived findings
generate valid data. Generally, there is a positive through qualitative research rely considerably on
correlation between investigated cases and the researcher and its assessment. (Bryman/Bell
validity. Thus, Yin advises to examine multiple 2011, p. 408 f.; Jonker/Pennink 2010, p. 89)
cases (when available) because a multiple-case Case study research process
study can strengthen derived findings and does Doing research and thus doing case study
not lead to a direct replication compared to research follows a particular pattern. The
single-case studies. Consequently, having only number of steps for conducting a case study
one case study requires strong argumentation to research differs from author to author because
encounter criticism convincingly. some authors subsume some steps in one.
Basically, the six steps introduced by Yin (2014,
Advantage and disadvantage of case study p. 1) in
research
The choice of the research method depends on Figure 7 are essential are described following.
the research question. The case study research is The case study process by Yin shows that it can
preferably used for research question which be a linear process but also iterative.
focus to explain something by using the question Plan- research question
terms how and why. Additionally, the case study The first step requires to define the research
method gains relevance the more in-depth question which is “probably the most import
explanations and descriptions are required. The step to be taken” according to Yin by using the
field where case study is applied is wide e.g. usual question words who, what, where, how
psychology, sociology, political science, and why. (Yin 2014, pp. 10-11) Furthermore, the
anthropology, social work, business, education researcher has to identify which method -

explaining, exploratory or descriptive - is the Regarding the second step, the case study design
most advantageous to use referring of the according to Yin (2014, p. 29) comprise the
purpose of the study. following components besides the research
Case study design question:

Figure 7: Case Study Research Process by Yin

Source: Illustration based on Yin (2014, p. 1).

 propositions influences when conducting the case study

 units of analysis research. (Yin 2014, p. 76)
 linking propositions to the research Collecting case study data
question There are six sources to collect data for a case
 criteria for interpreting the findings study. According to Yin (2014), these are
In this step the cases to be examined are documents, archival records, interviews, direct
specified resulting in a single case study design, a observation, participant-observation and
multiple-case study design which describes a physical artefacts. (Yin 2014, p. 102)
holistic case study design whereas multiple units Analyse case study data
of analysis also referred as embedded case study The fifth step seeks to analyse data for the case
can be chosen. (Yin 2014, p. 50) Finally, the study in order to derive findings but literature
quality of the case study design regarding provides less guidance how to analyse case
validity and reliability has to be ensured. (Yin studies which may result in an unstructured
2014, pp. 45-46) approach and which was already criticised in
Prepare to collect case study data chapter 0 Advantage and disadvantage of case
This step focuses on the skills of a researcher study. (Yin 2014, p.132) Having an analytical
conducting a case study. It is crucial for ensuring strategy is important to derive empirical
validity and reliability that researchers are aware findings. No statically defined approach how to
of being biased and hence to avoid any analyse case study can be seen as an advantage

of case study research because it allows third step, the problems have to be clearly
adapting and developing an analytical strategy identified. Therefore, tools like the strengths,
for each case study which is most appropriate weaknesses, opportunities and -threats analysis
and highlights the purpose of the research study. (SWOT), financial and other useful analyses can
Due to the lack of a defined analytical strategy, be used to identify the core issue, causes and
following four general analytical techniques effects and priorities. The fourth step seeks to
described by Yin (2014, pp. 136-142) can be used precise strategies such as the Boston Consulting
as guidance: Group matrix (BCG-matrix) or the Ansoff-matrix.
Furthermore, the fifth step comprises the
 relying on theoretical propositions development and evaluation of other possible
 working your data from bottom up solutions as a result of brainstorming and
 developing a case description decision tables. The sixth step requires
 examining plausible rival explanations developing a course and a plan of action to
assess undertaken assumptions and the
The importance of analysing case study data probable success. Finally, the presentation of the
resulted in developing more analytical case study and identified results and findings are
techniques such as pattern matching, presented in the seventh step.
explanation building, time-series analysis, logic
models and cross-case synthesis (Yin 2014, p.
142-168) Conclusion
Share case study findings The case study approach is not only a research
Finally, the case study and its derived findings method. Moreover, it describes a strategy by
have to be reported and reported for a specific offering a structured approach e.g. by Yin and
target group. Therefore, textual and visual useful procedures and methods such as the
preparations have to be done in order that the portfolio analyses, Porter’s five-forces approach,
target group can develop own conclusions. (Yin value chain analysis and other tools in order to
2014, p. 176) resolve or compile a possible solution of
Yin described how to conduct case study considered cases.
research in general. Therefore, a closer look is Referring to David and Bitektine (2011)
necessary how to analyse cases precisely by qualitative research methods gain in importance
using the seven steps approach of Jammal reflected by increasing case study numbers in
(2000). According to Jammal (2000, pp. 9-17) the business research and according to Dul and Hak
first step describes to read the case by taking (2008), the relevance of case studies is
notes and underlining important information in predominantly reflected in practice-oriented
order to get acquainted with the issue. The theory despite considerable concern towards the
second step requires to collect relevant case study as empirical method. Also Yin (2014)
information by taking notes and underlining concludes that case study research experiences
relevant information to identify crucial rising recognition. Therefore, the future
information as well as to specify missing development of case study research will be
information and data and finally to make interesting how it will contribute to further
calculation on the basis of given numbers. In the knowledge.

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FOCUS GROUPS

Brigit Kellmereit

Introduction
Focus groups are among the most common used organizing of focus groups will be observed. In
research tools in the field of human and social addition the advantages and disadvantages of
sciences and in marketing (cf. Marková 2007, p. this technique will be pointed out. Finally a
1). The roots of this technique go back to the conclusion will be drawn, summarizing the most
time after World War II. It emerged in important findings of the paper and giving and
behavioural science research as part of the outlook on future developments.
qualitative research family. In the field of
qualitative marketing studies focus groups Research methodology
became more and more popular over the last 50 Research philosophy
years (cf. Stewart/Shamdasani 2015, p. 1) In the The term research philosophy describes the
United States for example more than 250 development of knowledge as well as the nature
thousand focus groups are conducted annually of that knowledge. Thereby for example
(cf. Focus Vision 2012). However the answering a problem in an organisation can be
circumstances of focus groups have changed. understood as developing new knowledge (cf.
There are no longer solely small research groups Saunders et al. 2012, p. 129). During the
that are meeting face to face in a room but more research usually assumptions are being made.
and more focus groups conducted via webcams, The research questions and the methods used as
through social media and in virtual worlds (cf. well as the interpretations of the findings
McDermott 2013). Furthermore today focus depend on the individual assumption about
groups are often conducted in large numbers human knowledge and the nature of realities
and all over the world. One example is given by that are encountered in the research (cf. Crotty
Boeing and Airbus. In order to support the 1998). The research philosophy that is being
development of their new airplanes A380 and adopted can be seen as the assumptions about
Boeing787 they conducted hundreds of focus the way one sees the world, the so called world
groups across the globe (cf. Babej/Pollack 2006; view. The research strategy and the methods
Emerson/Johnson/Koh 2000). chosen will be underpinned by these
assumptions (cf. Saunders et al. 2012, p. 128).
The aim of the following essay is to examine the The important issues in this context is the ability
research method focus groups more closely and to reflect upon the philosophical choices and
to point out advantages as well as limitations of defend them in respect to the alternatives that
this research method. Therefore the underlying could have been adopted (cf. Johnson/Clark
research philosophy is explained first. Thereafter 2006). “The challenge is not to be able to fit
a short overview on research methods will be one’s research approach neatly into any
given before the focus groups, as a qualitative particular category but to ensure self-reflexivity
research method will be examined more closely. and an awareness of the various ways in which
Hereby the definition, characteristics and the our philosophical assumptions have influenced
uses of focus groups as well as the planning and our research” (Duberley/Johnson 2013, p. 30). In

figure 1 the relationship between the research philosophy and methodology is illustrated.

Figure 8: Relationship between philosophy and methodology in social science and educational
research

Source: Niglas (2004).

My research type is a critical realist. The the view that the world is experienced in two
philosophical position of realism relates to steps. The first step includes the thing itself and
scientific enquiry and assumes that there is a the sensations it conveys whereas the second
reality independent of the human mind. step is concerned with the mental processing
Furthermore similar to positivism it assumes a that begins as soon as that sensation meets
scientific approach in respect to the peoples senses (cf. Saunders et al. 2012, p. 136).
development of knowledge. This assumptions The position of the critical realist is that people’s
underpins the collection and understanding of knowledge of reality is an outcome of social
data. Two forms of realism exist: the direct conditioning. Consequently it cannot be
realism and the critical realism. Whereas the understood independently of the different social
direct realism shares the opinion that what is actors that are involved in the process of
being experienced through the senses portrays knowledge derivation (cf. Dobson 2002).
the world accurately, the critical realists argue
that what is being experienced by people is an Based on the definition of my own research
image of the things in the real world but not the type, the critical realist, I decided for the
thing directly. This implies that people can be qualitative approach of focus groups as research
deceived by their senses. Critical realists share method. Following a multi-methods approach

focus groups are often part of a combination of methods established in natural science”
quantitative and qualitative methods. They can (Hammond/Wellington 2013, p. 120).
for example be used to generate ideas or Quantitative research is generally about
hypothesis in the initial stage of research. These collecting and measuring data in countable form,
ideas can then be further tested by surveys, like for example test scores, likert scales or
questionnaires or interviews. Alternatively focus reaction times (cf. Hammond/Wellington 2013,
groups can be used in order to deepen the p. 107). Quantitative research is normally
understanding of the already collected data in a associated with a deductive approach, where the
later stage of the research. Thereby focus groups data is used to test theory. However, it can also
can give insights into the reasons for particular follow an inductive approach where the focus is
opinions and views (cf. Marková et al. 2007, p. on using data to develop theory. A characteristic
34). After the research philosophy has been of this research type is that it examines
clarified the different research methods are relationships between numerically measured and
described in the following. statistical analysed variables. Questions have to
be expressed clearly because data is collected in
Research methods a standard manner. The researcher in this case is
Before describing the different research methods seen as independent from the people he is
the difference between methodology and observing. Research strategies in this field are
methods should be clarified. Methodology is principally experimental and survey research.
about the rationale for the application of specific Survey research strategy is usually conducted
research methods and frames the use of the through questionnaires, structured interviews or
particular methods. Methodologies themselves structured observations (cf. Saunders et al. 2012,
are results of the particular research questions. If p. 162 f).
the research questions is for example a “how
many”-type question than the suggested Qualitative Research methods
methodology could be a survey, whereas a “how The research philosophy of interpretivism can be
can I improve”-type of question suggests an generally associated with qualitative research
action research methodology (cf. (cf. Denzin/Lincoln 2005). This philosophy aims
Hammond/Wellington 2013, p. 109). to understand the meaning of cultural and
institutional practices for those taking part in the
Research methods however describe the means research (cf. Hammond/Wellington 2013, p. 88)
through which data is being gathered and “Researchers need to make sense of the
analysed within a research study. These methods subjective and socially constructed meanings
can be divided into quantitative and qualitative expressed about the phenomenon being
methods, which will be shortly described in the studied” (Saunders et al. 2012, p. 163).
following (cf. Hammond/Wellington 2013, p. Qualitative research deals with data that are not
107). available in countable form and hence
techniques like coding and content analysis are
Quantitative Research methods needed in order to managed and analyse the
Quantitative research can be generally data (cf. Hammond/Wellington 2013, p. 107). It
associated with the research philosophy of usually commences with an inductive approach.
positivism (cf. Saunders et al. 2012, p. 162). This Qualitative research studies the meanings and
philosophy assumes “that the world is capable of the relationships between the participants. To
objective interpretation and (..) that social develop a conceptual framework it uses a range
science should follow the methodologies and of data collection techniques as well as analytical

procedures. The collection of data is non- advantages and possible limitations of this
standardized so that questions as well as research technique will be given.
procedures can alter and emerge during the Focus Groups
research process. A variety of strategies exist
associated with qualitative research. Some What are focus groups?
examples are: action research, focus groups, The research method focus groups came up
case study research or narrative research (cf. during the Second World War and since then it
Saunders et al. 2012, p. 163). has been through decline and rise in theory and
method. It probably goes back to the work of the
sociologists Robert Merton and Paul Lazarsfeld
Multiple-methods research (cf. Lazarsfeld/Stanton 1944). They used focus
Two philosophical positions can be considered groups to comment on radio programmes and to
that lead to the multiple method research interpret them. These radio programmes were
designs: critical realism and pragmatism. They concerned with support of the public for the war
believe in an external, objective reality to the saving-bonds of the government. The
world we live in. Furthermore they assume that background is that during the Second World War
the particular social conditioning affects the way people were encouraged by the U.S. government
we see and interpret reality. Following this to buy bonds to invest money and as a patriotic
research strategy researchers may analyse gesture (cf. Marková et al. 2007).
quantitative officially published data and
thereafter explore perceptions using qualitative Sreejesh defines focus groups as follows: “A
research methods (cf. Saunders et al. 2012, p. focus group is defined as group of individuals
163). Pragmatism could also lead to a multi selected and assembled by researchers to
method research design. Pragmatists are not discuss and comment on, from personal
wedded to a single philosophy but they allow a experience, the topic that is the subject of the
choice or a mixture of the philosophies research” (Sreejesh et al. 2014, p. 51). Another
depending on what really helps them to definition comes from Krueger. He describes
undertake their research and on the particular focus groups as “a carefully planned discussion
nature of the research. The research approach of designed to obtain perceptions on a defined
a multi method research may be inductive or area of interest in a permissive, non-threatening
deductive or a combination of both. For example environment” (Krueger 1994, p.6). The essence
a theoretical proposition may be tested using of this research method is to tap the unexpected
quantitative or qualitative research and findings resulting from an interactive meeting
thereafter a richer theoretical perspective may between the members of the group. The
be developed using further quantitative or meeting should last approximately two hours,
qualitative research. A theoretical perspective which is considered to be the usual time for a
could also be used to give some direction for the focus group interview. When selecting the
research (cf. Tashakkori/Teddlie 2010). members it has to be ensured that their
knowledge and experience of the discussed topic
In the next chapter the research method of focus is sufficient. Furthermore it is beneficial if the
groups will be examined more closely, thereby members have common interests, experiences
the definition of focus groups, the or demographic background because this would
characteristics, the possible uses and the facilitate blending among the members and lead
planning and organizing of focus groups will be to a productive discussion (cf. Sreejesh et al.
described. Furthermore some insights on the 2014, p. 51 f.). The group is led by a skilled

interviewer and the discussions are often characteristic of a focus group is that they have a
relaxed so that the participants enjoy sharing focussed discussion. This is due to the fact that
their perceptions and ideas (cf. Krueger/Casey the questions are carefully predetermined and
2009, p. 2). sequenced. The researcher uses open-ended
questions that seem to be spontaneous but they
Characteristics are being carefully developed after reflection
According to Krueger and Casey focus group and input. Finally the fifth characteristic is that
interviews usually have five characteristics, the previous four characteristics should help the
which relate to the ingredients of focus groups. researcher to understand the topic of interest
The first characteristic is that a focus group (cf. Krueger/Casey 2009, pp. 6-8).
involve people. It usually consist of five to ten
people but it can also occur in a range of four to Uses of focus groups
twelve people. The importance is that it is small The uses of focus groups are divers. Focus
enough that everybody can share their insights groups can for example be used to collect
but large enough so that there is enough background information on a specific topic.
diversity of perceptions. The second Furthermore research hypothesis can be
characteristic is that the members of the group generated that can then be submitted to further
possess certain characteristics themselves. In a research. In general focus groups can help to
certain way depending on the research purpose stimulate new ideas and creative concepts. In
the members are similar to each other. This addition they can diagnose the potential for
homogeneity can be defined broadly or problems with respect to new products, services
narrowly. For example if an education program or programs. They can also generate impressions
wants to know how to reach people that do not of products or other objects of interest. In
participate yet in the program, their focus group addition they can be used to interpret
would be composed out of people who have not quantitative results that have been obtained
yet participated in the program. This would be before (cf. Stewart/Shamdasani 2015, p.44 f.).
an example for broader homogeneity. If the Another aspect is that they allow to gain insight
initiators of the education program are in group dynamics, meaning the way how people
interested in attracting for example only people are influenced by others (cf. Litosseliti 2007, p.
from a certain neighbourhood the researchers 18). Krueger and Casey point out that focus
would use a narrower definitions of groups can also help with decision making by
homogeneity to select the members of the focus enabling the decision maker to make more
group. The fact that focus groups provide informed choices using the findings from the
qualitative data is the third characteristic. focus group. Furthermore they underline the
Thereby the aim of a focus group is to collect importance focus groups can have in guiding
data that interests the researcher. To obtain this product or program development. Therefore the
data open-ended questions are being asked. The stages of product development have to be
environment of a focus group allows people to considered. At three stages of product
influence and to be influenced by others like in development focus groups can be helpful (see
real life. The researcher serves as a moderator, figure 2).
listener, observer and analyst. The fourth

Figure 9: Recommended Strategy for Product/Program Development

Source: Own representation based on Krueger/Casey (2009), p. 9.

The first stage where focus groups can be useful product could be improved and if the product
is when researchers need to gain an fulfils the expectations. These three stages of
understanding. This means seeing the product focus group research can be applied in the
through the eyes of the target group. Hereby the development of consumer products but also for
researcher can find out what the target audience other areas like the development of advertising
is thinking and feeling about the product. Also it campaigns (cf. Krueger/Casey 2009, pp. 8-9). In
can be observed what they like about the the next section the process of planning and
product and what they do not like as well as organizing a focus group is being described.
potential barriers in buying the product and
what it would take to get the target group to buy Planning and organizing focus groups
the product. The next stage of product Figure 3 illustrates the steps in the process of
development where focus groups can be useful planning focus groups, which are described
is during the pilot test of the prototype, which is shortly in the following. The first step of this
based on the findings from the first focus process is the problem definition. This requires a
groups. At this stage focus groups can again clear statement about what is the desirable
share their opinion on what they like and what information and from whom it should be
they do not like about the prototype. This helps obtained. A clear understanding of the general
the planners to fine-tune ideas, plans or research question or the problem should be
concepts before implementation. The third point ensured because otherwise the moderator may
where focus groups can be helpful is after the raise incorrect questions or the population of
product is already on the market. At this stage interest is not identified correctly (cf.
focus groups can be used for evaluation and can Stewart/Shamdasani 2015, p. 49 f.).
answer questions like for example if and how the

Figure 10: Steps in the design and use of focus groups

Source: Own representation based on Stewart/Shamdasani (2015), p. 50.

In determining the purpose and the nature of How will you use the information? (Or, what do
the problem Krueger and Casey give a guideline you want others to do with the information?)”
what questions should be answered at this (Krueger/Casey 2009, p. 18)
point:
After being clear on the research question a
“What is the problem that the study is to sampling frame has to be identified. This
address? sampling frame is a list of possible participants
What led up to the decision to do this study? that are believed to be representative of the
What is the purpose of the study? larger population that the researcher is
What kinds of information do you want? interested in. Stewart and Shamdasani point out
What types of information are of particular that this step is much more critical in large-scale
importance? survey research because it would be
Who wants the information? (Or, who do you inappropriate to generalize far beyond the
want to give the information to? participants of the focus group. Hence a good
approximation of the people of interest would

be enough (cf. Stewart/Shamdasani 2015, p. 51). of the process is the focus group interview. The
According to Krueger and Casey thinking about task of the moderator is to lead the participants
whether a list of people fitting in the screens through the questions on the guide of the
exists, is the best way to begin. This list could be interview and if possible to facilitate discussion
an existing list of clients, employees, members among the group members. Audio- or
or people who use a certain service of an videotapes may be conducted to facilitate the
organization. If there is no existing list another analysis later on. Finally the last two steps of the
possible way for finding participants would be to process are the analysis and the interpretation
ask neutral parties for names and create an own of the data and the report writing. Based on the
list (cf. Krueger/Casey 2009, p. 68 f.). findings and analysis of the focus group
discussion, decisions can be made and measures
In the third step of the focus group planning can be initiated (cf. Stewart/Shamdasani 2015,
process the moderator should be identified and p. 52). In the next two sections the advantages
the interview guide should be designed. These and limitations of focus groups are being
steps often happen at the same time as the discussed.
recruitment of the participants. The moderator
as well as the questions included in the interview Advantages of focus groups
guide have to be compatible with the group that The research method of focus groups enables
is interviewed. A moderator that is good in the researcher, without pressuring the
interviewing children is not necessarily suited to participants to make decisions, to examine what
interview for example design engineers (cf. and how they think and why they think in a
Stewart/Shamdasani 2015, p. 51). Liamputtong special way about the issue of importance (cf.
points out some characteristics a good Liamputtong 2011, p. 5). According to Jenny
moderator should have. Among other Kitzinger this methodology is an ideal approach
characteristics he should be sensitive with in order to examine the stories, beliefs, needs,
respect to the needs of the participants, be points of views and concerns of individuals (cf.
open-minded and respect the participants. Kitzinger 2005, p.57). Stewart and Shamdasani
Furthermore he should be non-judgemental and point out a number of advantages of focus
he should have an adequate knowledge about groups in comparison to other types of research.
the discussed issue (cf. Liamputtong 2011, p. 60). One advantage focus groups offer is that data
Before the recruitment process can start, the can be collected much more quickly and at the
time and place for the group have to be same time at less cost than it would be the case
identified. Hennink remarks that the physical if every person of the group were interviewed
location as well as the internal environment of individually. Another advantage is that focus
the venue can enhance a productive group groups enable the researcher to interact with
discussion (cf. Hennink 2007, p. 152). In the the respondents on a direct basis, which
subsequent recruitment process people in the provides for example opportunities for the
sampling frame are contacted and asked to take clarification of responses. Furthermore
part in a group discussion at a specific time and nonverbal responses like gestures, smiles or
place. To stimulate their interest they are usually frowns can be observed that may either
informed about the topic and depending on the supplement or even contradict the verbal
research budget also small gifts or higher response. In addition large and comprehensive
amounts of money are offered to the amounts of data can be obtained through the
participants as an inventive (cf. open response format that a focus group
Stewart/Shamdasani 2015, p. 51). The next step implies. This enables the researcher to obtain for

example deeper levels of meanings. The group focus groups participants to portray themselves
setting also creates synergistic effects, where as thoughtful, reflective and rational individuals
respondents react and build on the statements when they discuss their past behaviour (cf.
of other group members. Thereby data or ideas Krueger/Casey 2009, p. 13 f.). In fact Gerald
may be produced that would not have been Zaltman argues that 95 per cent of consumer
come up in an individual interview. (cf. choices are made unconscious and that this is
Stewart/Shamdasani 2015, pp. 45 f.). If the the reason why the results of many market
group is homogeneous in respect of the group research strategies are incomplete and
members’ experiences and feelings an erroneous (cf. Zaltman 2003, p. 50). However
atmosphere of security is created which places one has to keep in mind that this criticism affects
the participants in a comfort position and thus not only focus groups but all research methods
encourages them to communicate their ideas (cf. based on questions and answers. This problem
Sreejesh et al. 2014, p. 53). Another advantage can be minimized when multiple strategies of
of focus groups is that they are very flexible and inquiry are used. Another point where the
can be used to examine a variety of topics. Lastly limitations of focus groups can emerge is if the
the results of a focus group discussion are very participants have limited or no experience. In
user friendly and also easy to understand, what this situation the participants may make up
is not always true for more sophisticated survey answers to not be embarrassed or being
research. When deciding between the usage of a negatively reflected on. It could also happen that
group interview or a series of individual dominant individuals influence the results. If this
interviews one should also take into account, seems to happen, the moderator has to
that individual interviews will require much intervene and handle the situation. He has to
more time and also advantages that result out of ensure that the participants are able to reflect
the group setting cannot be achieved (cf. on various arguments and are not being
Stewart/Shamdasani 2015, p. 46). pressurized by others (cf. Krueger/Casey 2009,
pp. 13-15). It could also happen that participants
Limitations of focus groups are not taking part in the group discussion. The
Although focus groups offer a lot of advantages reason for this can lie in the topic of the
and are a valuable research tool there is also discussion. Not all topics are suited for a focus
some criticism and limitations about focus group discussion. Especially very personal topics
groups. One possible limitation is that the small like financial status or divorce may be better
number of respondents participating in a focus discussed in an individual interview.
groups may not be enough to generalize the Furthermore difficulties in using focus groups
issue to a larger population. In this context, it may appear if topics are discussed where the
has to be considered, that the people who are participants have strong or opposing opinions. In
willing to come to a locale and to participate in a addition participants may be reluctant to talk
one to two hour group discussion are probably about their opinions and views if the focus group
different from the majority of the population of takes place in an institutional context like the
interest for example in respect of compliance or workplace and if the participants are colleagues
deference (cf. Stewart/Shamdasani 2015, p. 47 (cf. Liamputtong 2011, p. 8). Sreejesh et al.
f.). However if the focus group is too large and comment that the spontaneous response from
the topic is complicated superficial and trivial the participants may make it difficult for the
results may be produced. Another point of researcher to decide which response could be
criticism it that focus groups tend to generalized. As a result it could happen that the
intellectualize. This is shown in a tendency of researchers use their own conclusions what

results in a bias (cf. Sreejesh et al. 2014, p. 54). when summarizing and interpreting the results
Finally the open-ended nature of responses of the focus group discussion (cf.
collected in a focus group may lead to difficulties Stewart/Shamdasani 2015, p. 48).

Conclusion

Krueger and Casey describe focus groups as research is undertaken, on how they are used
“special creatures in the kingdom of groups” and on the expertise of the researcher (cf.
(Krueger/Casey 2009, p. 15) because they look Krueger/Casey 2009, p. 13). In addition it has to
like other kinds of group experiences but on be kept in mind that a large part of the
closer inspection they have distinctive limitations of focus groups can be prevented if
characteristics. They “collect qualitative data certain rules are followed for example on how to
from homogeneous people in a group situation conduct an efficient focus group. Some points in
through a focused discussion” (Krueger/Casey this context are, that the group should not be
2009, p. 15). too large and that the moderator should have
the necessary qualification to lead the group
In the wide array of disciplines focus groups are through a productive discussion. According to
among the more common types of research. As Stewart and Shamdasani the true test with
outlined in the essay the uses of focus groups respect to the validity of a research method can
are manifold. Academic researchers, business be determined by the frequency with which it
decision makers and government policymakers produces useful and interesting results. The fact
use this method. Focus groups have invaluable that focus groups persists for more than 50 years
benefits. They provide rich and detailed data and are applied in manifold ways suggest that
about perceptions, feelings, thoughts and this research method has fulfilled this standard
impressions of group members. Furthermore of validity (cf. Stewart/Shamdasani 2015, p.
they represent a flexible research tool which can 180). The successful application of focus groups
be used for nearly any topic (cf. in the past and the increasing demand on
Stewart/Shamdasani 2015, p. 177). As set out in meaningful data suggest that focus groups will
the essay there is also criticism about focus play an important role also in the future, in
groups. However at this point it should be which a shift from the traditional face to face
mentioned, that no method is perfect and that group discussion to a more frequent use of
the different research methods are highly virtual focus groups might occur.
dependent on the environment in which the

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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH WITH A FOCUS ON QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 53

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH WITH A FOCUS ON

QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Isabella Mayer

Purpose and Scope

“Not everything that can be counted counts,

and not everything that counts can be counted“

(Albert Einstein)

The interest in qualitative research has been analysis, before the paper concludes in chapter
growing continuously in the last few decades 6.
(Flick, 2009, p. 12). Referring to the quote of
Albert Einstein, researchers realized that not all Introduction to Research
phenomena could be counted or measured in
terms of quantities. To overcome the limitations According to its purpose, research can be
of quantitative approaches for certain research divided into exploratory, descriptive and causal
interests or questions, qualitative approaches research. Exploratory research seeks new
and a wide array of corresponding methods have insights into phenomena and sheds light on
emerged since then. ambiguous situations. The aim is not to derive
The objective of this paper is to provide an definite evidence but rather to serve as a basis
overview of research, focussing on qualitative for further research. Descriptive research in
research, whereby approaches to qualitative contrast, addresses more specific issues. It
data analysis will be emphasized. Data analysis describes ‘characteristics of objects, people,
represents a central step in qualitative research groups, organizations, or environments ... by
and has a major impact on the outcome of any addressing who, what, when, where and how
research conducted (Flick, 2014, p. 3). questions’ (Zikmund et al., 2009, p. 55). The
The present paper is structured on the basis of a objective of causal or explanatory research is to
typical research process in practice (see set up causal relationships between variables so
Appendix 1). After a short introduction to the as to explain the relationship between them
field of research in chapter 2, the area of (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, (2009, p. 140).
research philosophy in chapter 3 will build the The research process can be described by using
basis for further steps. With quantitative and an onion as a metaphor (Illustration 1) (ibid, p.
qualitative research, two major methodological 108). Before the researcher gets to the inner
approaches are being discussed in chapter 4. centre, which is data collection and data
Chapter 5 continues with concrete methods and analysis, several layers have to be peeled off
techniques in the area of qualitative data first. The first layer is the research philosophy,
which will be described in the following chapter.

Copyright ©2015 by International Journal of Sales, Retailing and Marketing  Vol. 4  No. 9  2015
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH WITH A FOCUS ON QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 54

Illustration 1: The Research 'Onion'

Source: Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2009, p. 108.

Research Philosophy

Adopting a research philosophy represents the philosophical stance: ontology and

starting point of the research process. According epistemology.
to Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2009, p. 107) Ontology refers to assumptions about the nature
research philosophy ‘relates to the development of reality (Guba and Lincoln, 1994; Hesse-Biber
of knowledge and the nature of that knowledge’ and Leavy, 2011; Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill,
and thereby stands for a certain view of the 2009). Guba and Lincoln (1994, p. 108) describe
world of the researcher. The research the ontological questions as follows: ‘What is the
philosophy adopted builds the basis for the form and nature of reality and, therefore, what
following research process and influences is there that can be known about it?’.
aspects like the formulation of the research Epistemology includes assumptions about who
question and the selection of research methods can be a knower or formulated differently,
(Hesse-Biber and Leavy, 2011; Bryman and Bell, ‘What is the nature of the relationship between
2011). Furthermore, it enables the researcher to the knower or would-be knower and what can
explain the choice for certain methods used and be done?’ (ibid, p. 108).
offers particular standards to evaluate the As stated before, it is important that the
quality of research (Rubin and Rubin, 2012, p. researcher identifies his or her personal
15). According to Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill philosophical position. The author of the present
(2009, p. 109), there are two major areas to be paper adopts a post-positivist stance, inheriting
considered to determine the researcher’s the ontology of a critical realist and the
epistemology of a modified dualist/objectivist

Copyright ©2015 by International Journal of Sales, Retailing and Marketing  Vol. 4  No. 9  2015
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH WITH A FOCUS ON QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 55

(Guba and Lincoln, 1994, p. 110). According to each research method chosen. Explaining why a
Adam (2014, p. 6) post-positivism goes beyond certain method has been chosen enables the
positivism; however it does not completely researcher himself or others to evaluate the
reject quantitative approaches. The post- research results. Jonker and Penning (2010, p.
positivist researcher is rather careful with one- 32) derive the meaning of methodology from its
sided interpretations or a too extensive use of Greek roots standing for ‘the way along which’
(quantitative) data and methods. In its core, and state that ‘a methodology assumes there is a
post-positivism deals with questions relating to logical order the researcher needs to follow in
the quality of data, the usage of more integrated order to achieve a certain predetermined result’.
approaches and the context of the phenomenon Consulting another metaphor, research
under study. methodology can also be seen as a bridge, which
Reimer (1996, p. 123) describes qualitative connects the philosophical perspective with the
research as ‘a child of the post-positivist world’. research methods (Hesse-Biber and Leavy, 2011,
Hesse-Biber and Leavy (2011, p. 16) categorize p. 6). Kothari (2004, p. 5) distinguishes between
post-positivism alongside with the interpretive two different types of approaches to research:
strand and the critical strand as the primary the quantitative and the qualitative research
approaches to qualitative research. However, approach.
they classify post-positivism as a rather atypical However, linking different philosophical stances
approach to qualitative research. to certain methodologies has been criticised in
Appendix 2 shows the relationship between literature (Niglas, 2004, p.6). With regard to this
philosophy and methodology. In this illustration, discussion, Niglas (2004, p. 7) systematically
post-positivism spans over combined designs of analysed 48 research papers and found out that
qualitative and quantitative research. The ‘it is the concrete research problem or aim
present paper will take post-positivism as the rather than the philosophical position which
methodological framework for research, determines the design (or overall strategy) of the
focussing on qualitative approaches but also on study whereby, depending on the nature and
the triangulation of methods and approaches. complexity of the problem, the design can be
either qualitative or quantitative or a
combination of both’. However, Bryman and Bell
Research Methodology (2011, p. 26) regard a distinction between
quantitative and qualitative research approaches
Methodology and Methods as a useful means to classify different research
After the researcher defined the way he thinks methods. This approach will be adopted in this
the world is (ontology) and what he thinks can paper.
be known about it (epistemology), the question Table 1 shows the basic contrasts between
to answer is then how it can be investigated, i.e. quantitative and qualitative research, which
the methodological question. Kothari (2004, p. make a fundamental difference. The
8) states that “research methodology has many corresponding approaches and methods will be
dimensions and research methods do constitute discussed in more detail in the following
part of the research methodology.’ He stresses paragraphs 4.2 and 4.3.
the importance of considering the logic behind

Copyright ©2015 by International Journal of Sales, Retailing and Marketing  Vol. 4  No. 9  2015
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH WITH A FOCUS ON QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 56

Table 6: Fundamental differences between quantitative and qualitative research

Quantitative Qualitative
Principal orientation to the
Deductive; Inductive;
role of theory in relation to
testing theory generation of theory
research
Natural science model, in
Epistemological orientation Interpretivism
particular positivism

Ontological orientation Objectivism Constructivism

Source: Bryman and Bell, 2011, p. 27.

Quantitative Research

The term ‘quantity’ in this research approach figures entails that they are perceived as
refers to measuring and counting and implies an objective facts; however this approach has only
emphasis on quantification in the area of data instrumental neutrality. Moreover it is based on
collection and analysis. Quantitative research the assumption, that theory correctly represents
has its roots in natural science which postulates the reality of the problem. Last, the generated
that ‘knowledge about reality can only be data does not speak for itself; it always has to be
obtained “through the eyes of the interpreted to become meaningful (Jonker and
researcher”’(Jonker and Penning, 2010, p. 66). It Penning, 2010, p. 74). This paper focuses
is based particularly on the assumptions of primarily on qualitative research; therefore it
positivism and ‘embodies a view of social reality will not go into further detail regarding
as an external objective reality (Bryman and Bell, quantitative research.
2011, p. 27).
Quantitative research works with closed Qualitative Research
questions, which are elaborated from existing Qualitative research emerged in the 20th century
theories. These questions result in a problem with the rise of social sciences, which focused on
definition, which will not change during the an understanding of the way in which humans
research process (Jonker and Penning, 2010, p. view their social world (Saunder, Lewis and
66). The theory is then tested in a deductive Thornhill, 2009, p. 126). Denzin and Lincoln
empirical cycle. Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2000, p. 4-5) define qualitative research as
(2009, p. 125) describe the main characteristics follows: ‘Qualitative research is a situated
of deductions processes as follows: activity that locates the observer in the world. It
Explanation of causal relationships between consists of a set of interpretive, material
variables practices that make the world visible ... They
Testing of hypothesis turn the world into a series of representations,
Reliability by using highly structured including field notes, interviews, conversations,
methodology photographs, recordings, and memos to the self.
Reduction of problems/concepts to the simplest … This means that qualitative researchers study
possible elements to allow operationalisation things in their natural settings, attempting to
Selection of samples with sufficient numerical make sense of or to interpret, phenomena in
size to allow generalisation terms of the meanings people bring to them.’
Quantitative research approaches can be While quantitative research approaches focus
criticised for several aspects. The emphasis on quantification in data collection and analysis,

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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH WITH A FOCUS ON QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 57

qualitative research emphasizes words. It certain degree of uncertainty and gives

‘embodies a view of social reality as a constantly qualitative research an ‘open end character’.
shifting emergent property of individuals’ Furthermore, the research is influenced by the
creation (Bryman and Bell, 2011, p. 27). researcher’s subjectivity, as he is directly
Qualitative research is especially concerned with involved; facts and interpretations might be
the context of certain phenomena (Saunder, difficult to differentiate. Last, it might be difficult
Lewis and Thornhill, 2009, p. 126). to assess the results by applying classical
Qualitative research works with open questions, methodological criteria (Jonker and Penning,
which might change during the course of 2010, p. 89).
research. The flexible nature of this approach is Van Maanen (1979, p. 520) defines qualitative
an important characteristic. The definite shape methods as ‘an umbrella term covering an array
of the research question is obtained based on an of interpretative techniques which seek to
inductive empirical cycle. Induction is concerned describe, decode, translate, and otherwise come
with generating theory from data, i.e. theory to terms with the meaning, not the frequency, of
follows data rather than the opposite way as certain more or less naturally occurring
with a deductive approach. In contrast to a phenomena in the social world‘. Tesch (1990, p.
deductive approach, small samples of subjects 58) identified over 40 different approaches to
might be appropriate (ibid, p. 78). qualitative research. The approaches shown in
However, there are also shortcomings to Table 2 cannot be attributed to the same level
qualitative research. The flexibility that is and might span from research philosophies to
inherent in open questions also leads to a concrete research methods (Niglas, 2004, p. 3).

Table 2: Different Approaches to Qualitative Research

Source: Tesch, 1990, p. 58.
action research ethnographic content interpretive
case study analysis interactionism
clinical research interpretive human studies life history study
cognitive anthropology ethnography naturalistic inquiry
collaborative enquiry ethnography of panel research
content analysis communication participant observation
dialogical research oral history participative research
conversation analysis ethnomethodology phenomenography
Delphi study ethnoscience phenomenology
descriptive research experiential psychology qualitative evaluation
direct research field study structural ethnography
discourse analysis focus group research symbolic interactionism
document study grounded theory transcendental realism
ecological psychology hermeneutics transformative research
educational heuristic research
connoisseurship and holistic ethnography
criticism imaginal psychology
educational ethnography intensive evaluation

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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH WITH A FOCUS ON QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 58

According to Tesch (1991, p. 17-25), this variety Data analysis is of vital importance within
of approaches can be divided into three basic qualitative research as it has a major influence
orientations, depending on the research on the results of each research conducted (Flick,
interest. ‘Language oriented’ approaches are 2014, p. 3). It represents one step among various
interested in the characteristic of language and other steps within the research process, yet
the communication between people. there are different approaches to the role of
‘Descriptive/interpretive’ approaches are qualitative data analysis within this process. In
interested in discovering regularities by some models, data analysis starts only after data
providing thorough descriptions of social collection and preparation has been finished. In
phenomena. The third approach is called other models, data collection and analysis are
‘theory-building’ and seeks to identify applied in parallel with both steps being
connections between social phenomena. Flick entangled. In yet other cases, data analysis
(2014, p. 3) states that the area of qualitative might represent the central step within the
research is continuously growing, thereby research process, with all other steps seen as
becoming more complex and less structured. As subordinate (ibid, p. 10).
this paper focuses qualitative research Punch (2009, p. 174-175) describes ‘data
approaches, the next chapter will examine reduction’, ‘data display’ and ‘drawing and
qualitative data analysis in more detail. verifying conclusions’ as the three major
components of qualitative data analysis (see also
Schutt, 2012, p. 326). Illustration 3 shows, that
Qualitative Data Analysis these three activities interact during the
Components of Qualitative Data Analysis analysis.

Illustration 3: Components of Qualitative Data Analysis: Interactive Model

Data
collection
Data
display

Data
reduction Conclusions:
drawing/verifying

Source: Miles and Huberman, 1994, p. 12 in Punch, 2009, p. 174.

Data reduction is part of the analysis and occurs context. Ways of reducing data may vary
constantly during the analysis. The main throughout the different stages of research and
objective, congruent with quantitative analysis, span from editing and summarizing in the early
is to reduce data without losing information. In stages over coding and memoing in the middle
the area of qualitative analysis it is additionally stages to conceptualizing and explaining in the
important to preserve information within its later stages. Data displays arrange, condense

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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH WITH A FOCUS ON QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 59

and assemble information by means of graphs, Triangulation

charts, or different forms of diagrams. The According to Bryman (2004, p. 1142),
objective of repeated and iterative data displays ‘Triangulation refers to the use of more than one
is to provide information about the current approach to the investigation of a research
status of the research and to build the basis for question in order to enhance confidence in the
further research. (See also chapter 5.2.3 on ensuing findings.’ The main objective of
grounded theory). Data reduction and display triangulation is to enhance and demonstrate
are important to assist in drawing and verifying reliability of research findings. Nevertheless,
conclusions. This step logically follows after the even if triangulation leads to convergent results,
first two steps; however, possible conclusions it cannot be concluded, that research results are
can also be drawn vaguely in earlier stages of the unquestionable. Flick (2011, p. 111) criticises the
analysis and sharpened throughout the whole reduction of triangulation to the validation of
process. When all data has been analysed, final results and mentions another benefit of
conclusions can be drawn as propositions, which triangulation: different perspectives allow an
then need to be verified (Punch, 2009, p. 174- enlargement of the focus on the phenomenon
175). The next chapter will now look more under study.
closely on different approaches in qualitative Denzin (1970 in Bryman, 2004, p. 1142)
data analysis. distinguishes between four forms of
triangulation: Data triangulation, investigator
Approaches to Qualitative Data Analysis triangulation, theoretical triangulation, and
Conceptual Framework methodological triangulation:
Data can be analysed in a more systematic Data triangulation refers to the use of different
manner if the study is based on particular data sources like interview data or observational
theoretical propositions or a conceptual data. By means of various sampling strategies,
framework. Zikmund et al. (2009, p. 42) define data is collected at different times, in different
propositions as ‘statements concerned with the social situations and on a variety of people.
relationships among concepts. A proposition Investigator triangulation implies letting other
explains the logical linkage among certain researchers participate to collect and interpret
concepts by asserting a universal connection data.
between concepts.’ Maxwell (2013, p. 39) Theoretical triangulation describes the use of
describes the conceptual framework as ‘the more than one theoretical position when
system of concepts, assumptions, expectations, interpreting data
beliefs, and theories’ supporting and informing Methodological triangulation refers to the use of
the research conducted. It can be composed of more than one research method. This type of
the experiential knowledge of the researcher, triangulation is often referred to as the essence
existing theory and research, pilot and of triangulation. It might also describe the use of
exploratory research as well as thought both quantitative and qualitative research.
experiments (ibid, p. 44). Triangulation has also been criticised in
Heinrich (1984, p. 151 in Maxwell, 2013, p. 39) literature. It has been accused to follow a naive
emphasizes the importance of a conceptual realism which assumes that there can only be
framework when concluding: ‘Even carefully one definite account of social reality. Another
collected results can be misleading if the critique refers to the assumption that data which
underlying context of assumptions is wrong’. was gathered with different research methods
Therefore, the conceptual framework cannot necessarily be compared and seen as
constitutes a key part of the research design.

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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH WITH A FOCUS ON QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 60

equally suitable to answer a research question and Mills, 2010, p. 11). This form of comparison
(Bryman, 2004, p. 1143). leads to greater precision and consistency within
research (Corbin and Strauss, 1990, p. 9).
Grounded Theory The process of data collection and analysis
Grounded theory can be seen as a general should continue until theoretical saturation has
approach to research as well as a set of been accomplished, i.e. until no new variations
techniques to develop theory through data of exiting categories emerge. An integrated
analysis (Punch, 2009, p. 182). It emerged during grounded theory, which explains a process
a four-year study on examining the experience related to a phenomenon, is the final product of
of dying by Glaser and Strauss in 1967. Corbin this approach (Birks and Mills, 2010, p. 12).
and Strauss (1994, p. 273) define grounded However, Willig (2013, p. 71) points out that
theory as ‘a general methodology for developing ‘theoretical saturation functions as a goal rather
theory that is grounded in data systematically than as a reality’. Glaser and Strauss (1967, p. 40
gathered and analyzed.’ Theory evolves during in Willig, 2013, p. 71) note that ‘the published
the research process through the constant word is not the final one, but only a pause in the
interaction between analysis and data collection. never-ending process of generating theory.’
A main feature of this analytical approach is the When using grounded theory, the researcher has
‘comparative analysis’, which is the reason why to bear in mind, that this implies a process which
the method is often referred to as the constant is very intensive and time consuming and which
comparative method. requires reflection. Therefore, the timeframe,
the required level of competence and access to
Easterby-Smith, Thorpe and Jackson (2012, p. data need to be considered in advance
58) identified the following key analytical (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2009, p. 511).
operations when applying grounded theory: Content Analysis
cycle of theoretical sampling; constant The roots of content analysis go back to the
comparisons; evolving theory, leading to study of mass communication in the 1950s; the
theoretical saturation: first textbook on the subject was published by
Theoretical sampling represents an iterative Berelson in 1952. Krippendorff (2013, p. 24)
process. When using grounded theory, samples offers a broad definition of content analysis as ‘a
are not drawn of particular groups of individuals research technique for making replicable and
but rather in terms of concepts and their valid inferences from texts (or other meaningful
properties. The first sample is based on a general matter) to the contexts of their use.’ Taking
idea about the phenomenon under study. The several definitions originating from the early
researcher will then find out that further data is times of content analysis, Holsti (1965, p. 598)
required for categories that emerged from states that it emerged as a quantitative
earlier stages of the analysis and will therefore technique. Conversely, Krippendorff (2013, p.
continue to refine the categories until saturation 22) clearly questions the legitimacy and the
is reached (Corbin and Strauss, 1990, p. 8). value of distinguishing between quantitative and
Constant comparative analysis describes the qualitative content analyses as he classifies the
process of continually comparing incidents reading of texts as qualitative, even if certain
against other incidents for similarities or features of this text will be converted into
differences. The identification of differences numbers during the analysis.
within categories leads to the creation of Furthermore, Franzosi (2008, p. xxvii) describes
subcategories. This process continues until a disunity in literature whether to classify content
grounded theory is completely integrated (Birks analysis as a method for data collection or data

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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH WITH A FOCUS ON QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 61

analysis. As an explanation, he refers to different categories including words or a set of phrases,

to epistemological views of the research process: on which the researchers concentrates. Specific
If the purpose of content analysis it to gather words or patterns are indicators of the research
numbers as input for statistical procedures, question and determine the level of analysis
content analysis represents a method for data (Jonker and Penning, 2010, p. 156). Different
collection in a quantitative approach. In contrast authors list various uses of content analysis.
to this, within qualitative approaches there is no Holsti (1969 in Krippendorf, 2013, p. 51)
clear distinction between the phases of data distinguishes between three main purposes: to
collection and analysis, which might proceed in ask what, how, and to whom something is said;
parallel and in a reflexive interaction with the why something is said as well as asking with
content to be analyzed. Following this view, what effects something is said.
content analysis constitutes a method of data Content analysis can be applied to various types
analysis of content collected by means of other of structured and unstructured information.
methods (e.g. in-depth interviews, Krippendorf (2013, p. 27) refers to texts in terms
psychoanalytical sessions). The present paper of ‘printed matter, recorded speech, visual
follows post-positivism and thereby communications, works of art, websites, and
predominantly qualitative approaches; cultural artifacts’. Bryman and Bell (2011, p. 290-
therefore, content analysis will be regarded as 91) further mention transcripts of semi- and
an analysis method in the area of qualitative unstructured interviews or case studies of
research. organizations. Illustration 3 shows the process of
The central idea of content analysis is selective a qualitative content analysis in a simplified
reduction. This implies a reduction of text to form.

Illustration 3: Basic Proceeding of Qualitative Content Analysis

Theory

Coding agenda

Summary

Explication

Structuring

Information Text

Analysis/
interpretation

Source: Kohlbacher (2006).

Zhang and Wildemuth (2009, p. 2) describe a procedures and processes need to be reported.
content analysis with the following basic steps: Presenting the findings should be done by
Preparation of data: As stated above, various maintaining a balance between description and
types of sources can be used for analysis; interpretation.
however data generally needs to be transformed Bryman and Bell (2009, p. 305) state several
into written text first, for example by means of advantages of content analysis. The
transcription. reproducibility of results by reporting the coding
Definition of the unit of analysis: The definition scheme and sampling procedures turns content
of this basic unit of text is fundamental, as analysis into a transparent method within
variations in unit definition may affect coding research. Furthermore, content analysis allows
decisions. Units of analysis represent usually for longitudinal analysis and thereby changes in
individual themes rather than physical linguistic emphasis of certain aspects can be examined.
units like words or sentences. The high degree of flexibility of the method is
Development of categories and a coding another advantage; the wide range of data,
scheme: Data, earlier related studies, and which can be analysed, offers various application
theories can be used to derive categories and a fields in social science as well as in business
coding scheme. These coding schemes can be research. Last, by measuring the frequency with
derived deductively from theory or inductively which some words occur, researchers can
from the data with the use of the constant recognize their importance.
comparative method (see chapter 5.2.3). However, there are also limitations to content
Consistency in the use of codes is ensured by a analysis. When doing a content analysis, the
coding manual, which includes category names, quality of the documents used needs to be
definitions, coding rules as well as examples. ensured. Therefore, they need to be checked for
Test of coding scheme on a sample of text: The authenticity, credibility as well as
consistency of the previously developed coding representativeness. This proves to be especially
scheme needs to be tested and revised in an difficult for company reports or internal
iterative process until a high level of inter-coder documents. Another shortcoming of this method
agreement and coding consistency is reached. is that a certain degree of interpretation from
Coding of the whole text: During coding of the the coder during the coding process cannot be
text, new themes might continue to emerge and avoided. Content analysis is not necessarily the
might require an adaption of the coding manual. best approach to answer ‘why’-questions, i.e. to
Assessment of coding consistency: The ascertain the motives of the author when writing
evaluation of the coding consistency described in certain content (ibid, p. 308).
step 4 needs to be rechecked to avoid mistakes
during the coding process. Conclusion and Outlook
Conclusions from the coded data: Deriving
meanings of data represents a critical step in the When conducting research, the researcher can
whole process and depends greatly on the choose among numerous methods and
researchers reasoning abilities. This includes approaches. All of these approaches have their
activities such as identifying properties of strengths as well as their weaknesses and have
categories, examining relationships between to be selected carefully in the light of the view of
them or uncovering patterns. the world of the researcher as well as the
Report about methods and findings: To ensure particular objective of the research.
the reproducibility of the study, all analytical

The present paper gave an overview of innovation of new methods as well as a

qualitative research and of selected approaches differentiation within various scientific fields
to qualitative data analysis. Only a few such as psychology, media research or theology.
approaches and methods could be focused; Standardization comes along with the
however the field continues to grow and to institutionalisation of research and manifests
sprawl. itself for example in the mushrooming of
Knoblauch (2013, p. 10-11) ventures a look at specialized literature and encyclopaedia. The
the future of qualitative research and envisages area of qualitative research will therefore stay
further differentiation as well as a certain degree dynamic and remain an interesting field for
of standardization of methods. Differentiation of further studies.
qualitative methods is concerned with the

Appendix

Appendix 1: The levels of research in practice

Different schools of thought;

epistemological, different research traditions
philosophical level

RESEARCH AIMS
Practicalities and needs
AND
of life and practice
PROBLEM(S)

or or

methodological level quantitative qualitative

approach approach

or or

quantitative qualitative
technical level methods methods

or or

quantitative qualitative
data data data

Source: Niglas (2004), p. 8.

Appendix 2: Relationship between philosophy and methodology

Source: Niglas, 2004, p. 10

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CASE STUDY RESEARCH

Simone Tumele

Introduction
Aristotle once said “All men by nature desire and should lie a researcher’s (often implicit)
knowledge”. This is true as people instinctively philosophy, meaning his understanding of the
desire to know how things are and why they are nature of the world and how it should be studied
as they are. This is true for questions in everyday (cf. Corbetta 2003, p. 12; Moses 2007, p. 2).
life like “What do we need to get from the These different philosophies of researchers can
grocery”, as well as questions with the potential be seen as different paradigmatic views on
to change the way we see the world, like “What ontology, epistemology and methodology (cf.
is life good for?”. Therefore, all people are sort Corbetta 2003, p. 12; Della Porta/Keating 2008,
of researchers. The only difference between the p. 20f.). Ontology is the study and belief of the
normal people who would never have the idea nature and form of social reality, whereas
to call themselves researcher and so called epistemology is the study and belief of the
researchers is a formalized and systematic relationship between the observer and the
empirical approach to the acquisition of reality observed. The term methodology
knowledge in order to increase credibility (cf. describes the ways in which knowledge about
Hancook/Algozzine 2006, p. 3). Various research social reality can be acquired (cf. Corbetta 2003,
philosophies, frameworks and derived methods p. 12; Moses 2007, p. 2). Methodology and
have evolved in the history of formalized method are frequently used synonymously. But
research. One such formalized approach to the according to Moses (2007, p. 4) their
acquisition of knowledge is case study research. relationship can be best described with the
This research method is very interesting as it has analogy that methods are problem-specific
been strongly discussed about. The discussion techniques which are more specific than the
was not only about its usefulness and most well-equipped toolbox of methodology. The
suitable application fields but also about its definitions show that these three fundamental
legitimization from research philosophies and study fields are interrelated and that their
frameworks (cf. Easton 2010, p. 118). This paper boundaries are not clearly distinguishable (cf.
shall therefore present the key features of case Corbetta 2003, p. 13). In social science there
study research and analyze the crucial question exists a multiplicity of different definitions for
of its connection with research philosophy. research paradigms. This inconsistency already
Consequently, the paper first introduces the starts with the number of different existing
subjects of research philosophy and research paradigms. All scholars distinguish at least
methods, before defining and assessing case between two opposite paradigms which are
study research. called predominantly “Positivism” and
“Interpretivism”. Additionally, most scholars
Research philosophy define a more nuanced paradigm which is
Generally, it is believed that underneath any principally called “Postpositivism” (cf. Della
given research design and choice of methods lies Porta/Keating 2008, p. 21). Table 1 shows a

simplified synopsis of these three different assumption that there is a reality but that it is
paradigms with regard to their view on ontology, usually difficult to apprehend” (Easton 2010, p.
epistemology and methodology. As 128), this paradigm represents the author’s
postpositivism “makes the ontological research philosophy.
Table 7: Characteristics of the basis paradigms of social research
Positivism Postpositivism Interpretivism
Ontology Naive realism: Critical realism: social Constructivism: the
social reality is real reality is real but only knowable world is that of
and knowable imperfectly knowable meanings attributed by
individuals
Epistemology Dualism-objectivity Modified dualism- Aims at understanding
between scholar and objectivity: knowledge is subjective knowledge
research object influenced by scholar
Methodology Experimental- Modified experimental- Empathetic interaction
objectivity objectivity between scholar and
object studied
Source: partially adapted from Corbetta 2003, p. 14 and Della Porta/Keating 2008, p. 23.

Research methods
Until the beginning of the 1980’s it was Bryman 2012, p. 35f.). As table 2 shows, the
commonsensical that a researchers’ philosophy differences between these research strategies
is automatically the deciding factor for the are not limited to the superficial issue of the use
research method to be used. In regard to this of quantification but are rather numerous and
belief quantitative research methods should only complex (cf. Hancock 2006, p. 7; Bryman 2012,
have been used by positivists and qualitative p. 35f.). Despite this useful distinction, there are
research methods by interpretivists (cf. Niglas a variety of research studies which combine
2004, p. 6). The distinction of research methods several research methods and have
into quantitative and qualitative research characteristics of both strategies, so called mixed
methods classifies research methods into two methods research (cf. Yin 2006, p. 41f.; Bryman
general strategies to conduct social research (cf. 2012, p. 37).

Table 8: Comparison of quantitative and qualitative studies

Quantitative Studies Qualitative Studies
Research Often stated in hypotheses that are Discovering answers that emerge from
question accepted or rejected using information that is available as a result
statistical tests and analyses of the study
Research May vary greatly from context Designed to reflect the natural,
process being investigated ongoing context being investigated
Representa- Surveys Phenomenological studies
tive methods Experiment Ethnographic studies
Information Generally of short-term duration May last a few months or as long as it
collection using carefully constructed takes for an adequate answer to
measures emerge
Outcome Generally expository, consisting of Generally narrative, consisting of a
report a series of statistical answers series of “pages to the story”
Source: partially adapted from Hancock 2006, p. 9f. and Yin 2006, p. 41f.

Nowadays, it is argued that the researcher’s philosophies and possible connected research
paradigmatic view and therefore his choice for a methods. “On the scheme, there are two main
research method should vary depending on the dimensions: from left to right runs the
prevailing research question (cf. Niglas 2004, p. quantitative-qualitative continuum and from top
5-7; Moses 2007, p. 6). Accordingly, figure 1 and bottom to the centre the philosophy-
depicts the relationships of research methodology continuum” (Niglas 2004, p. 8).

Figure 11: Relationship of research philosophy and methods

Source: partially adapted from Niglas 2004, p. 10.

Anyhow, this tendency to elect a research practicing scientists do not apply the
method depending on the current research theoretically advised decision process, but
problem has drawn criticism because it neglects decide more and more for the research method
the inherent methodological differences of based on their level of knowledge of a certain
quantitative and qualitative methods (cf. Niglas method (cf. Moses 2007, p. 2).
2004, p. 9). In addition to this criticism,
Case study research exists no commonsensical definition and
Definition consequently in practice a broad variety of
different research studies is called case study
Case study research is increasingly seen as a research (cf. Levy 2008, p. 2; Easton 2010, p.
favoured research method, particularly in social 119). This research method has been used in
science. One reason for this could be that there many disciplines to build on or produce new

theory, to dispute or challenge theory, to explain contemporary phenomenon as well as

a situation, to provide a basis to apply solutions phenomenon with and without clearly evident
to situations, to explore, or to describe a boundaries to their context as case study
phenomenon (cf. Dooley, p. 343f.). The most research (cf. Woodside/Wilson 2003, p. 494).
distinctive and characteristic definitions of case
study research shall be presented here concisely. As the definition from Woodside/Wilson is seen
as too extensive, the definition from Yin will
George and Bennett (2004, p. 5) define case serve as the underlying definition of case study
study research as “the detailed examination of research in this paper. Moreover, case study
an aspect of a historical episode to develop or research primarily focuses on answering “how”
test historical explanations that may be and “why” questions and is therefore of
generalizable to other events”. In contrast to this exploratory, descriptive or explanatory nature
definition which focuses on the examination of (cf. Yin 2014, p. 9-15). Additional characteristics
past historical phenomenon, several scientists of the definition will be further described by the
define case study research as an examination of following explanations of the typology and
a contemporary phenomenon. Among these the conduction process of case study research.
definition of Yin about the scope of a case study
is the most cited one: “A case study is an Typology
empirical enquiry that investigates a
contemporary phenomenon (the “case”) in Consistent with the multiplicity of scientific
depth and within its real-world context, definitions for case study research, there exist
especially when the boundaries between several divergent typologies to classify this
phenomenon and context may not be clearly research method. One of the first influential
evident” (Yin 2014, p. 16). In this context the typologies was composed by Lijphart in 1971. He
term phenomenon covers a wide range of defined six different functions that case study
possible cases, e.g. particular programs, events, researches can inherit on a continuum stretching
persons, processes, institutions and social from descriptive to theory defining or testing (cf.
groups (cf. Hancock 2006, p. 15). The second Moses 2007, p. 132f.). This typology served as a
part of the twofold definition from Yin covers starting point for the drafting of other
the features of a case study: “A case study typologies. Levy (2008) aspired to construct a
inquiry copes with the technically distinctive simpler and more useful classification by
situation in which there will be many more focusing on the functions of case study
variables of interest than data points, and as one researches. As a consequence his typology
result relies on multiple sources of evidence, consists of the types: idiographic, hypothesis
with data needing to converge in a triangulation generating, plausibility probing and hypothesis
fashion, and as a result benefits from the prior testing case studies. Nevertheless, Levy
development of theoretical propositions to acknowledges that these are ideal types which
guide data collection and analysis” (Yin 2014, p. are rarely found in practice and that one case
17). Woodside and Wilson (2003) suggested study can fulfil several functions. This is why his
expanding Yin’s definition of the scope of case types build a continuum which starts with rather
studies to an inquiry which focuses on describing functions and ends with testing
“describing, understanding, predicting, and/or functions (cf. Levy 2008, p. 3). Yin (2003)
controlling” (Woodside/Wilson 2003, p. 493) the distinguishes between exploratory, descriptive
case. Hereby they broadened the definition of and explanatory types of case study researches.
Yin, because they embraced historical and An exploratory case study shall explore and

define the research objective of a subsequent instrumental case studies shall deliver insight for
study. In a descriptive case study a phenomenon refining theory (cf. Baxter/Jack 2008, p. 548f.).
is described and in an explanatory type cause- Comparing these different typologies, it can be
effect relationships of the phenomena are to be seen that they all try to classify case study
discovered (cf. Yin 2003, p. 5). Furthermore, researches according to their primary research
Stake defined 1995 the typology of intrinsic and objective. Table 3 shows which types of the
instrumental types. Intrinsic case studies explore different typologies reflect similar or even the
a phenomenon to understand it better and same functions.

Table 9: Comparison of case study typologies

Author Case study types
Lijphhart atheoretical interpretive hypothesis theory-
generating confirming,
infirming &
deviant
Levy idiographic hypothesis plausibility hypothesis
generating probing testing
Yin descriptive explanatory exploratory
Stake intrinsic instrumental
Source: based on Yin 2003; Moses 2007; Baxter/Jack 2008 and Levy 2008.

Besides the functional typologies, there are two Patton/Appelbaum 2003, p. 66). After having
classifications for the design of case study chosen a case study research as the appropriate
research methods. First, case study designs can research method, the following phases should
be differentiated between single case and be undertaken: research design, data collection,
multiple case designs. Whereas a single case data analysis and composition.
study focuses on only one case, multiple case
studies compare at least two cases in one study. A research design can be described in its essence
The cases need to be carefully selected to as “the logical sequence that connects the
produce either similar (literal replication) or empirical data to a study’s initial research
contrasting results (theoretical replication) (cf. questions and, ultimately, to its conclusions” (Yin
Rowley 2002, p. 21; Yin 2003, p. 5). Moreover, 2014, p. 28). This is drawn up through the
the design of case studies can vary regarding the determination of the case study type, including
number of units of analysis. Case studies with a the research question, the propositions (if
single unit of analysis are described as holistic applicable) and the unit(s) of analysis.
and have the potential to be superficial; while Furthermore, the logic of linking the data to the
case studies with several individually analysed propositions and the criteria for interpreting the
units of analysis are labelled embedded case findings have to be defined. The proper
studies (cf. Rowley 2002, p. 21f.). definition of the research question and the
propositions is crucial and should therefore
Conduction process follow a review of what has already been
theoretically written and empirically researched
The conduction process of a case study research about the topic. In selecting the unit(s) of
has to adhere to a standard procedure to ensure analysis the researcher has to assure that the
a legitimate and useful research result (cf. case(s) will allow the research question to be

investigated completely. Moreover, it has to be of the research and displays enough evidence. It
decided how the data shall be collected (via is of utmost importance to define the intended
quantitative, qualitative or multiple methods) audience of the report before starting to write it
and interpreted (cf. Dooley 2002, p. 338-340; (cf. Rowley 2002, p. 24; Patton/Appelbaum
Hancock 2006, p. 26-38; Yin 2014, p. 29-37). The 2003, p. 67; Yin 2014, p. 176f.)
data collection phase begins with its
preparation, constituting of securing the Following the described standard procedure
investigators adequate level of knowledge, ensures a high quality of the case study research.
training the investigators for the specific case Such an achievement can be tested by construct
study, developing a protocol, screening validity, internal validity, external validity and
candidate cases and conducting a pilot case reliability. Construct validity establishes accurate
study. The case study protocol includes an operational measures for the concepts being
overview of the case study project of field studied. Thus, the main object is to expose and
procedures and case study questions to be used. reduce subjectivity of the researcher. Internal
Due to the fact that data collection is emergent, validity is only needed in explanatory and causal
which means collected data leads to subsequent case study types, because it aspires to establish
data collection, the use of a systematic case a causal relationship whereby certain conditions
study database and the chain of evidence- are shown to lead to other conditions, as
principle are important (cf. Dooley 2002, p. 340- distinguished from spurious relationships.
342; Rowley 2002, p. 22f.; Yin 2014, p. 70f.; 131). External validity designates how the findings can
The goal of data analysis is to examine, be generalized analytically and reliability
categorize, tabulate, test or otherwise demonstrates that the operations of a study can
recombine evidence in order to uncover be repeated with the same results (cf. Riege
patterns, determine explanations and time- 2003, p. 75-81; Thollander/Rohdin 2011, p. 12;
series, construct conclusions and build theory Yin 2014, p. 45f.). Table 4 summarizes which
(cf. Rowley 2002, p. 24; Patton/Appelbaum parts of the standard procedure contribute to
2003, p. 67; Yin 2014, p. 132f.). The last phase of the excelling at these validity and reliability
the case study research is the composition of the tests.
case study report which synthesises the results

Table 10: Case study tactics for design tests

Design tests Case study tactics Research phase of the tactic
Construct validity Multiple source of evidence Data collection
Establish chain of evidence Data collection
Key informants review draft case Composition
study report
Internal validity Pattern matching Data analysis
Explanation building Data analysis
Rival explanations Data analysis
Logic models Data analysis
External validity Theory in single case studies Research design
Replication logic in multiple case Research design
studies
Reliability Case study protocol Data collection
Case study database Data collection
Source: adapted from Yin 2014, p. 45.

Assessment understanding of the phenomenon, including

even the most diverse facets of the
Several issues in case study research have been phenomenon. Thus, broader and more
criticised. The most frequently named ones are complicated research questions can be
the following. One major criticism is the investigated (cf. Dooley 2002, p. 340;
researcher’s subjectivity and his strong influence Baxter/Jack 2008, p. 544; Yin 2014, p. 65-67).
on the research result. This influence is given by Moreover, case study research allows the
the researcher’s personal interpretation during researcher to remain flexible during the research
the data collection and analysis process. It is conduction. The researcher can react accordingly
based on the researcher’s access to the research to arising new insights in the phenomenon and
object and his preunderstanding. These two may identify new sources to be collected or new
factors fulfil important premises for the analyzing techniques to be exercised (cf. Dooley
conduction of the research as well as danger in 2002, p. 342; Easton 2010, p. 119). These
form of reasons for bias by the researcher (cf. mentioned beneficial features of case study
Patton/Appelbaum 2003, p. 68f.). Another research contribute to its overall advantage of a
popular criticism which has been exercised deep and comprehensive understanding of a
frequently is the missing generalization of complex real-life phenomenon regarding “how”
research results. However, this criticism is only and “why” research questions (cf. Dooley 2002,
partly true as only statistical generalization p. 344; Baxter/Jack 2008, p. 556; Easton 2010, p.
through enumerating frequencies cannot be 119).
made. But case study research aims for
analytical generalization which means expanding Applicable research philosophy
and generalizing theory. Therefore, this criticism
is wrongly based on a misinterpretation or a lack One of the first scientists to describe case study
of information about the research method (cf. research comprehensively was Yin. In 1994 he
Patton/Appelbaum 2003, p. 65; described this research method from a positivist
Thollander/Rohdin 2011, p. 14). perspective. At this time his main arguments for
case study research being a positivist research
Opposing these critical characteristics of case method were the analytic approach to
study research are its numerous advantages. generalisation, the necessity of theory to inform
One valuable strength is its conceptual validity. propositions and that the researcher only acts as
This means its possibility to investigate social a commentator. Since then this concept is object
phenomenon which are difficult to measure and of ongoing debates and representatives for
need to be analyzed in consideration of its applying case study research to various
context. Examples for such phenomenon are paradigms can be found (cf. Rowley 2002, p. 25).
democracy; power and political culture (cf.
George/Bennett 2004, p. 19f.). Another major Perry (1998, p. 787) supported Yin’s concept of
benefit of case study research is its feasibility positivism to be the preferred paradigm of case
and opportunity of using multiple data sources study research. He based this on the following
and collection techniques. This triangulated use arguments. Firstly, case study research questions
of quantitative and qualitative data collection are generally contemporary and pre-
techniques is called a mixed methods design. It paradigmatic. Secondly, the objectivistic view of
enhances a research because a diverse and realists simplifies the work of a case study
stronger array of evidence can be collected research and moreover the commensurability of
which leads to a deeper and more thorough case study research fits the realist’s paradigm.

Other scientists saw the close collaboration analyses techniques as well as single or multiple
between the researcher and the research unit(s) of analyses. Therefore, the researcher can
participants as the decisive factor to adjust the case study research to his
interpretivism being the suitable root of case methodological position. Hence, the multiple
study research (cf. Baxter 2008, p. 545). Easton research philosophy approach of Dooley and Yin
(2010, p. 118-128) denies the positivistic is particularly comprehensible.
affiliations of case study research because as
such a research method it could not answer Conclusion
“why” questions but only state how the causal
sequence is. Furthermore, he rejects To sum up, a quotation by Bryman (2012, p. 36)
interpretivism because interpretations as the is used: „Discussing the nature of social research
basis for the analyses of a particular is just as complex as conducting in the real
phenomenon would rule out regularity and world“. As the paper has shown, this statement
comparison criteria in the data analysis phase. is particularly true for case study research.
This would make it more difficult to achieve
research results. Instead of realism and Case study research has been described by
interpretivism, Easton argues in favour of critical various scientists during the last decades. These
realism as the applicable research philosophy of descriptions vary from being consistent to being
case study research. As a reason he states that rather divergent; not only between different
“it justifies the study of any situation, regardless scientists but partly also scientists developed
of the numbers of research units involved, but and altered their opinions on case study
only if the process involves thoughtful in depth research within time. Nevertheless, it is obvious
research with the objective of understanding that case study research is an important mean to
why things are as they are” (Easton 2010, p. gain deep insights into complex contemporary
119). In opposition to these rigid opinions, phenomenon. However, due to its unique
Dooley (2002, p. 336-338) and Yin (2014, p. 17) characteristic of high methodological flexibility it
regard case study research of being able to should be regarded as a research strategy rather
embrace multiple research paradigms. This than a simple form of a research method (cf.
approach stems from its unique flexible Dooley 2002, p. 338; Rowley 2002, p. 16).
characteristic to use quantitative and/or
qualitative data collection and diverse data

Appendix

Appendix 1: Classification of paradigms

Author Paradigms
Perry 1998 Positivism Phenomenology
Corbetta 2003 Positivism Postpositivism Interpretivism
Riege 2003 Positivism Realism Critical theory Constructivism
Niglas 2004 Positivism Post-Positivism Phenomenology Critical theory
Moses 2007 Positivism Scientific realism Constructivism
Della Porta 2008 Positivism Post-Positivism Interpretivism Humanistic
Easton 2010 Positivism Interpretivism
Source: based on Perry 1998, p. 786f.; Corbetta 2003, p. 13f.; Riege 2003, p. 77; Niglas 2004, p. 10;
Moses 2007, p. 7-15; Della Porta / Keating 2008, p. 21-25 and Easton 2010, p. 118-128

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CASE STUDY: AMBITIOUS GROWTH TARGET OF BNP

PARIBAS IN GERMANY

Muhammed Güler

Research questions and objectives

In order to significantly contribute to the relationship with clients. According to Vignali,
ambitious growth targets in Germany, BNP Feraco and Vranesevic, “if you do not give your
Paribas ordered a new initiative targeting to clients some good reason to stay, your
optimize the achievement of the German competitors will give them a reason to leave”.
Growth Plan by 2016. BNP Paribas´s Board members conducted pre-
About the Company project has uncovered various weaknesses in the
BNP Paribas is one of the leading banks in the coverage organization and as a result
world, which offers a comprehensive package of recommended best practices and procedures to
financial services for private individuals, the self- improve the coverage effort of the bank. Over
employed, professionals, small enterprises and the last months, they have reviewed the CIB
public organizations. It is present in 80 countries coverage model and have decided to further
worldwide and has almost 200,000 employees, accelerate growth through a ‘Salesforce
including over 145,000 in Europe. Effectiveness Project’
That case study is talking about “Corporate and In the beginning of 2014, the bank decided to
Investment Banking” (CIB) activity of the bank. conduct a so-called “TOP (Transform to
BNP Paribas holds key positions in its CIB activity Outperform) project” with an external agency,
with 15,000 clients all over the world, consisting started in two Business Centers of the bank
of corporates, financial institutions and (Frankfurt and Stuttgart) and now rolling-out in
investment funds, which are central to its other Business Centers in Germany.
strategy and business model. Staff´s main aim is Challenges
to develop and maintain long-term relationship Both Business Centers have annual growth
with clients, support them in their expansion or targets around 30% and for both the acquisition
investment strategy and provide global solutions of additional clients will be key in reaching the
to meet their financing, advisory and risk objectives. Growth of the organization in both
management needs. Business Centers will support the revenue
Recently, banks are being tried to increase their increase but provides additional challenges. In
revenues due to the fact that the impact of that context, BNP Paribas is trying to increase
globalization, the introduction of new business relationships in order to achieve an
international banking standards and its increase in the number of clients targeted, a
regulations (e.g. Basel 3) and the improvement significant revenue growth target. Furthermore
of processes, that increase the awareness of and even with new bankers staff hires, the
client toward particular products or services. growth plan requires 20-30% increase in
Senior managers realized that price and quality coverage bankers productivity.
are no longer the ideal factors for successful Research objectives
operation, rather than creating strong

Significantly contribute to the ambitious growth view, which is made possible only by the union
targets by raising RM´s productivity and quality of all persons involved. “One for all, All for one”.
of client activities, in a holistic manner:
Optimize processes Research purpose and design
Improve performance management of the teams The research process should begin with a
and coach managers definition of the research problem and the
Up-skill the team establishment of specific research objectives.
Work on mindsets According to Woodstock D., a major difficulty
Establish a success case in the organization to here is converting a series of business problems
create bottom-up pull for the TOP project and into tightly drawn and achievable research
therefore to design a future state of the object.
organization The aim of the research is to investigate the
Implementation of a new working system client´s relationship by BNP Paribas. In addition,
Establish a methodology and toolbox which can it will give us the main objective through that
be rolled out effectively to the rest of Germany investigation, which is to significantly contribute
and Europe and building up of capabilities in to the ambitious growth targets by raising
local management and department heads Coverage banker´s productivity and quality of
client activities. In order to fully address
Research philosophy improvement potential we do not focus on tools
I define myself as a critical realist. and processes alone but take a holistic approach.
The reasons are clear: I share a holistic view, Customer requirements are high: how do we use
which at the same time don´t negate all our customer insights to deliver the most
individuality. effective client service is an essential question in
Therefore, in order to optimize and improve the strategy of the bank to achieve objectives.
business relationships, I pay great attention to Design will focus on four dimensions:
the particular needs as well as thinking about a Optimization of processes: our processes require
just form to adapt to the general needs of the lots of interface management and administrative
clients. work: how can we achieve better processes?
Which methods to choose will depend on the Team Management: managers often act as
nature of the project, the type of information administrators or are just the best experts: how
needed the context our case study and the can they lead their team more efficiently?
availability of recourses (time, money, and Organization and skills: we have so successful
human). I use two types of research, qualitative people: how can we broaden networking,
and quantitative, which is called pluralistic knowledge exchange and capability building?
research (also triangulation). The methods we Mindsets and behavior: we just think about
employ should make us aware of those improvement in major programs – how can we
particularities, so we need to take into account improve on a daily, continuous basis?
the diverse opinions of our employees and our
existing and/or future clients. The use of surveys, Customer knowledge and understanding will
interview, questionnaire, focus group, remind the core activity our design phase
observation, data collection and conducting analysis. The purpose of the research was to
experiments are then necessary to enable a significantly contribute to the ambitious growth
good understanding of their behavior. target´s by raising coverage banker´s
The multi-methodology also strengthens the productivity and quality of client activities.
bonds in the company because it needs a global

Preliminary topics for Design guiding business strategy, which improves

In order to construct our design phase, we need marketing decisions.
to conduct a preliminary design with five core BNP Paribas is accumulating mass quantities of
dimensions: data to meet regulatory compliance
requirements or support corporate-wide
Client business intelligence. Some of the most used
Redesign the current way of account planning, if tools or models for analyzing the data collected
necessary starting from scratch (e.g. formalized (quantitative methods) are for e.g. Forecasting
métiers interaction with follow-up on monthly Models, Factor analysis or Data Mining. Any of
basis) these methods will be used for our research but
Work on prospect management (i.e. not existing will be directly selected in our data system.
client in our scope)
Processes Research and Data collection
Formalized interaction with the different métiers The data we are going to collect about clients is
(Cash Management, Global Trade Solutions, one of the greatest assets that any business has
Leasing Solutions, Personal Investors, Wealth available. From a financial, organizational and
Management, Real Estate…) managerial point of view, data from clients are
Team Management already in our database system, as we collected
Organization of the work week (when to involve it by starting our banking relationship. However,
métiers etc.) prospect clients are not in our client database
Reinforce the sharing of best practices between system and therefore, we need to gather a new
coverage bankers (hunting skills vs. farming skills range of data that is waiting to be collected and
+ successful first approach with new clients) processed, as for quantitative as for as
Organization and skills qualitative research data. To start a new
Clarify the roles and responsibilities of each relationship with a new-targeted client, it is
position (coverage bankers, associates…) easily to gather information published on the
Utilization of different skillsets in the Internet, as we need to have a look to the
organization (Hunter/Farmer) financial statements to analyze the current
Roles and responsibilities when working financial, managerial and strategic environment
together with support functions of the client, before to be interested for.
Refresh training on strategic selling As our program is essentially based on
Mindsets and behaviors qualitative and quantitative research, most of
Create sustainable motivation for the marathon information is already available to us, which save
Establish platform for putting´ client service in us time.
center stage´ across business lines and functions BNP Paribas CRM tools give the possibility to
make a significant competitive advantage. CRM
Research Data is offering the synergy of business processes and
As market research being an integral part of IT applications, which helps to organize
every decision making of today, it is critical to information and to manage relationship with
comprehend one´s area of work thoroughly. clients. Coverage bankers, associates and/or
Information “need to be accurate and timely” employees can see all relevant and important
(Vranesevic, Vignali & Vrontis, p. 111) and the information in CRM application which help them
way to procure information is through the to make better overview of clients. BNP Paribas
process of research. Therefore, market research uses 7 different CRM tools (including CRM in T-
aids in providing important information and in mobile) to manage relationship with corporate

clients. To collect data and research information implying potential for best practice sharing. The
about clients, information is immediately biggest spent time is by advising client in
available from “BNP Paribas Corporate personal meeting or by advising client through
SharePoint” on the Internet (Hot topics deep phone or email and by contacting prospect
dive – client & share with clients – efficiency clients, which represent 23,1% of total time. In
toolbox – communities – product forum deep total 47% of time is spent on client directed
dive). Moreover, a direct access to capital activities. Additionally to the analysis, deal
markets and FI web, market information and execution and other tasks might hide loops with
economic research will be easier for us to gather support functions and tasks not directly client
actualized market information. oriented (contracting etc.). Almost 16% of time is
spent on internal meetings/coordination with
Data analysis other coverage bankers and business lines.
Data analysis is a process of gathering, modeling, Documentation within deal execution takes up
and transforming data with the objective of less than 3% of total time, but is one of the most
accenting and highlighting useful information, mentioned “time wasting” activities.
suggesting conclusions, discussing strategies and Per activity, large share of time is spent on tasks,
supporting decision-making. Data analysis has which don´t necessitate the skill set of Coverage
multiple facets and approaches, encompassing bankers. Time spent per activity shows that 21%
diverse techniques under a variety of names, in is spent on client interaction and preparation,
different business, science, and social science (C. 18% on coordination with mid/back office, 14%
Vignali, A. Feraco, T. Vranesevic). on gathering client information, 9% on non sales
related client activities (e.g. client diner,
In order to have a look at our current position on invitation events/corporate breakfasts…) and 8%
the market, we´ll gather information from the on internal queries.
“Greenwich Associate survey 2012”, which help
its clients to improve their business performance Time analysis: Associates
through unique market information and business Based on 23 time writing analyzed and on at
insights. Greenwich Associate survey shows that least 5 individual time writings, associates spend
BNP Paribas should focus on several factors more than 20% of their time in internal meetings
influencing lead relationship penetration. and preparing for them (presentations, follow-
Secondly, time analysis is essential in order to up, templates…). The percentage of training time
achieve financial objectives. We will collect might be skewed due to hand-over processes of
information about time spent on tasks by one associate. 12% of time is spent on internal
coverage bankers and associates in their daily meetings and 9% on preparation of internal
businesses and time spent per activity, which is meetings. As we analyzed, time spent on tasks
the biggest part of our data analysis. However, by Associates focused on the preparation of
the road that leads from data to information and internal and client presentations. When we
knowledge we can base our business decisions gather information about the spent time per
on, is not an easy one. activity, we analyze that 27% of time is spent on
internal meeting, 12% in self organization (e.g.
Time analysis: Coverage bankers uploading notes to the computer), 12 % on client
Based on 86 time writing analyzed and on at interaction, preparation, 14% on training, 8% on
least 5 individual time writings, time analysis of identifying prospect clients, 9% on gather
coverage bankers waterfall shows large variation information regarding products/clients and 6%
in time spent between coverage bankers on answer ad-hoc client questions.

Answer ad-hoc client and internal questions From a general point of view, we can collect data
together with back office coordination by using either Primary research (developing
represents one third of time spent. Very questionnaires, focus groups, one-on-ones and
substantial amount of time is spent on in-depth interviews) or Secondary research (data
administrative tasks and overall, limited time is that is already available to us). Both of the
spent on commercial activities. methods are important depending on what we
want to investigate.
Based on three Coverage banker´s interviews For our research we are going to use Primary
and one associate to observe the part of time research method, and we are going to design
spent on existing clients or prospects, majority two types of data collection:
of client facing time is spent on active clients,
70% versus 30%. Furthermore, on average 42% Quantitative research means that we´ll collect
of prospect have been contacted. data through designing Likert scales
questionnaire with 30 questions developed to
Other analyses coverage bankers randomly (Client
In accordance with our objectives, we are going focus/processes – Team Management –
to conduct other analysis like: allocation of Organization & Skills/ Mindsets & Behavior).
effort, network, number of clients, revenue per That questionnaire is specific for achieving our
client or meeting analysis. However, these objectives. Questions will be divided into
analyses will not be included in our research sections, which means that we´ll have questions
data. related to the client focus and processes, the
team management and the organization and
Methods and procedures behavior. On-site survey will be used, which
A clear purpose on what BNP Paribas wants to means that the Likert scale questionnaire will be
decide as a result of the research should be developed in the bank. The limitation of the
defined. Therefore, we will ask Coverage method is the response rate (employees may
bankers, associates and clients with questioning will turnover the questionnaire), and moreover,
to determine their individual impact and the time for answering the questions is another
dimension about the business. Additionally, we´ll limitations of this method
conduct group interviews, in-depth interviews Qualitative research means that we will develop
and numerous projective techniques, that are an interview map with 18 questions (3 open-
generally observed as an aid to conducting ended questions) about client performance
motivational research (stimulate employees to management, understands and needs, products,
certain actions or behavior). To present analysis, requests execution and overall question about
observe results and discuss, we´ll introduce with BNP Paribas. The idea is to raise client approach
all employee´s involved workshops, whiteboard with the bank. Therefore, we will develop a
meeting and gallery walk once a week. rating scale questionnaire, which can be
Our research will be scientific as much as distributed to 50 client participants, where at
creative. Combining several methods, our the same time we can input the data into SPSS,
research will provide us different perspectives our computer program for analyzing.
and insights into client activities much needed
for the bank in search of increasing revenues of Walkthrough
client and productivity of bankers and solving Before to start our research, a walkthrough will
organization problems. be served as kick-start for the project and help´s
developing targeted approach for diagnostic

phase, i.e., got to know people and Kitzinger (1995) stated that focus groups are a
management, compare current way of working form of group interview that capitalizes on
against best practices, check current processes communication between research participants in
against best practices, identify first improvement order to generate data
levers along 5 dimensions together with As coverage bankers, associates or employees
employees (Customer understanding – Process are relatively unfamiliar with the project, we will
optimization – Team management – Capability conduct a traditional full focus group of 60
building and organization – Mindsets and minutes discussion with all involved employees.
behaviors), develop first perspective on key We will take qualitative marketing research to
levers and gain input for detailed planning of address two targeted questions:
targeted diagnostic phase. The walkthrough is
intended to derive preliminary set of potential What it feels like to work in the BC today?
improvement themes early on in the project. What we would like it to feel like tomorrow?
Walkthrough interviews are not – and this is
really important – reviewing individual This focus group interview are an important part
contribution and performance or judging of our action research as it provides the
individuals. Our diagnostic will be a mixture of opportunity for us to investigate further, to solve
interviews and sessions called “shadowing”. future problems and to gather information
There will be 2 hours slots with every coverage which could not have been obtained in other
banker/associate. We will spend the time at the ways.
desk of the according employee and observe
what kind of work is be done, with what Client interview – rating scale questionnaire
systems, what documents are needed etc. to Conducting a successful client interview requires
learn how a typical day the typical works look both tact and expertise. The purpose of our
like. client interview is to collect enough information
to help solve the client’s problem. Our job during
Internal interview – Likert scale questionnaire the interview is to show the client that we care
Likert scales questionnaire structure is a and have the ability to help him. The interview is
measurement scale with 5-7 response developed to assess basic qualitative as well as
categories. Responses are given numerical quantitative information about client
values, which reflect the strength and direction management (e.g. quality of back-office service,
of respondent’s attitudes. Our developed Likert clarity of contact with your interlocutors),
scale questionnaire will mainly focus on the 4 products (e.g. competitive pricing, timing) or
dimensions our design phase (optimization of execution (e.g. turn around time for new
processes – Team Management – Organization product requests).
and skills – Mindsets and behavior), asking 19 Analysis
out 22 participants, mainly coverage bankers Internal interview analysis
and associates. Participants will provide their
answers by ranking internal aspect of the bank, Client focuses/processes
such as performance dialogue, motivation or
problem solving. Our scale includes 4 points, When asked about client focuses/processes,
Totally agree 1 – Fairly agree 2 – Fairly disagree 3 participants are on average fairly agree with the
– Totally disagree 4. sufficient information to identify client needs to
spot business opportunities (1.7). When asked if
Focus groups participants get good support from people in

other functions (middle/back office), they are responsibilities. Participants responded totally
fairly agree (2.3). agree (1.7) to the question “I have a clear
understanding of my responsibilities vs. support
Team Management teams for onboarding and credit process”.
Concerning motivation, participants are looking
When asked about target, i.e. “clear forward to come to work (1.6) and motivated by
performance targets to meet in my work” or “I their long-term career (2.0).
feel challenged by my managers to reach my The 2 questions which have a strong link with
goals”, participants are totally agree (on average the objective of the bank about assessment of
1.1). About the management of the bank, when current state, participants responded fairly agree
asked if the bank in Germany has a strong when asked if targets of the German Growth
leadership team, participants are fairly agree Plan is certainly achievable (2.3) and totally
(2.1) and about senior management open agree (1.7) that business is performing well.
communication as well (2.0).
However, when asked about trustworthy Focus groups analysis
relationship, participants are totally agree (1.3) What if feels like to work in the BC today?
but are just fairly agree about management
reaction to poor performance (2.2). When asked Participant’s feedback is quite interesting. About
if the performance is evaluated fairly and at the BC atmosphere, participants responded that
adequate frequency, participants responded BC has a “very good atmosphere”, comfortable
fairly agree (2.0) and (2.2) when good environment, “no competition within the BC”,
performance is recognized by management. good team spirit and strong belief in the bank
We got different results about problem solving. and its strengths. Regarding concerns about
When asked if they cooperate effectively to ability to reach the German Growth Target,
solve problems by identifying and removing the participants are aware about the challenge to
problem source, participants are fairly agree achieve it and assumed that everyone has to be
(2.4) and totally agree (1.4) when asked if the Superman to reach the goals. Though, there is
“person I report to support me in resolving much more confidence, and participants will
problems”. reach targets if the work is spread equally.
The worst result from this section is when asked Coverage bankers pointed out the dissatisfaction
about performance and incentives (2.5). with support functions and business lines and
Nevertheless, the potential of a higher bonus declared they are the last barrier between the
motivates participants to work harder (1.4). client and the bank.

Organization and Skills/Mindsets & Behavior What we would like it to feel like tomorrow?

About performance dialogue, when asked if The first response to this question is more
frequency and quality of the personal proactive business lines, which should be
development review are sufficient to support queuing to come to coverage and pitch to
their personal development, participants clients. Participants want not be tied up by
responded fairly agree (2.3). When asked about admin work and would like to have a less uphill
training, i.e. effective training & development battle in order to increase efficiency. Many
program for people, participants are fairly agree comments have been supposed on reaching the
(2.3). One of the best result collected from this goals of the bank together, like enjoying
section, is when asked about roles and successes together, being competitive within the

market, or being reliable banking partner Timing: bringing the right solution at the right
without increasing complexity in the bank too time
much. As reminded when first question was Customization of products: providing tailor made
asked, participants want to maintain the good solutions
atmosphere in the BC during the long way to go
with a smile in the face. Turn-around time for new credit lines/ product
requests
To conclude, there is a good atmosphere in the
focus group but common feeling about the need What aspect of BNP Paribas service do you value
to become Superman to accomplish GGP target. most highly?
Participants understanding of desire to be a top What aspect most irritates you?
player, but operational challenges are an What would it take for you to increase business
obstacle to further growth. done with BNP Paribas

Client interview analysis How would you rate BNP Paribas overall
The client interview is based on a rating scale performance?
questionnaire from 1 to 5 (Very poor – Poor – How likely are you recommend BNP Paribas to
Fair – Good – Very good) and gives the possibility another company
to the clients to contribute with specific
examples for each question. The total interview These questions have been asked to the clients
time is 30 minutes and 50 clients are selected. without to get any prompt feedback so far.
Our rating scale questionnaire includes open-
ended questions using ordinal scales, which will Conclusion
help us to measure gradations in opinions, Conducted pre-project research had uncovered
attitudes and behaviors. These questions are various weaknesses in the coverage organization
designed to encourage a full, meaningful answer and as a result recommended best practices and
using the subject´s own knowledge and/or procedures to improve coverage effort. To that
feelings. effect, BNP Paribas will be creating the new
How satisfied are you regarding the following business unit ‘One Bank Coverage Development
categories? and Support’ serving all Corporate and
Investment Banking coverages to enhance
Rapid response to enquiries marketing and sales capabilities and to foster
Quality of Back-Office services cross selling and cross referral across all poles
Clarity of contact with your interlocutors (CIB, Investment Solutions, Retail and Personal
Proactive communication from the bank Finance) of BNP Paribas Group in Germany.
With the help of this new unit, BNP Paribas will
Understanding my needs and address them be strengthening its capacity to bring
Provides added-value solutions differentiating and value-adding content to
Relevance/Breadth of product range vs. needs clients to achieve leading positions with its ‘One
Bank’ approach and to overcome its sometimes
Competitive pricing ‘me too’ mindset. Working across the various
What products have you been introduced to? coverage units, product lines and poles will
On specialized banking products, how well is accelerate the “breaking silos” mission where
BNP Paribas doing on? and when needed and ensure that resources are
client focused and optimally utilized.

The “One Bank Coverage Development and Implement tools and processes to improve
Support” unit will focus, inter alia, on: marketing and sales effectiveness including
Enabling the move from a ‘product-centric’ into cross-selling and cross referral; i.e. provision of
a ‘client-centric organization’ research and marketing materials, knowledge
Help to further integrate IBE and CBE coverage database (SharePoint) across products, poles
models and up-skilling of the coverage team and regions, support of CAP sessions and client
Facilitate and support client segmentation, service teams
prioritization and account planning Organization of workshops and trainings
Promote idea generation and ensure systematic Provision of KPIs and reports
rollout across relevant coverages

References

BNP Paribas (2012), Registration Document and How to conduct a client interview, Chron
Annual Financial Report 2012 (p.4 and p.12) http://work.chron.com/conduct-client-
Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Building theories from interview-7176.html
case study research. Academy of Management Laurent Quignon, Helene Drouot (2013), BNP
Review, 14(4), 352-550. Paribas Economic Research Department, ECO
Ellen Taylor-Powell (2008), Evaluation Specialist, Conjoncture
Program Development and Evaluation, MIA:STEP Manual this form reflects the
University of Wisconsin System Motivational Interview Rating Worksheet, page
G. Vignali and D. Vignali, C. Vignali, A. Feraco, T. 143-144
Vranesevic, An essay approach to marketing Schein, E.H., (1999). Process consultation
research thinking revisited: Building the helping relationship,
Greenwich Associate Survey, Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley.
https://www.greenwich.com/who-we- Simons, H. (2009). Case study research in
are/mission practice, London: Sage.
Harvey, D.F. & Brown, D.R. (1996). An Yin, R. K. (1984). Case study research: Design and
Experiential Approach to Organizational methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Development, Englewood Cliffs NJ:Prentice-Hall Zucker, Donna M. “How to Do Case Study
5th edition. Research” (2009), School of Nursing Faculty
Publication Series, Paper 2.

Attachements
1. Direct access to Capital Markets and FI web, market information & research

2. Client interviews – Rating scale questionnaire

3. Internal interviews – Likert scale questionnaire

4. Data collection – time spent by coverage bankers

5. Greenwich Associate Survey 2012

6. German Groth Plan revenue target 2013-2016

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